home » Companies » What is project management? Comparative analysis of project and process approaches in innovation management Project approach definition.

What is project management? Comparative analysis of project and process approaches in innovation management Project approach definition.

The concept of a project has many definitions, each of which is unique and depends on the scope of application, industry.

In a general sense, a project is a time-limited purposeful change of a separate system with established requirements for the quality of results, possible limits for the expenditure of funds and resources, and a specific organization.

A project is a set of tasks or activities related to the achievement of a planned goal, which is usually unique and non-repetitive. This is a system of organizational, legal and settlement and financial documents necessary for the implementation of any actions or describing such actions.

In a narrower sense, a project is a pre-designed and planned creation or modernization of physical objects, technological processes, technical and organizational documentation for them, material, financial, labor and other resources, as well as management decisions and measures for their implementation.

From the above definitions, we can conclude that any project is limited in time, cost (budget) and content. On this statement, a triple limitation or design triangle is built (Figure 1.4).

The project triangle describes the balance between project scope, cost, time, and quality. Quality was added later, so it was originally named as triple boundedness.

Changing one side of a triangle affects the other sides. And although all elements are equally important for the project, as a rule, only one of them, depending on the priorities, has the greatest impact on the others.

From the point of view of a systematic approach, the project can be considered as a process of transition from the initial state to the final one - the result with the participation of a number of restrictions and mechanisms (Figure 1. 5).

Projects implemented in various fields by different specialists have significant differences among themselves, which leads to the need to classify projects. The classification of project types is presented in Table 1.1. It should be noted that today the most common projects are long-term, complex, multi-projects, which is explained by modern economic trends, high competitive environment. It also increases the project cycle or project life cycle, i.e. the period of time between the moment the project was born and the moment it was liquidated. concept life cycle The project is one of the most important for the enterprise, since it is the current stage that determines the tasks, methods and tools used.

The life cycle of a project is the initial concept for studying the problems of financing work on a project and making appropriate decisions.

Each project, regardless of its complexity and the amount of work required for its implementation, goes through certain stages (phases) in its development. At the same time, there is no universal approach to dividing the project implementation process into phases. Solving such a task for themselves, project participants should be guided by their role in the project, experience and specific conditions for the implementation of the project.

The life cycle of the project and its phases are schematically presented in Figure 1.6, based on which it is possible to understand which phases account for the main investments and the largest values of income and profit.

Table 1. 1 - Classification of project types

Classification sign	Project types
1. By project level		Program
2. According to the scope of the project	Monoproject	Multiproject	Megaproject
3. By implementation time	Short	medium term	long term
4. By level of funding
5. By degree of difficulty			Super complex
6. By difficulty		Organizationally complex	technically complex	resource-complex	complex complex
7. According to quality requirements and ways to ensure it	Defect-free	Modular	Standard
8. By nature of the project / level of participants	international	Domestic
9. By field of activity	Technical	Organizational	Economic	Social	Mixed
10. For the intended purpose	Investment	Innovative	Research	Educational	Mixed

Figure 1.6 - Project life cycle

Table 1.2 - The content of the phases of the project life cycle

Initial (pre-investment)

Investment (construction)

Operational

Pre-investment studies

Development of design estimates

Bidding and conclusion of contracts; Organization of purchases and deliveries, preparatory work

Construction and installation works

Completion of the construction phase of the project

The study of forecasts and directions of development of the country (region, city).

Formation of an investment plan. Preliminary approval of the investment plan. Drawing up and registration of offers.

Drawing up a justification for investments, assessing the viability of the project.

Selection and preliminary approval of the location of the object

Ecological justification. Expertise.

Pre-investment decision.

Development of a preliminary project plan

Development of a plan for design and survey work.

Assignment for the development of a construction project and development.

Coordination, examination and approval of the construction project.

Issuing design assignments.

Development, coordination and approval of working documentation.

Making the final investment decision

Land acquisition for construction

Building permit. Assignment for the development of a project for the production of works.

Development of a project plan.

Tenders for design and survey works and conclusion of contracts. Tenders for the supply of equipment and conclusion of contracts

Tenders for contract work and conclusion of contracts.

Tenders for consulting services and contracts.

Development of plans (schedules) for the supply of resources.

Preparatory work for construction.

Development of an operational construction plan. Development of machine work schedules. Execution of construction and installation works. Monitoring and control. Adjustment of the project plan and operational construction plan (change management). Payment for work performed and deliveries.

Commissioning works. Delivery and acceptance of the object. Closing the contract. Demobilization of resources. Analysis of results.

Exploitation. Repair. Development of production. Closing the project:

Removal from service;

Dismantling of equipment;

Modernization (starting a new project)

The project operates in a specific environment, including internal and external components, taking into account economic, political, social, technological, regulatory, cultural and other factors.

The external environment of the project is that part environment, which exists independently of the project. The internal environment of the project is that part of the environment that exists only during the implementation of the project. The main components of the external and internal environment of the project are shown in Figure 1.7.

The project is always aimed at the result, at achieving the set goals. They distinguish the general goal (mission) of the project from the goals of the first and subsequent levels, as well as subgoals / tasks, actions and results.

Mission is the overall goal of the project. It details the status of the project, provides guidance for setting goals for the next levels, as well as strategies at various organizational levels.

Project strategy- a central link in the development of directions of action in order to obtain the results of the project indicated by the mission. The preparation of the project strategy can be conditionally divided into three sequential procedures:

1) strategic analysis;

2) development and choice of strategy;

3) implementation of the strategy.

Strategic analysis begins with an analysis of the external and internal environment. From the external environment, one can expect either a threat or an opportunity for project implementation (the so-called SWOT analysis).

Development and selection of strategy is carried out at three organizational levels. Distinguish:

Corporate strategy (general directions of development, i.e. growth, maintenance or reduction strategy);

Business strategy (strategy of competition of a particular product in a particular market);

Functional strategy (developed for each functional unit in order to specify the chosen project strategy).

The implementation of the strategy implies, first of all, the need certain changes in the organizational structure, therefore, it is often necessary to create special coordination mechanisms in addition to the existing management structure: project, inter-project (program), venture (for projects with high levels of risk) groups.

Effective project management at all stages of the life cycle allows you to achieve project approach. Being a modern approach in management, the basis of the project approach in the enterprise is system analysis. Its essence is that complex production activities are divided into parts: work, stages, actions. System Analysis studies the interaction of individual components in a single whole (enterprise).

Project approach assumes enterprise management as management of a set of projects. With this approach at the enterprise, the organizational structure becomes more transparent, high management efficiency is visible in terms of optimizing terms, costs for the production of work, and productivity.

The project approach at the enterprise is very important, because it is with its help that it is possible to create flexible organizational structures that are designed to solve problems that carry deviations from the intended course of production.

L.B. Pereverzev, head education design labs
at the Institute of New Education Technologies

Project approach to educational problems

Both means and object

The project approach, or project method, proposed at the dawn of the twentieth century, promises a lot to education. However, he also requires a lot from teachers - both in mastering his working methods and in organizational integration into the existing system of classroom lessons. Because of this, his path to recognition was long and difficult, and even today it is by no means strewn with roses.

From the point of view of the school, the project approach is significant in two ways. First of all, it is an educational tool that gives hope to more successfully cope with a number of "eternal" educational problems; but the very inclusion of this tool in the educational process gives students a kind of vital practical skill that is useful to every graduate, regardless of their chosen profession, specialization and future career. We emphasize that teachers who intend to expand their pedagogical tools cannot do without such a skill.

But in order to master the design approach as a means and instrument of study, you must first meet it face to face as a subject of study and learn to design at least a little bit yourself. It happens that another teacher impatiently asks: quickly explain how to apply the project approach, give his methodology, and I will immediately get down to business. But this is very much like someone who wants to quickly master the very profession of a teacher without bothering to acquire elementary skills in reading and writing. The project approach has its own "alphabet" and "grammar" that deserve the most diligent study, but about them some other time. For now, let's look at just a few basic concepts and one example from real school experience.

