Useful Internet resources. Threads and weaves

cloth called a textile fabric formed by interlacing two mutually perpendicular systems of threads on a loom. The process of tissue formation is called weaving.

The system of threads located along the fabric is called the warp, the system of threads located across the fabric is called the weft.

Fabric production is carried out in three stages:

warp and weft preparation;

making fabric on a loom;

sorting out fabric.

At the first stage, the warp and weft threads are prepared for the weaving process. The preparation consists in rewinding the threads received from the spinning mill into packages that are convenient for threading into a loom.

Warp preparation consists of the following operations: rewinding, warping, sizing and threading individual threads into the details of the loom.

rewinding warp threads from spinning cobs or skeins to cylindrical or conical bobbins are carried out on winding machines. At the same time, packages of long threads are obtained, the threads are cleaned of impurities and the weak points of the threads are eliminated. Since the rewinding is carried out with a certain tension of the threads, they break in weak places. The broken ends of the threads are tied with a special weaving knot. On modern winding machines, in which the winding speed reaches 1200 m/min, the tying of broken ends is carried out automatically. After rewinding, the warp threads, wound on large bobbins, go to warping.

warping lies in the fact that the warp threads from a large number of bobbins (up to 600 or more) are wound parallel to each other with the same tension on one large spool with flanges. This reel is called the warp shaft. All warp threads wound on the warping shaft must be of the same length. The warping operation is carried out on a special warping machine. Warping speed 800 m/min. The warp threads from the warp shaft are fed to sizing.

Sizing called sizing the warp threads with a special adhesive - dressing. Sizing gives the threads smoothness and strength. This is extremely important in order to prevent warp thread breaks during the weaving process from abrasion on the loom part.

The sizing is boiled and then fed into the sizing machine. The dressing formula includes adhesive, softening, antiseptic substances, as well as wetting agents - substances that make the threads hygroscopic. Dressing formula may vary depending on the type of fabric.

The warp threads, passing under tension through the sizing machine, are processed with dressing, squeezed, dried, separated and, located parallel and at an equal distance from each other, are wound on a shaft, which is called a weaving beam. The speed of movement of the warp in the sizing machine is from 12 to 75 m/min. Weaving machines for the production of fabrics for various purposes and fibrous composition have different widths. Therefore, a weaving beam of the appropriate width is installed on the sizing machine.

Before the weaving needle is installed on the loom, it is necessary to carry out the punching and tying of the warp. Proborkoy , or weaving, the warp is called an operation in which each warp thread must be threaded in a certain order through the details of the loom: lamellas, heddle eyes and reed teeth.

Lamel - a thin metal plate with a round hole through which the warp thread is threaded. The lamellas are used to automatically stop the loom when the warp thread breaks. The number of lamellas is equal to the number of warp threads in the warp and, accordingly, the number of threads in the warp of the fabric.

The shaft frame, or shaft, is located across the entire width of the loom. It consists of two horizontal bars placed one below the other. Heddles with an eye in the middle of each of them are vertically fixed between the planks. The warp threads are threaded through the eyes of the heddle - one through each eye. Shaft frames provide the formation of a shed for laying the weft thread. The number of heald frames depends on the type of weave of the fabric and ranges from 2 to 32. The number of heddles corresponds to the number of warp threads in the pile, but the order in which the threads are threaded into the eyes of the heddle depends on the weave of the fabric.

The reed also runs the full width of the loom and consists of flat metal plates fixed vertically on two slats. The metal plates are called reed teeth. The reed is used to nail the newly laid weft thread to the previous one, as well as to ensure a uniform parallel arrangement of the warp threads during weaving. Each warp thread sequentially makes its way between the teeth of the reed.

The work of penetrating the warp threads into the holes of the lamellas, the eyes of the heddles and between the teeth of the reed is carried out on a special parting machine. The cleaning is carried out manually by two workers. The feeder feeds sequentially, one after another, the warp threads, and the parter, with a special hook, pulls all the threads from the first to the last through the details of the loom. With such an organization, 1000-2000 threads are sifted per hour.

Sweeping is carried out when refilling the loom to produce a new type of fabric or when replacing worn parts of the loom. If the same fabric is produced on the loom, then the weaving is not carried out, but the ends of the new warp from the warp are tied (attached) to the ends of the old warp. When tying the ends of the warp, knotting machines are used with a knitting speed of more than 5000 knots per hour. To start the loom, the connected knots are carefully pulled through the holes of the lamellas, the eyes of the heddles, the teeth of the reed.

There are and are used automatic machines for punching warp threads.

Preparing the weft for weaving is a simpler process, consisting in winding the threads on special wooden shuttle spools and moistening the threads.

rewinding on shuttle spools is necessary if weaving will be carried out on shuttle looms. This operation is performed on weft-winding machines at a speed of 300 m/min.

Moisturizing threads are carried out so that during the laying of the weft thread from the shuttle spool, several turns of thread are not wound at the same time, which would lead to the formation of defects on the fabric. Moistening threads of different fibrous composition is carried out in different ways. Cotton and linen yarn is kept in rooms with high humidity, woolen yarn is steamed, and silk and chemical threads are emulsified.

At the second stage, fabric is produced on a loom. From the weaving beam 1 (Fig. 10), the warp threads 2 go around the rock Z, lamellas 4 pass, heddle eyes 5 and reed teeth b. With alternate lifting and lowering of heald frames with heddles 5, the warp threads form a shed into which the weft thread 7 is laid.