Pushed into the future

A project (from the Latin projectus = pushed forward) is a realistic idea of a desired future. From capricious desire, empty dreams, unrealizable dreams and groundless fantasies (today they are ironically called "projects" or "projecting"), the design concept differs in that it contains a rational justification and a specific method (technology) of its practical feasibility. In other words, the design concept tells us what and how to do to implement it, or bring it to life. That is, to obtain, manufacture, create, build, or design what we need and what we do not yet have, but we can have if we apply the proper mental, physical and / or political efforts to it.

Designing is the process of developing such an idea and fixing it in some outwardly expressed symbolic form - alphanumeric text, graphic image, three-dimensional layout, operating model, etc.

There are three main stages, or phases, in the design process. On the first one, an initially fruitful hypothetical idea is put forward, a meaningful core, an embryo of meaning capable of further growth and development. On the middle one, from an initially vague and undifferentiated idea, a gradually more complex project image emerges, a certain morphology arises - a detailed picture, a multifaceted panorama, clearly conceivable scenes desired future. The subject of such an anticipatory figurative representation can be anything - some hitherto unknown product, complex of products or order of things; new network communications, organizational structure and system of relations; a new state of affairs or a naturally controlled course of events. The final phase of the design is the preparation of design and technological documentation. It describes in detail all those operations and procedures that need to be performed with certain tools on certain materials in order to realize the design concept, translate it into reality and thereby translate the image of what we want from the possible future into the actual present.

As long as the project is not implemented, it is permissible to review and recheck it many times in order to detect, correct and minimize the oversights, miscalculations and errors that inevitably creep into any human undertakings. After the project is implemented, correcting such errors, sometimes extremely dangerous ones, may turn out to be too difficult and time-consuming, long, expensive, or even completely unfeasible. The foregoing fully applies to the project approach to the problems of education, where the consequences of wrong decisions sometimes turn out to be truly catastrophic.

Focus on new

Another fundamental property of projectivity: the target orientation to something original, new, unprecedented, hitherto not been, previously unknown. In the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "Enough simplicity for every wise man" General Krutitsky, who wrote "a very serious project, or a note, whatever you want to call it," asks Glumov to give it a literary finish.

The central thought of the "project" (in the nineteenth century, Russians still pronounced "project" in the French manner without any irony) is that "we should not increase the content<мелким>officials and generally improve their position, which, on the contrary, needs a significant increase in the salaries of the chairmen ... so that these outward brilliance maintain the greatness of power ... the subordinate must be timid and constantly trembling. "Glumov leaves these wonderful phrases untouched, but puts in the title not a “project”, but a “treatise.” And to Krutitsky's question why “Treatise, why not a project?” he answers: “Project, Your Excellency, when something new is proposed; Your Excellency, on the contrary, rejects everything new... and quite rightly, Your Excellency... Krutitsky: Yes, well, perhaps. "A Treatise on the Harm of Reforms in General". "In general" is not superfluous, is it? Glumov: This is Your Excellency's main idea that all reforms are generally harmful." Sadly, similar views remain valid in our time; their stability is one of the reasons for the slow spread of project thinking in education and other areas of public life.

Instructionism and constructionism

The project approach to educational problems, proclaimed at the dawn of the twentieth century, requires a revision of one of the long-standing principles of education, called instructionism. As you can see from the name, it is to continuously give the student some kind of instructions, notations, prescriptions, instructions and instructions. Take this and that, measure from this to this, do this and that, put it there and there; do not deviate a single step from what you are commanded, do everything exactly to the last detail, do not add anything from yourself, do not ask unnecessary questions and do not be clever at all. Seems like a caricature? Okay, here's a softer scene. The teacher tells the class: "Open your notebooks, listen carefully to what I (reading from a book or knowing by heart for a long time) will tell you; write down and remember, and then I will ask you, and who will answer me as close to the text as possible, and even better - word for word without any mistakes - he will receive the highest score.

Here I am also a little rude, but tell me, honestly, have you ever encountered a similar situation at school? I'm sure you've recognized the typical features of a familiar practice here. Such, in its extreme form, is the instructional approach. Let's not rush and completely reject it and morally destroy it. There are times when it is indispensable, although today it is far from universal and omnipotent.

The project approach is diametrically opposed to instructionalism. The teacher does not teach ready-made and fully chewed knowledge, which children can only swallow and assimilate. The teacher does not explain or demonstrate to the students the correct way of acting, which they could master by direct imitation. He does not blame children for their mistakes. The teacher does not show those highest achievements, the best results, reference samples or inspiring examples that students could admire and would strive to approach or even surpass them (this perspective is also very important and we also do not deny it, but now we are talking about something else ). In the case we are considering, the teacher offers the class a task that is too complex to be completed immediately and in one sitting according to some already known scheme. If the student answers: "I don't know how to cope with this task," the teacher does not urge him: "Well, remember, remember ...". The teacher calls: "think, imagine, think about how and by what means it could be done."

In other words, the student needs to acquire the necessary knowledge and the correct answers to the questions posed on his own - this is what should be learned in the first place. And the best way to do this is to develop and implement a learning project aimed at finding a solution to the problem contained in the task. Since the ways, methods and means leading to the goal are not communicated to children in advance; each student must find, discover or invent them himself, and then logically construct or construct. Hence the design approach has another name: constructionism.

What is the role and responsibility of the teacher in such a situation? The volume of his consultations and dialogues with the student sharply increases. The authority of the teacher is now based on the ability to stimulate that mental activity of the student, in which he himself is personally interested for the sake of success in his undertaking. project activities.

thought experiment

During the work on the project, the teacher suggests only the general direction and the main landmarks of the search route. He says to the child: well, now you do not yet know the required answer. But let's discuss how to get there. Let's find the answer with a thought experiment. Let's put forward a hypothesis, that is, a conjectural idea, a thought that flashed through our head, some initial guess and accept it as an initial assumption. Let's say that a large and complex task can be subdivided into several simpler parts; take some one and do with it, for example, like this, and on the other, and see what happens ... If it immediately becomes clear that nothing will come of this, we will immediately discard this hypothesis, we will offer instead some different and subject it to the same "practical test in the mind." Is the principle clear? Now try to imagine and imagine as vividly as possible what you would come to the second, third or n-th time by doing the task in the manner described above. In other words, we will begin to design, that is, further develop, logically test, critically evaluate, step by step refine in more detail, and sometimes boldly change our original idea. Let's try to complete the task in our imagination, mentally moving towards the goal along the path you suggested. And in order not to lose sight of anything significant, we will somehow mark the path of our thought, place reference milestones on it by means of notes, drawings, things (sticks, cubes, plasticine figures); our own postures, gestures, movements, or some other outward sign. Let's take the first step, then the second - what happened? Ah, not at all what you expected? Is there no further way? Ahead of some continuous contradictions? Thought stuck? It's okay, somewhere there was an error, that's all.

It is human nature to make mistakes both in deeds and in thoughts. There will always be a lot of mistakes, no one is immune from them, and there is nothing to immediately panic because of them. But you need to be able to detect them in time by constant verification - and better in thoughts and drawings, plans and diagrams, calculations and drawings, rather than in the course of their practical implementation. Indeed, in this case, it is possible to correct the most serious mistakes relatively easily and quickly even before the plans become deeds, and their consequences become an irreversible fact of life. This is what designing is for - imaginary (sometimes they say - virtual) creation, testing and verification of what we want to create and build in practice. An erroneous hypothesis, an incorrect assumption in our initial design, or a false step in its development - if detected early enough - is relatively easy to correct in the design. I emphasize again and again: mistakes are not terrible in the course of a thought experiment and design search. They become scary - and often catastrophic - from the moment when nothing can be changed in the project. And especially - when the project, concealing an undetected error, is carried out in practice and is brought to life. Don't Be Afraid of Mistakes Of paramount importance is the fact that the systematic detection of errors and their careful correction at the stage of project development must be specially learned.

Therefore, from the point of view of the design-constructionist approach and the ultimate goals of education, it is desirable for each student in the process of project search, and it is simply necessary to make, and then, of course, find and correct mistakes! The expression "learn from mistakes" is most true just in the case of design. Let us return to the mistake made by our student and discovered by him in the course of a thought experiment. We do not give him a deuce for this, we do not blame him for inattention, and we do not express any displeasure at all. On the contrary, we praise him for the fact that he himself noticed his mistake in time. And we tell him: this mistake is made by many, this is a typical mistake, let's see what it usually occurs because of. What do you think, in what and when did you make a mistake - at what step of reasoning, calculations and planning? Perhaps you missed some intermediate link, did not think about some important circumstance? Look for it and find it, think about it now and correct it accordingly. If things are not moving forward now, then it is possible that the initial assumption was already erroneous.