Berdo 6, due to the rocking movement of the batan mechanism 8, when moving to the right, nails the weft thread to the edge of the fabric 9 and moves to the left position. The resulting fabric, bending around the breast 10 and the felt 11, is moved by the commodity regulator and wound onto the commodity roller 12. Thus, the warp, unwinding from the weaving beam, is always in a taut state.

The weft density of the fabric is changed by the commodity regulator: with an increase in the speed of winding the fabric on the commodity roller, the density of the fabric decreases.

When working out a fabric of the simplest plain weave, in which the warp and weft threads alternate through one (chintz, calico), it is necessary to have two healds. All even threads are threaded into one, and all odd threads are threaded into the other. When the loom is running, one shaft is raised and the other is lowered. In this case, all the warp threads move apart, forming a weaving shed. In this space, a shuttle with a weft spool flies under the blows of the prod. During the passage of the shuttle, the weft thread flies off the spool, which remains lying in the shed between the warp threads. The batan makes a rocking motion and, with the help of a reed, nails the laid weft thread to the edge of the fabric. After that, the healds change their position: the upper one goes down, and the lower one goes up. In this case, a new weaving shed is formed, through which the shuttle flies in the opposite direction. This is how a new weft thread is laid, which is nailed with a reed. The base is slowly unwound from the warp, the resulting fabric is wound on a commodity roller. All numerous and many-shaped movements of the working bodies of the loom are synchronized.

Depending on the degree of complexity of the weaving weave, various designs of the dovetail mechanism are used: an eccentric mechanism, a dobby dobby and a dome-lift mechanism of a jacquard machine. On eccentric machines, only plain weave fabrics are produced. Fabrics with small patterns are produced on machines with shaft-lifting carriages (up to 32 shafts), fabrics with large-patterned weaves - on jacquard machines.

According to the method of laying the weft thread, looms are divided into shuttle and shuttleless. On shuttle machines, the weft thread is laid by a shuttle. It is a wooden box with pointed ends, which have metal tips. A spool with yarn is inserted into the cavity of the shuttle, the end of which is brought out through a hole located in the side wall of the shuttle. for laying the weft thread, a special combat mechanism, with a strong blow to the metal toe of the shuttle, makes it fly from the shuttle box located on one side of the loom to the shuttle box located on the opposite side, leaving duck drink in the throat. On the machine, 220 wefts are laid in one minute, and the shuttle flies through the throat in 0.3 s.

In the production of fabric, shuttle machines with automatic bobbin change are very widely used. In addition to them, shuttleless looms are increasingly used, in which the weft thread is laid not by a shuttle, but with the help of other working bodies. There are shuttleless machines with small-sized duck plotters, rapier, nozzle, pneumorapier.

The most common of them are STB machines with small-sized weft layers. On such machines, the weft thread from large conical bobbins is laid by thread spacers. Each spacer is a small plate with a thread clip. The plotter grabs the end of the cut weft thread and moves to the zone of the combat mechanism. Under the action of this mechanism, the layer moves in the weaving shed from left to right. After insertion, the weft thread is cut off and its end is picked up by the next layerer. After laying the weft thread, the layerer is dropped onto a special conveyor and transferred to the left side of the loom. There are from 11 to 17 plotters on one machine. The ends of the cut weft threads 1.5 cm long are bent and worked into the fabric in the next shed, forming a strong edge with double density. STB machines make it possible to produce fabrics of large width, which is difficult in shuttle machines.

The advantages of shuttleless weaving are a sharp increase in labor productivity, a decrease in thread breakage, as well as a decrease in the noise level in weaving.

The production of pile fabrics is carried out on pile machines - weft pile and double-sheet self-tapping pile. Fabrics of terry structures are produced on carriage and jacquard looms with two beams (for ground and for loops). Tricot fabrics are made in which narrow strips of fabric alternate with a knitted fabric formed from weft threads. Stripes of fabric and knitwear are located across the fabric.

The sorting of fabrics produced is carried out at the final stage of their production. At the same time, the length of harsh (not finished) fabrics is measured on measuring machines, cleaning and cutting of fabrics are carried out, quality control is carried out on rejection machines, revealing weaving defects. Finally, the fabrics are laid on folding machines.

All final operations are carried out on production lines, where the harsh fabric, sewn from separate pieces, moves in a continuous stream.

End of work -

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General information about fibers. Fiber classification. Main properties of fibers and their dimensional characteristics

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Lecture 1
Introduction. Fibrous materials 1. Aims and objectives of the course "Materials Science of Sewing Production". 2. General information about

cotton fiber
Cotton is the name given to the fibers that cover the seeds of the annual cotton plant. Cotton is a heat-loving plant that consumes a large amount of moisture. Grows in hot areas. Izv

Natural fibers of animal origin
The main substance that makes up natural fibers of animal origin (wool and silk) are animal proteins synthesized in nature - keratin and fibroin. Difference in molecular structure

Natural silk
Natural silk is called the thin continuous threads secreted by the glands of silkworm caterpillars during the curling of the cocoon before pupation. The main industrial value is domesticated mulberry silk.

B. Chemical fibers
The idea of ​​creating chemical fibers found its embodiment at the end of the 19th century. thanks to the development of chemistry. The prototype of the process of obtaining chemical fibers was the formation of a silkworm thread

artificial fibers
Artificial fibers include fibers made from cellulose and its derivatives. These are viscose, triacetate, acetate fibers and their modifications. Viscose fiber is made from cellulose

Synthetic fibers
polyamide fibers. Capron fiber, which is used most widely, is obtained from processed products hard coal and oil. Under the microscope, polyamide fibers are

inorganic fibers
In addition to those already listed, there are fibers from natural inorganic compounds. They are divided into natural and chemical. Asbestos-tonkovol belongs to natural inorganic fibers.

Types of textile threads
The basic element of a fabric or knitted fabric is a thread. According to the structure, textile threads are divided into yarn, complex threads and monofilaments. These threads are called primary

Basic spinning processes
The fibrous mass of natural fibers after collection and primary processing enters the spinning mill. Here, a continuous strong thread is produced from relatively short fibers - yarn. This p

Fabric finishing
The fabrics removed from the loom are called rough fabrics or rough. They contain various impurities and impurities, have an ugly appearance and are unsuitable for the manufacture of garments.

Cotton fabrics
During cleaning and preparation, cotton fabrics are subjected to acceptance and sorting, singeing, desizing, bleaching (bleaching), mercerization, and napping. Cleaning and

linen fabrics
Cleaning and preparation of linen fabrics is usually carried out in the same way as in cotton production, but more carefully, repeating the operations several times. This is due to the fact that linen

Woolen fabrics
Woolen fabrics are divided into combed (stone) and cloth. They differ from each other in appearance. Combed fabrics are thin, with a clear pattern of weaving. Cloth - more thick

Natural silk
Cleaning and preparation of natural silk is carried out in the following order: acceptance and sorting, singeing, boiling, bleaching, revitalization of bleached fabrics. When at

Chemical fiber fabrics
Fabrics made from artificial and synthetic fibers do not have natural impurities. They can contain mainly easily washed off substances, such as dressing, soap, mineral oil, etc.

Fibrous composition of fabrics
For the manufacture of clothing, fabrics made from natural (wool, silk, cotton, linen), artificial (viscose, polynose, acetate, copper-ammonia, etc.), synthetic (lavsa

Methods for determining the fibrous composition of tissues
Organoleptic is a method in which the fibrous composition of tissues is established using the sense organs - sight, smell, touch. Evaluate the appearance of the fabric, its touch, creasing

Weaving of fabrics
The location of the warp and weft threads relative to each other, their relationship determine the structure of the fabric. It should be emphasized that the structure of fabrics is influenced by: the type and structure of the warp and weft threads of the fabric

Fabric finishing
Finishing, which gives a marketable appearance to fabrics, affects its properties such as thickness, stiffness, drape, wrinkle, breathability, water resistance, sheen, shrinkage, fire resistance

Fabric Density
Density is an essential indicator of the structure of tissues. Weight, wear resistance, air permeability, heat-shielding properties, stiffness, and drapeability of fabrics depend on density. Each of

Phases of tissue structure
When weaving, the warp and weft threads mutually bend each other, as a result of which they are arranged in waves. the degree of bending of the warp and weft threads depends on their thickness and stiffness, type of p

Fabric surface structure
Depending on the structure of the front side, the fabrics are divided into smooth, pile, pile and felted. Smooth fabrics are those that have a clear weave pattern (coarse calico, chintz, satin). In the process of

Fabric properties
Plan: Geometric properties Mechanical properties Physical properties Technological properties Fabrics made from threads and yarns of various

Geometric properties
These include the length of the fabric, its width, thickness and mass. The length of the fabric is determined by measuring it in the direction of the warp threads. When laying the fabric before cutting, the length of the piece

Mechanical properties
During the operation of clothing, as well as during the processing of fabrics, they undergo a variety of mechanical influences. Under these influences, tissues stretch, bend, and experience friction.

Physical properties
The physical properties of tissues are divided into hygienic, heat-shielding, optical and electrical. Hygienic is considered to be the properties of tissues that significantly affect whom

Fabric wear resistance
The wear resistance of fabrics is characterized by their ability to withstand destructive factors. In the process of using garments, they are affected by light, sun, moisture, stretching, compression, torsion.

Technological properties of fabrics
In the process of production and during the operation of clothing, such properties of fabrics are manifested, which must be taken into account when designing clothing. These properties significantly affect the technological

Gasket materials
5. Adhesive materials. 1. RANGE OF FABRICS According to the type of raw materials, the entire range of fabrics is divided into cotton, linen, wool and silk. The silk ones are

Adhesive materials
A semi-rigid interlining fabric with a dotted polyethylene coating is a cotton fabric (coarse calico or madapolam) coated on one side with high pressure polyethylene powder

The choice of materials for a garment
In the production of garments, a variety of materials are used: fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics, duplicated, film materials, natural and artificial fur, natural and art

Product quality
In the manufacture of clothing and other garments, fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics, film materials, artificial leather and fur are used. The totality of these materials is called an assortment

The quality of clothing materials
to make good clothes, you need to use high quality materials. What is quality? The quality of a product is understood as a combination of properties that characterize the degree of suitability

Grade of materials
All materials at the final stage of production are subject to control. At the same time, the quality level of the material is assessed and the grade of each piece is established. Grade refers to the gradation of product quality.