But here, too, there is nothing to be afraid of: it is still not too late to abandon it and take something else as a starting point, that is, put aside the previous plan and put forward another hypothesis. Discuss it again with yourself and with your classmates, try together to imagine moving towards the goal of the project along a different path you have chosen and see what awaits us in this case? And having thus sorted out several - sometimes quite a lot - various hypothetical ways and means, we can come to the conclusion that only the third, fifth, or even tenth of the options we have proposed and mentally tested allows us to hope for the success of our project.

And then - and only when we have sufficient confidence in the validity of our nth guess, hypothesis, assumption and plan - we will gather all our strength and begin to complete the task finally and in practice (in the simplest case, we will rewrite the final solution found and announce that we have received it).

Learn continuously and non-stop

This is the design-constructionist approach in its most general terms. If you say that for a teacher it is immeasurably more complex and difficult than instructional, I agree with you, but I will add: on the other hand, it is incomparably more interesting, livelier and more fun with it. In addition, you will inevitably have to face more and more situations that are new to you, when no other approach simply will work. So it's better to start learning it right now - especially since there are much more complexities and difficulties in it than it seems at first glance. For example, it is not at all easy to induce and then teach children (they, however, are much easier than adults) to put forward various hypotheses and assumptions. It is not at all easy to teach them how to develop multivariate ideas in their imagination and by what external means to support the process of design, that is, problem-search, constructive-volitional and critical thinking. It is very difficult to instill in a student (and in ourselves) a readiness for the fact that in order to get an answer to a number of questions contained in the assignment, we need not only to look into the reference book, but first to specially study, discover, invent, and conduct a systematic study of something. , and then build a design model and present the results of your work in a form that would be understandable to other people.

Design thinking needs to be specially awakened, systematically developed and carefully cultivated. But all this is absolutely necessary for both adults and children. Today, even in order to simply survive, not to mention lead a more or less human-worthy existence, we must boldly go towards the new. That is, to be able to design our interaction with the constantly and unpredictably changing world. This means that we need to learn continuously and non-stop. Life demands from us that every new task that we give to our students is to some extent new for us as well. Addressed to us, it should be a task for improvement educational process, on the development of our ability to solve new pedagogical problems and transfer the found principles of solution to other object areas and problem situations. The project approach largely satisfies such requirements. It is applicable to the study of any school discipline and is especially effective in lessons aimed at establishing intersubject relationships.

I will cite as an example the lessons within the framework of an integrated language and mathematics course developed by the Institute of New Education Technologies and successfully tested at the turn of the nineties in the elementary grades of the 57th school in Moscow. Classes were then under the direction of Elena Igorevna Bulin-Sokolova, now the director of the named Institute; the episodes I have chosen are fully filmed and available for anyone who wants to study them in the smallest detail. I will simply state now what everyone could be convinced of by observing these events on the screen. Do not learn the rule, but deduce it At the beginning of the lesson, third-graders are given the task: to determine how numerals were written in various alphabets and writing systems; in this case, Sumerian, ancient Chinese and Old Slavonic. Some of you will say: but such a task is reasonable only when the children already know to some extent - or begin to learn - these languages. And at least they are familiar with their alphabets. Are they going to teach all this in elementary grades? Not at all, just at the very beginning of the integrated course of language and mathematics - I emphasize, LANGUAGE, and not "native language" - the students learned: on Earth there are different languages, different alphabets and different ways recording concepts, words and statements. At the same time, children from the very beginning firmly learned another very important position. It says: although there are many seemingly completely dissimilar languages in the world, they all have something in common, some common basis, or deep structure, the properties of which are somehow manifested in any individual national language. In addition, the students were shown the main types of signs used in various systems writing: hieroglyphs, cuneiform and letter alphabet. Finally, they were given several examples, and sometimes only hints, of how the writing of one or more numerals looks like in each of the named languages. The task is to derive a general rule that allows you to correctly write and read (understand) any number in the alphabet of a given language.

Self-organization of working groups

Having received the task, the class is divided - sometimes on the advice of the teacher, sometimes spontaneously - into several working groups of 3 to 5 people, although there are almost always individualists who prefer to sit on the sidelines and remain alone. In order for the teacher to correctly determine his line of interaction with each of these individualists, it is important to understand why he or she does not want to be in the group. Someone does this out of genuine (or feigned) self-confidence: "I am stronger than others, I can handle it without outside help." The other, on the contrary, fears that he will be the weakest in the group, he will have nothing to say and everyone will immediately see it. The third one, who is very smart, has difficulties with communication, and he does not want to once again make a special effort on himself and experience an unpleasant feeling, being misunderstood, etc. Each of these disciples must be dealt with accordingly in order to help them overcome their inner obstacles, suspicions and fears. It’s better not to touch the proud: sooner or later they themselves will join this or that group - either because they can’t cope with the task alone, or out of interest in the discussion, or simply because it’s more fun together. In groups, spontaneous and spontaneous formation, distribution and learning of roles and their corresponding functions occurs very quickly and without any prompting from the teacher.

Roles and Functions

Everything happens the way it is described in scientific monographs on "organized creative technology", or "systematic organization of creative teams". Some of the guys take on the role of a "problematizer" or "problem maker", someone - a researcher-analyst, someone - a "generator of ideas" and a creator of hypotheses, someone - their criticism, someone - a generalist, synthesizing various views, and so on. Of course, these roles are not rigidly fixed - each member of the group can, if he wants, try himself in each of them.

One group is arguing about what rule various combinations of vertical and horizontal strokes obey, expressing numbers in Sumerian cuneiform ... The other analyzes the hypothesis that in Old Slavonic letters numerals were written in letters of the alphabet, over which a special sign was placed - titlo. Children do not yet know such a name, and someone calls the title "unfinished sharp". If they call it that when telling the class about the results of their research, the teacher will not consider it a mistake. After all, it’s very good that in this micro-collective they don’t resort to expressions like: “well, how is she ..., in general, she’s like that ... I don’t know how to say ... but you see for yourself ..., there there ..., no, not there, but here - this squiggle into which I poke my finger.

The students are already constructing - albeit for the time being from randomly selected elements - quite operational, consistent in meaning, terms that they understand in the same way. Later they will be told that in the Old Church Slavonic language (and in science) there is a generally accepted name for that icon, the meaning of which they have already formed the correct concept.

Debugging the final solution

After a period of very heated discussions of various hypotheses and solutions, the groups eventually come to some answer to the question contained in the task, and proceed to the final phase of their work. Let me remind you that the task is considered completed only when the results of the work done on it are clearly and consistently set out in a written report.

Here is the reporting process. The student responsible for this final stage wrote the phrase and reads it aloud to the closest colleagues; detects in it and immediately smoothes out some roughness; reads further, stops again, thinks, says: "No, it's impossible." Rewriting something, inserting qualifying words, etc. Computer programmers call this "debugging" and it's about more than just catching bugs. Every now and then there is a noticeable improvement, an improvement on the original "product", so that "debugging" is more properly regarded as the final part of the development of a given project.

The first of the groups has finished the task, its representative goes to the board to make a report. Perhaps, when it was drafted and discussed in the group, it seemed quite acceptable. But when read in public, after a few seconds it becomes obvious: the text of the report turns out to be gray, confusing and very boring. The speaker understands this even earlier than her listeners. Unlike adults, who in such cases try to finish their written nonsense anyway, the girl immediately, without waiting for a negative reaction from the audience, interrupts the reading herself and returns to her own to remake and finalize the text.

Discussion on the report

The report of the second group sounds slick, but provokes heated discussion. Opponents one by one run forward and argue both with the speaker and with each other, arguing in words and with the help of chalk on the board. Children conduct a real logical research in order to find out the truth, which is still unknown to them. There are all elements of scientific research, critical analysis, oral and written communication, public debate. From all participants, a constant tension of attention, perception, memory and mind is required; the ability to generate hypotheses and perform thought experiments to test them, the ability to formulate final conclusions and communicate them to others. But no less (if not more) important is the ability and ability to substantiate and defend one's position, never in any way violating those very strict rules of the game, the observance of which is a matter of honor and personal dignity of each member of this intellectual community. All these abilities and skills are formed, exercised and developed as children acquire more and more diverse and in-depth experience of encountering problems that can only be solved by research and design and construction. The teacher, as already mentioned, helps the students to embark on this path, and then they go along it - and learn to go more and more confidently - already on their own.