Fabric grade
Of great importance is the determination of the grade of fabrics. The grade of fabric is determined by a complex method for assessing the level of quality. At the same time, deviations of indicators of physical and mechanical properties from the norms,

Defects in the appearance of tissues
defect Type of defect Description Stage of production at which the defect arises Zaso

The fabric at all times remains the product of the light industry, which does not lose its use. The fabric is produced by a weaving factory. Its organization will require the purchase or rental of premises sufficient to install a whole line of production equipment.

Fundamentals of fabric production

Fabric is made from yarn, which in turn is made from fiber. The quality of the resulting fabric is highly dependent on the characteristics of the fibers.

Fibers are divided into natural and chemical, originating from natural raw materials or obtained as a result of chemical synthesis, for example, polymer fibers.

The whole technology is conditionally divided into three stages:

• Spinning;
• Weaving;
• Finishing.

Spinning

The basis of textile production is spinning. This is a process that results in a long thread - a yarn woven from short fibers. This production process is carried out on a spinning machine.

The fibers produced by the factory are usually compressed into small bales. Then they are loosened and shaken on the appropriate machines, while simultaneously being cleaned of debris. The scutching machine produces a canvas from the threads, which is rolled up.

The resulting web is then passed through scratching surfaces covered with fine metal needles. At the exit, after carding, a tape is obtained, which must be aligned on a draw frame, and then slightly twisted on a roving and twisting machine. After these operations, a roving is obtained.

On a spinning machine, the roving is leveled and pulled out, then wound onto bobbins. The spinning machine for the production of fabrics is operated by spinners. Their duties include repairing yarn and roving breaks, changing bobbins and maintaining equipment.

Made from yarn:

• jersey;
• sewing threads;
• non-woven and woven materials.

Synthetic yarn

For synthetic fabric production, a more complex technological scheme is used. Liquid and viscous spinning mass is obtained from the initial components. It enters a spinning machine designed specifically for processing synthetic fibres.

The fibers are formed using special spinnerets - this is a small cap made of metal, inside of which there are many small holes. With the help of pumps, the mass enters the die and flows out through small holes. The flowing streams are treated with special solutions for solidification.

The creation of a synthetic fiber is at the same time the spinning of this fiber. Depending on what the fabric is intended for and what quality is required, the number of threads twisted into one is calculated. After finishing, the threads are wound on bobbins and sent to weaving.

Weaving

The direct process of producing fabric from yarn is called weaving. The equipment for production at this stage is serviced by weavers who can service up to fifty automatic looms.

On a mechanical type machine, the weaver replaces empty spools, eliminates thread breaks. The employee must know the requirements for the quality of the fabric, the parameters of the defective fabric and the causes of the marriage, the measures to prevent and eliminate the marriage. When the weaver has started the loom, it begins to combine yarn into a woven fabric, which is the output.

Threads and weaves

There are transverse and lobar threads intertwined in different ways. Shared threads are directed along the canvases, as they are thinner and stronger. The transverse threads are thicker, shorter, tend to stretch.

The fabric obtained on a loom is called gray. Threads woven from fibers of different colors are called melange. A fabric made of melange threads is called similarly. But if threads with different colors were used to produce a woven fabric, the fabric is called multicolored.

The properties of the future fabric depend on the type of weave:

• Large-patterned weave - jacquard;
• Complex weave - pile, pique, openwork, loop, double;
• Simply weave - twill, satin, plain, satin, crepe and diagonal.

Finely patterned weaves are made on a single-shuttle automatic loom. Multi-colored and complex weaves - on a multi-shuttle automatic weaving machine, large-patterned - on Jacquard looms.

How fabric is made

Fabric finishing

Finishing is the last stage of production. It improves the quality and properties of the fabric, gives it a marketable appearance and strength, depending on what processes the finishing implies.

Finishing can be done:

• napping;
• bleaching;
• mercerization;
• singeing;
• boiling.

When singeing, protruding fibers are removed from the surface of a harsh canvas. Desizing involves soaking the fabric to remove dressing - impregnation applied during weaving.

Boiling removes any impurities from the canvas, and mercerization adds shine, strength and hygroscopicity by washing. When bleaching, the canvas is discolored, and when piled, it is given softness.

Final finishing

The final finishing includes such processes as:

• calendering;
• broadening;
• dressing.

Calendering involves smoothing the canvas, broadening - aligning it to a standard width, dressing - applying starch for density, whiteness for bleaching, or wax or oil for shine.

Equipment

Fabric production requires a fairly rich production line. Consider the main types of production equipment, without which the manufacture of woven products cannot be launched.

Loom

Designed for the manufacture of woven fabric, it can be shuttleless and shuttle, round and flat, wide and narrow. Weaving looms are selected depending on what kind of fabric needs to be produced: linen, silk, cotton or wool.

Special equipment for working with a loom that produces decorative and patterned fabrics, carpets and other carpet products.

sizing machine

Impregnates fabrics with a sticky solution called dressing. This is necessary for the production of wear-resistant and special fabrics, for example, for workwear.

rolling machine

It is used to roll the resulting fabric into a roll or reel using an automatically rotating roller. A properly maintained winder works more efficiently than manual winding of the fabric by weavers, especially on a production scale.

Dye line and printing machines

Allows you to dye fabrics with natural or synthetic dyes. The printing machine applies color prints with paint or dissolves the screen design on the finished dyed fabric.