The feat of the discoverers

Let what students discover or create as they develop their projects is only a simplified repetition of what was created by "big science" - the point is that children discover facts that are subjectively new to them and build new concepts for them, and do not receive them ready-made from a teacher or from textbooks. After all, what they come to as a result of observation, search, reflection and debate, no one told them in advance, did not show, did not explain. They did not suspect before about the existence of such things, did not notice them around them, and if they did, they never thought about them specifically. Until then, nothing had attracted the attention of these schoolchildren to the form of cuneiform signs, did not encourage them to compare them with each other and look for some recurring features, patterns, structure and meaning in ancient squiggles. Doing this with genuine passion, they each time re-perform their micro-feat of discoverers.

The pedagogical value of such an experience cannot be overestimated. At the same time, as already mentioned, the role of the teacher is radically changing. From an omniscient, all-powerful, and unquestioning dictator-mentor, he gradually evolves into a more competent colleague, into a senior partner in research and development of a project, into a qualified expert consultant who comes to the aid of students and gives his advice and recommendations only when asked about it. . What is his authority now based on? On the ability to be the initiator of interesting undertakings. Ahead here is, first of all, the one who provokes independent activity of students; who challenges their quick wits, ingenuity and creative imagination. There are no words - to act in such a role is much more difficult than to "teach" children pre-packaged portions of ready-made knowledge from a textbook, a problem book and the latest collection of methodological instructions. And, of course, you need to be specially prepared for it.

Sources of motivation

Where and what is the driving force behind the project approach, which embraces the development of hypotheses, their analysis, criticism and thought, as well as external model experiments to verify them, and then the synthesis of final conclusions? Where does all this come from in a child? After all, generating hypotheses is a very difficult and difficult thing. Just as difficult is their deep and justified criticism. It is even more difficult to synthesize the final results. No one is born with a ready ability to do all this; until recently, it was generally believed that such abilities are formed only in those who have specially completed a long course of study in the relevant academic disciplines.

The project approach is remarkable in that, by its very nature, it necessarily contains the moment of the necessary training in all these types of mentally productive activity. And he is extremely motivating. Children very quickly come to the conclusion that in order to successfully develop a project that is interesting for them, they need to learn a lot and acquire a number of special, narrower knowledge, skills and abilities in certain subject areas. They begin to understand that the acquisition of such qualities is often associated with hard work, requires systematic, often tedious exercises, great diligence, perseverance and diligence. That sometimes you have to resort to cramming in order to firmly consolidate some skills that are absolutely necessary as a basis for higher, including creative thinking functions of putting forward hypotheses and building general concepts.

Cramming and higher values

Illustrative analogies to what has just been said can be found in the traditions of some schools of architecture (where the design activity was historically first recognized as different from the performing one) and navigation. In the first case, future architects go through a mandatory (certainly not too long) period of apprenticeship in the role of masons and masons. At some stage of training, they are given the task of hewing a stone block to give it the shape of a regular cube or parallelepiped, so that its sides are smooth and normal to each other. Until the student has mastered this operation, he is not allowed to further study the high art of architectural design. Similarly, in nautical schools, future captains of ocean liners, nuclear ice drifts, aircraft carriers and submarines undergo training as sailors of sailing ships. They are forced to perform the most difficult, archaic and seemingly meaningless tasks in our nuclear-electronic-computer age: having risen before dawn on the boatswain's pipe, they scrub the deck, knit knots, climb the shrouds to the foremast, scatter along the yards, put all sorts of bom-brahmsely and more. All this is considered essential condition quality training of real ship commanders, admirals and naval commanders.

Many more examples can be given of how coaching, "mechanical cramming" and monotonous exercise in the same techniques turn out to be necessary prerequisite to acquire a number of basic knowledge, skills and abilities that open the way to individual creativity. All of these traditional ways of learning are fully valid today: they are quite legitimate, legal and effective - but, of course, only when they are built into a broader educational context. When both for the teacher and for the student they are consecrated highest values and the meaning of education; when they serve his ultimate goals, achieved in combination and interpenetration of the strictest discipline of routine operations and the free flight of creative imagination. What are these values and goals?

I deliberately refrain now from proclaiming any ideological postulates and moral maxims. I will only say that an absolutely necessary (although, of course, far from the only) property of an educated person of our day is his ability to independently pose and look for solutions to new, non-standard, previously unprecedented problems. This applies to problems of cognition, problems of production, problems of culture, problems of social and personal relationships and interactions between people.

Learn all over again

Previously, it was possible to live life more or less tolerably, following well-tested rules, repeating actions that had already brought success earlier, relying on the experience and knowledge accumulated by previous generations. Then education to a large extent was reduced to the transfer, assimilation and reproduction, reproduction of this experience with minor amendments and additions, corresponding to the same small and gradual changes in the surrounding life. Slowly changing life posed difficult and difficult, but quite definite problems for people; it also gave time and chances to solve each of them according to accepted norms. It was only necessary to learn well in advance what these decisions and norms are and how to apply them in practice. Today's life does not give us such an opportunity. It brings us face to face every day with vague, ambiguous, ill-defined problems that have no precedents and ready-made solutions. The only way out is to re-learn how to solve such problems every time. The modern school is called upon, at a minimum, to form and develop the primary ability to find, identify, and, if possible, clearly formulate and find acceptable solutions to such problems. Mission-conscious teachers can no longer passively wait for someone from above to say, "This is what and how you should teach children today, and tomorrow we will send you some other guidance." The school and teachers need to take an active position here and continuously learn on their own in order to be at least a little ahead of their students in learning new things.

Essence and features of the project approach to innovation management

Mechanism for selection of innovative projects

Project planning system

Organization of implementation of innovative projects

Management of the implementation of innovative projects

Question 1. Essence and features of the project approach to innovation management

Control innovative activities enterprises at the tactical level in most cases is implemented on the basis of a project management system. Innovative project management ensures the specification of the selected innovative strategies and their direct implementation in the production and economic activities of the enterprise. At its core project management represents purposeful systemic process of developing and implementing management decisions covering all stages of a specific development and aimed at its successful implementation within the established time, budget and resource constraints.

The key elements of the project management system for the innovative activity of an enterprise are individual innovative projects. Innovation project represents a non-repeating set of activities (scientific, technological, industrial, organizational, financial and commercial) performed in the established sequence, mutually related to each other in terms of resources, deadlines and performers, and aimed at achieving a single ultimate goal - the creation of a specific innovation.

As an object of management, any innovative project has the following characteristics: signs:

Specific targeting. This feature means that any innovative project is organized and carried out not to test abstract scientific ideas, but is focused on creating a predetermined product intended for transfer to a specific customer, introduction to specific market segments or for implementation in a specific area of the production process within the enterprise itself.

Limited implementation time. In accordance with this sign, any project is an urgent event that has a strictly established time frame. If the deadlines for its implementation are exceeded, the project loses its attractiveness for investors and may come into conflict with both the dynamics of market requirements and the dynamics of the developer's own strategic directions of development.

Limited amount of attracted labor and material resources. This feature means that any changes in the progress of the project can only be made within the allocated resource limits. In cases where the project does not fit into such limits, it is either closed or a revision of the original goals of its implementation is carried out. The resource limitation of projects is the initial prerequisite for the formation and implementation of their diversified portfolios, as well as for reserving resources as a means of compensating for the risks of innovation activity.

Having a well-defined individual budget. In accordance with this feature, any innovative project is planned and implemented as a separate business with its own structure of income and expenses, drawn up in the form of an appropriate budget. The presence of separate project budgets provides an opportunity for business planning of projects and creates conditions for current control and coordination of their cost parameters.

Uniqueness and novelty for the enterprise-developer. This feature means that any project is not an element of routine activities. divisions of the enterprise, contains a certain novelty and is carried out once. As a result, the implementation of each of the projects requires the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills by personnel, the involvement of new specialists and the establishment of new relationships with contractor organizations.