Washing and measuring machines

The washing machine washes and dries the woven fabrics after printing or dyeing, and the measuring equipment is used to check the quality of the finished woven product, its length, width, density.

Scutching and cleaning and shaking machines

Used in the processing of flax fiber to obtain shorter fibers. Shaking machines loosen the short fiber and give it a marketable appearance.

Carding and spinning machines

The carding machine processes the flax fiber and makes ribbons out of it, and the spinning machine makes it possible to obtain yarn with the required strength. The spinning machine can be spindle or spindleless, the first, in turn, is divided into weft and main.

This is just the main line of equipment, you may also need:

• flax cottoning lines;
• scutching machines;
• squeezing and drying machines;
• wool washing and cotton processing devices.

It depends on the direction of the enterprise.

Video: Cotton, linen, hemp - features of the production of natural fabrics

Weaving

T. production embraces a set of operations assigned to turn yarn (see) into a harsh (unfinished) fabric, the required appearance from which is achieved already in further finishing processes (see the corresponding article). The central process of textile production is weaving on a loom. To bring the yarn into a form convenient for weaving over it, a number of preparatory operations are required: unwinding, warping, sizing, punching - for the warp, unwinding and steaming - for the weft. Finally, the already woven fabric is subjected to some simple operations before leaving the weaving factory: acceptance, that is, inspection, measurement and laying. Despite the rapid growth of mechanical weaving, manual production, which has the advantages of simplicity and cheapness of the device, still retains a significant area of ​​​​application not only in the peasant, handicraft industry, but also in factory production, especially intricately patterned fabrics from valuable material, where the first plan is the perfection of production. Both in this and in other production, the processes and mechanisms used are the same in principle and in the arrangement of the main organs, differing only in details - depending on the method of setting these organs in motion. The entire plan of preparatory operations is determined by the device of the machine tool and the method of working on it. Fig. 1 (table. I) is a schematic longitudinal section of the machine with its main parts. Warp threads (see), wound on a shaft ( beam) a, placed in the bearings of the machine, twist from it and go in the form of a horizontal web. Each of the threads is individually threaded (pulled through) through a loop ( gallyu, or peephole) tied to the slats of a frame called shaft, which can rise or fall in a certain sequence. When lifting some (at least one) shafts and when lowering the rest and the thread - some rise, others fall, as indicated by the arrows b, b, so that a dihedral angle is formed between them, called pharynx. Thrown into the cavity of the pharynx shuttle to, enclosing a spool with a weft thread, which, unwinding from the spool, remains in the throat, located above one and under the other warp threads. Then the healds come to their original position, and the warp threads are combined in one plane, and the movable comb ( bird) G, enclosed in a swinging frame ( battan), nails the thrown weft to the previously laid weft threads. Formed tissue, bending around the breast d, gradually wound on the shaft e (typesetting or commodity beam). In order for the work to proceed correctly, a certain constant tension is attached to the warp threads. From this brief overview, it can be seen that the warp for placing on the T. the loom should be wound on the beam, and the ducks on a spool of such a shape that it can be conveniently placed in the shuttle. In addition, due to impacts, strong tension and friction on the eyes of the shafts and the teeth of the reed, which the main threads are exposed to, they must be given special strength and smoothness during weaving, while the weft threads should be deprived of the desire to twist and form loops, reducing the elasticity of their fibers. Achieving all these goals is the task preparatory operations:

Foundation preparation(see Warp, warping,) consists in sequentially winding a certain number of threads of the required length on a common shaft (navoi) placed on a T. machine; in view of the practical goals - less loss of time for stops, achieving uniformity in the length and diameter of the coiled beam, eliminating gaps, etc. - winding is carried out gradually. First, rewind (manually or mechanically) yarn from skeins or cobs to warping spools large volume (unwinding), from these already coils a certain number of ends of the threads are connected to a common large coil (navoi). In manual production, this operation is carried out gradually, connecting no more than 20-40 threads at once and winding them on a large standing reel ( ram v. I, fig. 2). In mechanical weaving, a more significant number of threads is immediately wound on the warping beam (1/5 to 1/8 of the total number of threads in the fabric, determined by multiplying the width of the fabric by its warp density). The proper number of warping beams is then rewound onto one common weaving beam. At the same time, in mechanical weaving, sizing or sizing is carried out over threads from all materials except silk, with the aim of increasing the strength of the threads. The action of sizing is that the individual fibers are glued together, which increases the natural torsion (see Yarn) adhesion between them. In addition, the ends of the fibers stick to the thread, which from this receives a smoothness that reduces its friction when passing through the shaft eyes and reed teeth. The sizing machine is equipped with a tank in which dressing is poured (for cotton and flax - potato starch mixed with lard, glycerin and other substances, for wool - skin glue); the warp threads, twisted from warping beams, are immersed in a tank, then strongly squeezed between cylinders, dried, passing through steam-heated drums or between hot pipes, and finally wound onto a weaving beam. In manual weaving, sizing is carried out either in a special tank, where, after removing from the ram, batches of warps woven into a bundle are lowered by hand, which are then squeezed out by pulling through a ring or directly on the T. loom, gradually, as the warp works. The latter method has the major drawback that it delays the work of the weaver until the dressing dries, to speed up which sometimes a brazier with coals is placed under the loom, which is dangerous both in fire and sanitary terms. Often now warping and sizing is carried out mechanically in spinning mills, and the hand weaver receives a ready-made warp. The slashed base enters the parting section, where its threads are threaded into the eyes of the shafts and into the reed. This work is always done by hand by two workers, usually women. For probing, the beam with the base is suspended or strengthened on special supports so that the ends of the threads hang down from it. Shafts are hung under the beam in the position they will occupy in the machine, and the reed is located horizontally. On both sides there are two female workers (m. I, fig. 3). The main one (the parting lady) sits in front of the shaft and is armed with a parting hook, which she, in a certain order, puts through the eye of one or another shaft. At this time, her assistant (server), sitting behind, takes each warp thread in turn and puts it on a hook, which the parting lady then drags back with the captured thread. At the same time, the parting lady threads several threads into each gap between the teeth of the reed ("two, three per tooth"). The punched warp is already transferred to the T. loom, where the healds are hung in their places, the reed is strengthened in the battan, and the ends of the warp threads are tied to the typesetting shaft.