Organizational isolation. In accordance with this sign, any project is such an event, the implementation of which requires the formation of a specialized team of specialists, whose activities are focused only on the implementation of this development and which in some cases can be assigned the status of a separate structural unit of the enterprise.

Simultaneous isolation and interconnectedness with other projects of the enterprise. The isolation of projects is a consequence of their internal novelty and resource limitations. An expression of the isolation of projects from each other is the specialization of project teams, as well as the possible competition of projects for the resources provided. The isolation of projects provides the possibility of their diversification, and also creates conditions for a clear distribution and efficient use of enterprise resources. At the same time, innovative projects implemented by the enterprise should be logically interconnected, which ensures the receipt of synergistic effects and the continuity of the intellectual potential of project team members.

Any project has its own life cycle, consisting of four basic stages: the stage of formulation and selection of the project, the stage of its development, the stage of implementation and the stage of completion (see Figure 4.1.1).

At the first stage of the life cycle, the specification of the project idea is carried out, the structure of its goals is determined, a preliminary assessment of the amount of resources required for the project implementation and the expected effect from its implementation is carried out. Based on the results of the assessment, a feasibility study or a business plan for the project is developed, on the basis of which the project passes the competitive selection procedure, under which it,

Rice. 4.1.1. The structure of the life cycle of an innovative project

together with alternative project options, they are subjected to an examination according to a set of various evaluation criteria. If the selection result is positive, a decision is made to include the project in the appropriate portfolio and the search for possible investors begins (if the project is initially implemented on the order of a specific client).

At the second stage of the life cycle, the formation of a set of tasks and activities interconnected in time, resources and performers to achieve the project goal is carried out. At this stage, a detailed plan for the implementation of the project is developed, the optimal structural form of its implementation is selected, members of the project team and external contractors are selected, and the necessary contract documentation is drawn up.

At the project implementation stage, its main product is directly created, the implementation of established schedules and allocated resource limits is monitored, deviations are corrected and the development progress is promptly regulated.

At the project completion stage, the created product is handed over to the customer (or introduced to target markets), contracts are closed and project resources are redistributed, during which the released equipment and personnel are transferred to other projects of the enterprise.

Project management covers all stages of its life cycle and is implemented by the joint efforts of project managers and managers at the corporate level. The specific distribution of functions between these two levels of management in each organization has an individual situational character and is determined by the complex influence of the following main factors:

type of the organizational structure of management operating at the enterprise;

the level of novelty of the project and the uncertainty of its main parameters;

the degree of priority of the project as a portfolio element for the respective SBA.

In general, the distribution of management functions between the project and corporate levels of management is implemented according to the following scheme. At the corporate level, projects are selected, deadlines are set for the completion of their development and implementation, plans for the allocation of resources between the stages of project implementation are approved, and the implementation of each of the integrated stages is monitored. At the project management level, project plans are prepared for their subsequent transfer to the corporate level, current control of the project implementation, coordination of the actions of the project team members and compensation for deviations from the established plans are carried out.

In general, the project approach to managing the innovative activity of an enterprise has the following main Benefits:

the target nature of innovative developments, ensured by simultaneously linking each of the ongoing projects with the innovative strategy of the enterprise in a particular SZH and with all other projects of the corresponding portfolio;

clear coordination of investment flows aimed at ensuring the innovative activity of the enterprise through the development and control of the implementation of individual budgets for each of the projects;

enabling operational control and regulation of the implementation of each of the projects through the development of their individual detailed time and resource plans;

creating conditions for the most efficient use of enterprise resources through the use of competitive schemes for selecting projects and delegating significant powers and responsibilities to project managers;

providing conditions for the rapid curtailment of projects, the implementation of which significantly deviates from the time and budget plans drawn up.

Main restrictions The application of the project approach is the presence of a sufficient number of initiative managers of the middle and lower levels of the hierarchy (managers-generalists), a high level of qualification and mobility of the personnel of the enterprise, as well as the presence of a developed organizational culture that provides support for constant changes in the activities and structure of the enterprise.

After studying the first chapter, the reader will: know theoretical basis project management, the role of the external and internal environment of the project, economic aspects project, the main organizational and legal forms of project implementation; be able to choose the most appropriate scheme of organizational and legal interaction of project participants; own organizational structure design skills.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Modern enterprise management is a complex system that includes not only the principles and tasks of management, the management structure, various methods and approaches, but also a number of functional subsystems, such as strategic planning and operational management; production and personnel management; management of marketing, finance, investment, information, etc.

The development of the enterprise takes place in the process of continuous economic activity. In the course of this activity, the enterprise implements various changes aimed at creating new technologies, products, solving organizational problems, developing and implementing innovations and promoting innovations. All these tasks are solved through the organization and implementation of various events.

Due to the increasing complexity of the tasks being solved, their heterogeneity, and sometimes even uniqueness, traditional methods management, which are aimed at the implementation of systemic repetitive management actions, turned out to be ineffective. There was a need to develop and put into practice more advanced methods of managing complex events.

Event, events, cf. (bookish official) - an action aimed at the implementation of something, for the implementation of some goal 1.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: in 4 volumes / ed. D.N. Ushakov. M.: State. in-t “Owls. encycl. ": OGIZ: State. foreign publishing house and national words., 1935-1940.

An event is a short-term non-formalized set of activities aimed at obtaining the desired results. The event can be considered as a project to which a simplified workflow is applied due to its short duration and low labor intensity.

Thus, in the practice of organizational management, the concept of "project" arises as an object of managing events of a special kind. Accordingly, project management can be viewed as a method of managing events, aimed at complex, unique actions ( auth.).

The word "project" is of English origin (from the English. project- project, program, plan, construction). V scientific literature and in everyday life the term "project" can mean the following:

means or method of achieving goals;
a set of documentation required for construction;
a temporary enterprise designed to create unique products, services, results;
complex event;
a program implemented for non-commercial purposes, for example in public self-government.

In the Russian management literature under project is understood as a set, a set of tasks and actions that have the following distinctive features: clear final goals, interrelations of tasks and resources, certain dates for the start and end of the project, a certain degree of novelty of the goals and conditions for implementation, the inevitability of various conflict situations around and within the project.

Examples of projects that we implement in everyday life can be apartment renovation, holding a solemn event - weddings, anniversaries, scientific research. But we think little about the fact that these are projects. And even more so, it does not occur to us to apply knowledge, tools and management methods in projects of this kind.

However, based on the definition of the Project Management Institute, project management means the application of knowledge, skills, tools and management methods to project activities to meet project requirements.

In the overall management structure, the project is distinguished by certain characteristics (features) and is implemented using a special type of management activities- project management. The project parameters are:

satisfaction of requirements performers);
implementation costs cost);
duration of implementation time).

The characteristics of the project include the following:

1. Achievement of a certain goal. Often the emergence of a project is associated with the need to solve a certain problem or meet certain requirements. This problem can be of a very different nature, but its solution always involves unique, interconnected changes that need to be made in a certain time frame, taking into account a specific budget, and to get a result that has clear characteristics.

The implementation of this approach involves the precise definition, formulation and understanding of goals, starting from the highest level, and then gradually descending to the most detailed goals and objectives. In addition, the project can be seen as the pursuit of carefully chosen goals, and the progress of the project towards completion is the achievement of higher level goals until the final goal is reached, i.e. result.

Wherein common goal any project can be expressed as follows: "to meet the requirements as fully as possible quickly and cheaply."

2. Project result. The result of the project is a product or service that will meet the planned parameters, while having a certain uniqueness. The sources of uniqueness can be found in the specifics of a particular production situation, the duration of the preparation and implementation of the project, the level of costs associated with the project, the use of innovative technologies, the involvement of various specialists in the project team, etc. At the same time, the main thing is that all complex and unique actions, taking into account risk and uncertainty, must correspond to the results.
3. The certainty of the project in time, determinism. This feature is the main difference between project management and operational management. Projects have more or less clearly defined beginnings and ends. Some authors consider determinism not only as a limitation in time, but also apply “clearly defined activity” to the place and conditions of its implementation. Much of the effort involved in working with a project is directed specifically at ensuring that the project is completed on time. For this, graphs are prepared showing the start and end times of the tasks included in the project.