duck preparation much easier basics. Often already from the spinning machine, the weft yarn is wound in the form of a cob (see the corresponding article), or a spool, ready for insertion into the shuttle. But sometimes it is necessary to rewind the weft yarn onto spools if it is obtained, for example, in skeins from dyeing or on spools that do not fit the size of the hook. To destroy the tendency of the duck to curl, it is subjected to moisture: steamed in steam chambers, soaked in water, poured from a watering can or laid out spools between wet canvases.

It has already been stated above that each loom must have 1) a device for placing the T. navoi, 2) a type-setting shaft for winding the finished fabric, 3) an apparatus for forming a shed, 4) a shuttle for throwing the weft and 5) a battan for nailing it. The difference in the design of these parts in a manual and mechanical loom occurs mainly because in a manual loom these parts are set in motion with a comparatively small speed by the hands or feet of the weaver, while in a mechanical loom they move from one main shaft of the loom, which receives its movement. from the drive of the factory, and, moreover, with quite significant speeds. Let us first consider the simpler device of a manual machine tool.

Device manual T. machine is shown in t. I fig. 4. The abutment, or bed, of the machine consists of racks a, longitudinal bars b and crossbars With to which all other parts of the machine are attached. To support the base and the formed tissue and to gradually move them longitudinally, navoi: weaving d- for the base and type-setting, or commodity, g- for fabric. Both are placed on their respective supports. For the gradual advancement of the fabric as it is formed in the described machine, the simplest device was used: a handle k with ratchet l on the set shaft. The weaver turns the crank from time to time and winds the fabric around the shaft. g, and since the tension of the entire base increases from this, he, acting with a cord m on a doggy i, momentarily releases the ratchet i, which allows you to d turn around a little and lower some length of the base. Uniform warp tension is essential for evenness and good looking fabrics. Meanwhile, with the described method of moving the fabric, the tension of the warp changes in jumps. To remedy this shortcoming, the regulator for stacking and brake for weaving (vol. I, fig. 5). The type regulator consists of several pairs of gears, of which l mounted on a type-setting shaft, a h sits on the same axis with the ratchet g 2 that turns pawl g 1 seated on a rocker f tied with lace e with machine battan (see below). Consequently, with each swing of the battan, i.e., with the insertion of each weft thread, the tying shaft will turn at a small constant angle, which is why the fabric itself is fed evenly. The uniform tension of the warp is achieved by braking T. beam d tape b and cargo d 0 , moving which on the lever With tension can be adjusted as desired. Shaft e, enveloped by the base, is called rock, and a round bar f 0 , along which the fabric goes, - breast. Raising the warp threads, or throat formation, produced by shaft apparatus consisting of remise and from a device for lifting them. The remise consists of two slats, or flank, a 1 and a 2 (p. I, fig. 6), between which threads are stretched ( nitchenki, or faces), attached to the eyes - wire, filament or glass oblong rings, into which the warp threads are threaded. The lower flanks are tied with laces footboards p 1 and R 2 well top straps v 1 and v 2 with roller u(vol. I, fig. 7). When the weaver steps on one of the steps with his foot, the shaft associated with it falls, lowering the warp threads threaded into it, while the other shaft rises, raising the corresponding threads. Thus, the entire base is divided into two parts, separated by a gap (mouth), through which it can be thrown shuttle with duck. The number of shafts, the order of threading (drilling) the main threads in them and the order of raising and lowering them depend on the weave of the fabric, about which - see below. Shown here is the simplest shaft arrangement adapted for the manufacture of plain weave. After the weft has been passed, the shafts return again to their previous position, in which all the threads are aligned in one plane (Fig. 8). A pharynx formed in the described manner, i.e. when some threads rise and others fall, is called complete. If some threads rise, while others remain in a horizontal plane, then the shed is called top, and back, lower the pharynx is formed by lowering some threads while the rest are motionless. The shuttle, used for weft threading, has the shape of an oblong rectangular wooden box with pointed ends. Inside it there is an oblong cavity, inside which a spool or a weft yarn is placed on a special spindle. The end of the thread, bending around the guide hook (Fig. 9), exits through the hole in the wall of the shuttle. The shuttle, during its movement in the throat, is directed slime, which is part of battan. The latter has the following device. On the top of the machine b(figs. 4 and 10) a bar is laid q so that he can swing on them. Two blades, to which the bottom beam of the battan is attached below t. In addition, another bar is put on the blades of the battan s, called apex, which can be fixed at any height. The top is provided with a groove from below, which corresponds to the same groove on the upper plane of the lower bar. Inserted into these slots bird, representing a genus of a closed comb formed from flat wire teeth, attached at both ends to two planks of circular cross section. Warp threads are threaded between the teeth of the reed. Simultaneously with the formation of the pharynx, the weaver removes the battan from himself with his hand, placing it in the position indicated in Fig. 7; at the same time, the lower threads of the shed lie on the upper surface of the lower bar t battan. This surface is a strictly regular plane, usually slightly inclined towards the reed; it is called slime. Thus, the shuttle in its flight slides along the warp threads, lowered during the formation of the pharynx and supported by the slip. In order for the shuttle to experience less friction, it is often provided with rollers (Fig. 9). As for the method of hooking the shuttle, in the simplest machines, the butt of which is shown in Fig. 10, this is done directly by the hand of the worker, right and left alternately. But due to the impracticality of this method, it is more often used aircraft a shuttle, for which the battan has a slightly different device (p. I, fig. 12). Its lower bar t extended on both sides and equipped at the ends with boxes for placing the shuttle. The box consists of two walls (Fig. 11), equipped with internal grooves f 1 in which moves racing, consisting of a plank with a process T, pasted over with leather on the side that touches the shuttle (its end is shown by a dotted line in Fig. 11). Lace tied to the race X. The laces from both boxes are connected into one bypass roller Z and ending with a handle H. The shuttle, flying into the box (left in Fig. 12), takes the races to its extreme position. Pulling on the handle, the weaver inflicts a race, and through it to the shuttle, such a blow from which the shuttle flies along the slide, falling into another box. The plane significantly speeds up the work of the weaver. When the shuttle is thrown, the weaver lowers the shed and forcefully pulls the battan towards him, bringing it into the position shown in fig. 8. At the same time, the teeth of the reed, sliding between the warp threads, move the thrown weft thread and press it against the previously laid threads. It is called surf. The described procedure, when the surf occurs already with the mouth closed, is called surf with a spade. work and without spade, nailing even with the open (open) pharynx. In the first case, a denser fabric is obtained than in the second. The weft density of the fabric depends on the impact force during the surf. Having made the surf, the weaver presses on the other step, forming the next pharynx, and with his hands he takes away the battan, with the other he makes a throw. If there is no regulator, then from time to time the weaver must stop to pick up the fabric and release the warp. But even with the use of the regulator, the weaver will not make more than 60 beats per minute.