Since projects cover complex objects, it is necessary to take into account the whole complex of various and numerous requirements for the project (indicators or parameters that characterize the results of the project). In some projects, for example, a construction project, the scope and method of describing the requirements are formalized (design assignment). At the same time, it is important that the formalization of requirements does not limit creative initiative.

Project cost - a requirement expressed in the form of cost and cost limits. This parameter must not be exceeded.

Project duration - determines the period of time during which the project must be implemented, as well as the calendar dates for the implementation of the project.

Project boundary- an additional parameter that helps to see the dependencies between its main parameters.

Project costs- a parameter depending on the scope of implementation, requirements and duration of the project.

All project parameters or requirements are closely interrelated and must be determined in a comprehensive manner, taking into account mutual influences and restrictions.

Practical activity shows that the variety of projects is huge. At the same time, projects can be classified according to a number of specific characteristics:

the source of the order;
orientation;
the level of novelty;
size (scale);
scope;
duration.

By the first characteristic - the source of the order for project development - projects are divided into external and internal. The project must acquire the main stakeholder (organization) - the party that will become the future owner and user of the project results and will be responsible for it. In our terminology, this is usually the customer of the project. V market economy- this is the owner (owner), often in the literature on project management - the client.

External projects come from the company's customers. Such projects may include unique products(ships, planes, machine tools, movies), objects (buildings, engineering structures), events (advertising campaigns, sports competitions, scientific research).

Internal projects - projects, the need for the implementation of which is due to the own needs of the enterprise (heads of the enterprise). Such projects are implemented in order to enhance the activities of the enterprise, for example, the creation of a new product, the development of a new territory for the sale of a product, the introduction of information systems, the reconstruction or replacement of technological equipment, the introduction of new technologies, etc.

Control external and internal projects has its own characteristics. The implementation of projects carried out on internal and external orders is different. On the one hand, enterprises that carry out projects on external orders are usually better prepared for project management in methodological, personnel and organizational aspects. The production structures of the enterprise are primarily involved in the implementation of such projects. On the other hand, the implementation of projects on external orders creates problems and increases the costs associated with the coordination of work, as well as increases the uncertainty of planning and implementing these projects, which is due to the need to contact the customer, ensure the correct exchange of information, clearly share responsibilities, and also correctly calculate terms and costs.

Next project characteristics - focus (orientation). The focus of projects can be both on the object and on the process. In object-oriented projects, the goal is to create or change a variety of material assets: products, construction objects, technical systems, etc. The goal of process-oriented projects is to create or change processes and executive systems, such as information and decision systems, technological and distribution processes, organizational systems etc.

For the enterprise, the consequences of the implementation of the selected types of projects are different. Upon completion of the implementation of the object-oriented project, the enterprise returns to normal operation. For example, a technological upgrade project production unit requires some changes in the system of organization and management; however, after the completion of work on it, no significant changes in this area are envisaged. On the contrary, process-oriented projects predetermine changes in the functioning of the enterprise and after their completion. For example, a project to introduce "lean manufacturing" entails a change in the organization and management in other areas of the facility.

The presented classification leads to a different understanding of the meaning and significance of the final phases of the project implementation, in particular, control over its implementation and use of the results. Each type of project puts forward its own requirements for the organization of the enterprise.

The third characteristic on which projects differ from each other, - degree of novelty and originality. According to the definition (according to Rogova), each project must have “a certain degree of novelty of the goals and conditions for implementation”, i.e. Every project must be original.

Most often in the practice of project management, projects are divided into two classes: projects with a high level of novelty and projects with a low level of novelty. Novelty in this case refers only to the project itself, to its performers. The novelty of the project is the improvement of traditional techniques and methods and the search for innovative approaches.

Projects with a high degree of novelty (originality) are, for example, research projects dedicated to the search for new, original technical solutions (construction using previously unknown technologies, the use of non-traditional types of energy, etc.), and projects with a low level of novelty (originality) - construction of typical buildings (production shops), etc.).

The fourth characteristic project is his magnitude (scale). Differences of projects in this characteristic are determined by the volume of work performed, the duration of implementation, the number of personnel involved and (or) costs. According to this criterion, projects can be divided into small, big and large. An example of a small project is the construction of an individual residential building, a large project is the construction of a hotel, a large project is the construction of facilities for the Olympics.

In practice, in particular in the American one, there is an approach in which the classification of projects by their size is based on three criteria - the size of the project team, the complexity of the project and its cost. For example, small projects - investments up to 10-15 million dollars; labor costs - 40-50 thousand man-hours. Large capital investments - from $ 1 billion or more, non-traditional forms of financing (shareholder, mixed) - usually a consortium of firms, labor intensity - 2 million man-hours - for design, 15-20 million man-hours - for construction, five - seven and more than years - the implementation period.

Also important criteria for classifying projects serves their scope. According to this criterion, one can distinguish, in particular:

technical (construction of a building or structure, introduction of a new production line, development software etc.);
organizational (reforming an existing or creating a new enterprise, introducing new system management, holding international conference etc.);
economic (privatization of an enterprise, implementation of a system financial planning and budgeting, the introduction of a new taxation system, etc.);
social (reforming the social security system, protecting the disadvantaged segments of the population, overcoming the consequences of natural and social shocks);
mixed (projects implemented in several areas of activity at once; for example, an enterprise reform project, including the introduction of a financial planning and budgeting system, the development and implementation of special software, etc.);
investment project: the main objective- creation or renovation of fixed assets of organizations that require investments;
innovative project: the main goal is the development and application of new technologies, know-how and other innovations that ensure the development of organizations.

This classification can be quite extensive if the areas of application are distinguished in more detail, for example, Technical design - construction - civil engineering or industrial construction, etc.

Projects implemented in different areas have significant differences, therefore, in order to choose one or another approach to managing a specific project, it is necessary to first understand the features of this particular type or type of project.

Project classes differ in composition, structure and subject area of the project:

mono-projects - individual projects of various types and purposes, having a specific goal, a clearly defined framework for finance, resources, time, quality and involving the creation of a single project group (investment, innovation, etc.);
multi-project - a complex project consisting of a number of mono-projects and requiring the use of multi-project management (reforming existing and creating new enterprises, development and implementation of intra-company systems);
mega-projects - targeted programs for the development of regions, industries and others that affect all spheres of life of the population, for example, the construction of the Crimean bridge.

By duration projects are divided into:

for short-term projects - up to three years;
medium-term projects - from three to five years;
long-term projects - more than five years.

If we consider the project from the point of view of classical management, then its methodological basis is systems approach v project management, i.e. You can think of a project as a system in which work is the process of turning inputs into outputs.

design(problem, task) means of implementation(solutions, works) and goals(result). Input elements (problem, resources, money, labor costs) in the process of project activities with the help of means of implementation (process of making managerial decisions) are transferred to the output elements of the project (results, decisions). Thus, the goals of the project implementation are achieved (Fig. 1.1).

Rice. 1.1.

Sources for input elements of the project can be both internal components of the project, and the external environment of the project. The project is not a rigid stable formation, a number of its elements in the process of implementation can change their location, moving from the external environment to the project and vice versa.

A number of project elements can be used inside and outside the project at the same time, for example, people who are involved in the project and are simultaneously working on solving other problems. The basis of project management is a methodology aimed at effectively achieving project goals throughout the project cycle using a variety of management tools and technologies.

TO managed project parameters relate:

scope of work and types of work on the project;
project cost, costs and expenses;
time parameters, including the timing, duration and reserves of work, stages, phases of the project, as well as the relationship of work;
the resources required to carry out the project, including human, financial, logistical, and resource constraints;
quality of design solutions, resources used, project components.

The project and its implementation process are complex system, in which the project itself appears as controlled subsystem, a control subsystem is project management.

Gontareva I.V., Nizhegorodtsev R.M., Novikov D.L. Project management: textbook, manual. Moscow: LIBROKOM, 2013; Trotsky M., Trupa B., Ogonyok K. Project management: per. from Polish. M.: Finance and statistics, 2006; Mazur I.I., Shapiro V.D., Olderogte N.G. Project management: textbook, manual / ed. ed. I.I. Masuria. 3rd ed. Moscow: Omega-L, 2004.

We will concentrate on only one topic: “Project approach in modern business”, since the whole topic of management design organization is too broad to be covered in one short article. This wording makes it possible to give discussions a practical focus and at the same time stimulates a conceptual approach to problems, the solution of which significantly affects the development of project activities.

Features of project management

The term "project management" refers to a relatively small range of technological subjects. However, such an interpretation significantly narrows the problem and does not allow solving important practical issues.

“Project business” is used as a generic term for a business activity based on a project-oriented approach. This includes system integration, film and video production, software development, insurance activities, exhibition organization, etc.

The electronicization of business and commerce requires a new look at the problem of project management. In short, we are talking about the fact that it is time to move from project management to supporting project activities as the most important component of business.

“Projectivization” of business. In modern business, there are a number of global trends that allow us to talk about its “projectivization”, i.e., an increase in the share and importance of activities related to the implementation of projects. The most important among them are:

transition from regulation and concentration to coordination and distribution;
reduction of the life cycle of products and services, in particular the terms of development and launch;
personalization of supply and demand, products and services.

In general, we can talk about a change in the paradigm (basic model) of business: it is beginning to be viewed as a set of interrelated projects. This approach makes it possible to adequately reflect another feature modern business when flexible behavior in a changing external environment becomes the main strategic competitive advantage. In such conditions, a departure from rigid organizational structures and management technologies is inevitable.

These trends are especially pronounced in the business connected with the Internet. Moreover, we can say that it is this area that will serve as the main consumer of new information systems for project management.

The main conclusion is that in the near future we should expect a change in the approach to building information systems for the project business, taking into account its features, based on modern system architecture, highly scalable and affordable.

Features of the project business. Now it is customary to talk about the crisis of traditional ERP-systems. However, it would be more correct to state the crisis of the general models of organization and business management, for the support of which such systems were created. With regard to the project business, the problem becomes especially acute due to some of its features:

intellectual-intensive nature of the subject area of most projects;
a small share in projects of economic activity related to tangible assets;
strong dependence of the success of projects on external conditions, primarily the behavior of the customer;
increased risks, including the risk of violation of deadlines and budget, termination or suspension of the project, unsuccessful implementation;
increased quality requirements that are constructive, that is, objectively verifiable in nature;
a high degree of individualization “for the client” and the importance of organizing “close” work with him;
a high probability of the emergence of new, previously unperformed work, for which the methodology, technology and control system are created “on the fly”;
high requirements for the qualifications of managers and performers, their high cost;
the critical importance of a corporate office system supporting communications and a knowledge base;
the special nature of budgeting, planning, control and accounting;
large unevenness in the receipt of orders, making it difficult to manage human resources;
geographical remoteness of the client;
the presence of several performers and their geographical distribution.

It should be noted that the problem of human resources (both managers and specialists) in all its aspects is of paramount importance for the project business.

Project management. The project management system must meet the following basic requirements:

focus on decision support, primarily related to the use of resources and the development of new products and services;
an effective human resource management system;
a flexible planning and accounting system that allows for regular restructuring of projects in accordance with changes in conditions and results achieved;
advanced office system (communications, knowledge bases, back office);
effective support for distributed activities;
monitoring and maintaining relationships with customers and partners.

Project approach to doing business

Let's consider conceptual practically directed approaches to the project way of doing business.

Challenge of time. The “projectivization” of modern business raises the question of modernizing traditional project management.

Examples

Classical strategic planning and classical project management have much in common in the methodology, which is of an “inventory” nature and consists in a detailed schedule of activities and work for many years to come. Classical strategic planning is now in a serious crisis. The main reason for this is the insufficient consideration of the fundamental factor - the variability of the external environment. Strategic plans have always been drawn up under the assumption of a stationary nature of the external environment with some regular trend. The question was only about the accuracy of forecasting deviations. However, now the task of creating adaptive mechanisms at the strategic level, i.e., mechanisms for early detection of opportunities/threats and their use/neutralization, comes to the fore. Accordingly, the approach to investment analysis is also changing - a gradual rejection of smooth models in favor of models with a variable structure.
The implementation of integrated ERP systems is good example project that does not quite fit into the traditional framework of the project approach. Indeed, before the start of work, it is often not known what is to be done in general in the field of rationalization of business processes and organizational change. Therefore, detailed planning is carried out only for the next stage based on the results of the previous one, taking into account the changing realities of the external and internal environment. Thus, we can talk about projects that are largely adaptive in nature.
Development projects e-business are extreme examples of projects implemented under conditions of maximum uncertainty in the external environment. It is noteworthy that even the proposed trading technologies cannot be accurately assessed in terms of their attractiveness to potential customers. In other words, projects for creating e-business systems are totally adaptive, when decisions about the structure and composition of the project have to be reviewed several times a year. To everything else, the race factor is added here in the face of fierce competition and fear of being late.

The project as a tool for creating products. This is the most common type of projects. On order, some alienable product is created, which the customer uses at his own discretion. Examples of such products are programs, design solutions, buildings, etc. Traditionally, the focus has been on design technology, and therefore on systems such as CASE, CAD, etc.

Examples

A software firm operating in Russia increased its staff from 50 to 250 people over the past year due to an increase in the number of custom developments. To improve productivity, the firm purchased Rational's integrated CASE technology. According to calculations, this should have cut the time for creating software by half. In fact, the order fulfillment cycle has not changed significantly. Moreover, I had to hire and train additional staff” managers and business analysts, as well as to involve third parties. At the same time, support costs increased significantly, and due to the geographical distribution of the company's offices, development teams and clients, communication problems arose.
AvtoVAZ has been investing millions of dollars in the automation of design and technological work for decades.
Large Russian manufacturer Rocket Researcher believes that if he were given $50 million to purchase an integrated CAD/CAM system like the one that Boeing Corporation has, he would quickly become a world leader in his segment.

The project as a market product. The project can be considered as an independent market product, which is an organizational and technological complex. In fact, we are talking about the fact that the whole range of issues related to the implementation of the project is being developed for the customer.

Examples

A telecommunications company in Boston (USA) received an order to deploy a regional integrated data transmission system worth about $ 300 million. This company turned to a specialized consulting firm to develop an organizational structure, technology and procedures for managing work, resources and quality, accounting, compiling work schedule, etc. Moreover, the consulting firm displayed its developments in some automated system support of project activities, and after the launch of the project, she took up its support.
large Russian ministry decided to modernize its information infrastructure. The technical architecture was developed, the stages of the project were carefully thought out, money was allocated, and performers were selected. But pretty soon it became clear that the program was unmanageable. It turned out that it is practically impossible to carry out a coordinated change in work plans and technical solutions within a reasonable time, as well as to change the composition of the performers. Volume project documentation entering the parent organization grew exponentially. The worst thing, however, was that no one could accurately assess the amount of work done and the degree of approximation to the desired result. At the same time, formal reports on the work done were received regularly.

The project as a business tool. If a project is understood as a form of doing business in trade and services, then a transaction is formalized as a project to which the appropriate management and accounting methods are applicable.

Examples

A rapidly growing multinational company is engaged in the following activities:

development and implementation of promotion programs for existing and new brand name products;
packaging and delivery of 300 thousand items of goods from more than 3,500 manufacturers;
development and production of goods according to custom specifications.

Customers have very strict requirements for meeting planned deadlines, which is why the company must be able to predict and accurately track the processes of manufacturing and delivering goods within the specified target dates. At the same time, a significant problem is cost management, i.e., the assessment economic efficiency of each individual order and cost control for each transaction, including the cost of purchase, manufacture, freight and transportation.

During the selection of a new ERP-system, the management realized that the company's main activities can most adequately be represented as a set of parallel, interconnected projects. This choice was significantly influenced by the presence in the system of a developed project management module, which, in combination with the modules of finance, production management and logistics, made it possible to track the cost and progress of each order.

largest Insurance Company uses modern system project management for their registration as separate transactions (including transactions with individuals), and entire insurance programs. As a result, the possibility of integrated business management is achieved, including planning and control of specific activities, cost and income assessment by programs, products, transactions, business units, target segments and agents.
A large Russian distribution company supplies world-class clothing and footwear to the market. The collection is updated every season. An order for the manufacture and supply of goods is prepared and placed one year in advance. The firm has an extensive network of regional partners involved in order formation. great attention The company pays to marketing activities. In the process of implementing a new ERP system, the company set the task of identifying project structure their activities using such decomposition features as product group, seasonality and partners. For example, for each commodity group projects for the preparation and execution of consolidated orders are singled out, followed by a breakdown by seasons and partners.