Mechanical T. machine. The attempts of Leonardo da Vinci (XV century), de Jennes (XVII century), Vaucanson (1747) are known, but only at the end of the XVIII century. comparative success fell to Cartwright in England and, independently, to Geoffrey in Scotland. Success was ensured only when the machine was equipped with devices that prevent damage to the goods when the shuttle falls short and when the weft breaks. In 1830, machine tools were already making up to 100 beats per minute, but at present they are doing more than 200. To give greater stability, mechanical machines are made mainly of cast iron and iron, and only a few of their (mainly moving) parts are made of wood. Fig. 13 (vol. I) is a section of the main parts of one of the simplest mechanical machines. Bearings of two shafts are reinforced on cast-iron beds: the upper one - w 1 receiving rotation from the drive, and lower - w 2 , receiving rotation from the top using gears z 1 and z 2 . The upper shaft is equipped with two knees r transmitting through connecting rods R battanu rocking motion a. Here, the swing point of the battan is located at the bottom of it. Bottom bar of battan l provided with slime b; apex d holds a bardo. Just like in a manual machine, there are: k- T. navoi, b 1 - rock, b 2 - chest, z- type-setting bow, x- two (or more) bars, called prices and serving for the correct distribution of the main threads and easy search for broken ones. Shafts are raised and lowered using two (or more) criminal eccentrics e 1 and e 2 , wedged on the bottom shaft w 2, which, in the case of two eccentrics, makes half the revolutions than the shaft w. Eccentrics act on levers (pegs) t 1 and t 2, to which the lower flanks of shafts are already tied s 1 and s 2. The greatest features are the method of transferring the shuttle. Different machines with lower and with top(side) fight. The lower device (for one side of the battan) is shown in Table. II, fig. 15. The bottom bar of the battan is equipped with two boxes in which the races move t, having the shape of a parallelepiped, pressed from leather, with a slot into which the upper end of the wooden prod enters s, swinging on a hinge, fixed at the lower end of the battan blade. Spring f pulls the prod outward. On the lower shaft w machine fitted with two impact eccentrics e(at an angle of 180° to each other) acting on the crank arm r, the other, longer arm of which h tied with a belt z with a pusher, which, when pressed e on the r quickly deviates to the right (according to the drawing) and race t strikes the shuttle. The device of the upper fight, usually used in the weaving of light and narrow fabrics, is shown in vol. II, fig. 16. Here racing t tied with a belt z with a pusher located in a horizontal plane and fixed on a vertical axis a, on the lower roller of which r kicked with a toe n eccentric e. On the table II, fig. 14 shows a rear view of a mechanical T. machine with a lower fight. The warp is usually advanced by the regulator already described above, and the tension is achieved by braking the T. of the beam. In this case, such devices are used in which neither the feed rate nor the tension value depend on changes in the diameters of the beams. Other feed and tension devices are used much less frequently. So, feed regulators of the 2nd kind (passive) are used, acting depending on the formation of the fabric, i.e., on the number and thickness of the weft threads thrown over. Regardless of this, instead of braking the T. of the beam, sometimes a direct tension of the base is used, which is forced to go around the roller (rock), loaded at the ends with springs, the tension of which is transferred to the base. All these devices, witty in concept, are used, however, quite rarely due to their complexity. To prevent the weft threads from pulling the fabric across the width, apply spreaders. In hand weaving, a spreader is a wooden ruler, equipped at the ends with a row of needles stuck into the fabric (vol. II, fig. 17). Its length can be arbitrarily changed. Mechanical machines for the same purpose are supplied with the so-called. spatulas on both sides of the fabric, near the place of the surf. Shparutki consist of rollers a(v. II, fig. 18), around which the plates rotate s sectoral section, directed so that during rotation they, in addition, move forward and back along the roller. The plates are equipped with points that enter the fabric, which, during its movement, causes these plates to rotate. Due to their translational lateral movement, these plates act on the fabric from both sides in a tensile manner. For the rocking movement of the battan, the above-described transmission by connecting rods is most often used. But there are also other, more complex devices for this transmission, with the aim of achieving a stop of the battan at the time when the shuttle is flying over. This is especially important for very wide machines. The necessary auxiliary organs of a mechanical machine tool are the so-called. circuit breakers- weft and shuttle, which automatically stop the machine when the weft thread breaks and when the shuttle does not reach the opposite box. These devices greatly facilitate the supervision of the operation of the machine. The weft guard has the following device (vol. II, fig. 19). Pulleys are mounted on the upper shaft of the machine l- idle and m- worker, on which the belt n translated with a fork k mounted on the lever i, the other end of which is connected to a spring g. The spring tends to bend in the direction of the arrow and transfer the belt to an idle pulley, but this is prevented by the handle f springs in a socket p notch h available in the chest of the machine. A lever is placed on the chest e, resting on the handle f and supporting a special process on which the fork swings b. The fork is a lever, the left shoulder of which consists of 3 curved teeth, while the right, heavier one, has the shape of a hook. The battan also has several teeth corresponding to the gaps between the teeth of the fork, so that they can freely pass each other during the surf. But if a weft thread gets between the teeth of the battan and the fork, then it does not pass the teeth of the fork between the teeth of the battan, causing the fork to deviate and raising the hook-shaped end of the latter. At this time, the stepped end of the lever passes under the hook. With, driven by an eccentric ( cucumber) of the lower shaft. So, in the presence of a weft thread, the hook rises and does not touch the ledge of the lever With. If the thread breaks, then the hook of the fork will drop and hook on the ledge, by the action of which the entire lever e move in the direction of the arrow o, push out of the nest p the end f springs and thus stop the machine. With the same spring g are in communication and shuttle fuses having the form or castle acting on the handle f when the shuttle did not hit the box, or folding reed, acting when the shuttle is stuck in the throat. Often both of these types are arranged together. The latest designers (Northrop) go much further in the design of self-acting fuses. So, in this system, when the weft thread breaks (or at the end of the weft cob), the machine automatically, without stopping work, replaces the broken spool with a new one from the stock (revolver) available on the machine. According to American data, one worker can service up to 12 of these machines. They do not yet spread in our country, requiring stronger than usual weft and warp yarn.