Integration of methodologies and standardization. Currently, there are many specialized methodologies developed by leading consulting and computer firms. However, the “projectivization” and “electronization” of business pose an acute problem of integrating these methodologies.

Examples

The rapid development of e-business makes us take a fresh look at methodological issues due to the following circumstances:

changing the essence of the tasks under consideration;
the need to integrate special methodologies due to the complex nature of the problems;
the need to create a “new competency” by merging heterogeneous competencies embodied in “computer” and “consulting” methodologies.

There are methodologies that naturally gravitate towards each other. For example, the CALS methodology is the basis for building a product life cycle model. At the same time, it is a platform for building a total TQM quality system. These methodologies are closely related to workflow workflow models, formal business process modeling tools, and methods for building corporate data warehouses. Within the framework of these methodologies, various kinds of standards are being developed. And all this has the most direct relation to project activity.

Project as a conceptual unit of knowledge. Knowledge management is of fundamental importance for project-oriented activities, since the main capital of such organizations is corporate experience in solving problems of a certain class. The project seems to be a convenient unit of knowledge organization, in which there are essential components of knowledge in a coherent form: problem statement, result, methods of achievement.

Examples

At the vast majority of Russian machine-building enterprises, there is no coherent and detailed description of the process of selecting, creating and putting into production a new product. It is a common disease in both civilian and military industries.
AvtoVAZ over the past ten years has lost hundreds of leading specialists - middle managers. In essence, we can talk about the loss of the potential for creating new car models. A similar situation has developed at other large engineering enterprises, where, in fact, loosely connected “tops” and “roots” remain: the tops dry out, and the roots rot, and all this leads to a general collapse.
At any large organization there are several different types of projects. For example, a software company may coexist with projects of custom development, adaptation of an existing maintenance program, etc. On any machine-building enterprise projects are necessarily carried out for the development and modernization of products, the development of new equipment, the reconstruction of buildings and infrastructure, etc.

Program approach. Formally, a program is defined as a set of interrelated projects. However, for practical application, this definition is not very constructive.

Examples

In the late 60s, the US government launched a program to create very large integrated circuits (VLSI), which gave a powerful acceleration to the development of microelectronics. The successful experience of its implementation was used in other US federal programs, the so-called strategic initiatives in various industries. In Russia, the problem of restructuring in the broad sense of the word is extremely acute: public administration, industries, enterprises.

The project as a quality assurance tool. Within the framework of the project approach, quality can be defined as obtaining the required result under given resource and time constraints.

Examples

There are numerous examples of the so-called "implementation" of ERP-systems, when the system was installed, but not used or does not give the desired result. In the United States, there have been cases of lawsuits against consulting companies that have implemented ERP systems in recipient firms, after which the latter burned out.
For each specific project, it is relatively easy to develop a set of quality assurance measures. The use of the whole complex of measures and procedures for quality management usually leads to a rise in the cost of the project by 15-30%. At the same time, the failure to manage quality at all can lead to the failure of the project.
Firm "1C" proclaimed the quality assurance of implementation projects as a strategic task of working with partners, allowing to stay on a solid competitive position.

Design organization and administrative structure. No matter how much we talk about divisional, matrix and other schemes for building an organizational structure, Russia is still dominated by a functional structure with all its grimaces towards project-oriented company management.

Examples

A Russian consulting firm has adopted a business development program related to the implementation of a fully functional integrated ERP system. It is planned to launch two large projects during the year (the implementation period is up to one and a half years), as well as several small and medium-sized projects (with the implementation period of 3-6 months). When implementing the program, it is planned to maintain the existing functional structure, focused on solving particular problems in the field of management consulting, software development, system integration. Management of each specific implementation project and its implementation is supposed to be carried out through the heads of functional departments. Because of this, the team involved in any project consists of the project manager, the general director and the executives, the heads of functional departments. The result is a very expensive pleasure: the CEO ceases to be engaged in strategy and the company as a whole, and the heads of departments play the role of simple task switches, which also introduce distortions.
In a Russian diversified company, a successfully functioning system of internal cost accounting and wages was created based on the real economic results of the activities of business units. In accordance with current trends the company is considering the possibility of introducing a project approach. Managers see the main problem in changing the financial and accounting structure and principles management accounting: business units should be replaced by projects with which plans, budgets and results will be associated in the new structure.

A new level of relations between participants. Traditionally, projects are considered in the context of customer-executor relationships. V modern conditions many (as many as dozens) of partner organizations are involved in their implementation.

Examples

The publishing house, which has large information resources, is considering the possibility of creating a trading platform for a group of vertical markets. Already at the stage of developing a business plan, it suddenly became clear that a large number of participants needed to be involved in the work (see table). At the same time, each company wants to participate in the project not only as a contractor (subcontractor), but also as an investor, relying on investment attractiveness project. Thus, a group of partners is identified in the project, claiming a certain participation in project management. This situation reflects the general trend towards the establishment of long-term partnerships related to the implementation of projects.
An analysis of the experience of successful development of companies organizing electronic trading platforms shows that one of the main success factors is the careful selection of partners capable of working without conflicts of interest. At the same time, there is a tendency to takeover partners as the business develops.

Approximate composition of participants in the creation of a trading platform on the Internet

Kind of activity	Functions in a project
consulting firm	Development of an e-business development strategy
Information and marketing agency	Marketing program development
consulting firm	Development of trading technologies
Software firm	Software selection/development
Internet Service Provider	Website hosting
recruitment agency	Selection of a management team
System integrator	Development of technical architecture, supply and deployment of equipment
Training Center	Training of users (brokers) and implementation of software for access to the trading system
Commercial Bank	Maintaining accounts of traders and crediting transactions
Processing center	Making settlements for transactions
Insurance Company	Commercial risk insurance
Forwarding company	Implementation of deliveries under concluded deals
Investment brokerage company	Preparation of the prospectus and holding the issue of shares of the management company

Project Manager. An illusion is created that with the introduction of new business management technologies, the acuteness of the personnel problem is decreasing. This fully applies to project activities, when concrete people – managers and executors – are no longer seen behind plans, methodologies, procedures.

Examples

In many Western firms, the rule is: new project considered on the condition that real opportunity find the right project manager. Often the conditions are even tougher: the project is considered only if there is a suitable person who can act as its leader. The natural explanation is this: every business must have a “motor”.
In most Russian companies, the project manager is a nominal figure, appointed according to the principle: "It is impossible without a project manager." At the same time, the project manager does not have freedom of activity, since he must coordinate all his intentions with the general director of the company (the real manager of the budget) and the heads of functional departments (the real managers of human resources). Since budgeting as a real management tool in a company often does not work, the project budget is drawn up rather formally. In such conditions, it is simply not necessary to talk about delegating authority and responsibility to the project manager.

Project-oriented CIS. The term project management is traditionally associated with network diagrams and desktop applications such as MS Project. With the help of such tools, you can describe some individual aspects. However, in modern conditions, the development of integrated models of project activities and methods for its description is relevant.
Given the trend of “projectivization” of business, it can be assumed that support for project activities should become a central element of corporate information system. This means a move away from the “ERP-centrism” that has dominated until now.

Examples

In integrated ERP systems such as Axapta, there is a more or less developed project management module, usually focused on solving project accounting and control problems. As a rule, the ability to use popular desktop project management systems is supported at the export-import level.
Powerful project support systems are appearing on the market, implemented in modern web architecture, for example, Maconomy. They contain knowledge management capabilities, detailed role-playing, and many other useful features that are not found in the design modules of ERP systems.

Thus, the electronization of business and commerce requires a new look at the problem of project management. We are talking about the need to move from project management to supporting project activities as the most important component of business.

What is project management? Comparative analysis of project and process approaches in innovation management Project approach definition.

Question 1. Essence and features of the project approach to innovation management

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Features of project management

Project approach to doing business

Popular