A significant difference in the design of machine tools is caused by one or another system of the apparatus that produces the throat. The design of the apparatus is closely dependent on the type of weave of the fabric produced on the machine. The department of textile art that studies the methods of making fabrics of various weaves on textile machines is called weaving drawing. It contains a description of how to transfer a given sample or a given pattern (drawn) to the fabric, i.e., determine the appropriate weave, then how to thread the machine along this weave. According to the complexity of the pattern, T. drawing is divided into two sections: heddle drawing, which concerns simple and uncomplicatedly patterned fabrics, and jacquard drawing, which has complexly patterned fabrics as its subject (see Fabrics and Interlacing of threads in fabrics).

In the above article on weaves, the concept of their main types and the way they are indicated on checkered paper was given. Recall now that the characteristic of the pattern is rapport- a rectangle drawn on checkered paper, depicting such an arrangement of weft and main overlaps, which is repeated in the fabric an indefinite number of times, both in width and in length. The number of warp threads included in this rectangle is called the rapport of the warp, and the number of weft threads is called the rapport of the duck. The more complex the pattern, the greater its rapport, so that, finally, there are fabrics that consist of one main rapport over their entire width (furniture fabrics, curtains, etc.). The first task of T. drawing is to transfer the pattern to checkered paper, which is not difficult for smooth and uncomplicatedly patterned fabrics; the placement of overlaps in these fabrics is subject to certain rules (see the corresponding article), while the weave of a given sample is determined by the analysis of the fabric (ib.). This matter becomes more difficult with jacquard drawing, when a drawn pattern is given for execution on fabric and it is required to transfer it as accurately as possible onto checkered paper. Here we must try to replace the curved lines of the drawing with the most suitable broken lines of squares. Thus, shown in Fig. 1 - the curved line is replaced on the checkered paper shown in Fig. 2 by a sequence of squares that only approximately reproduces the shape of the given curve.

Another difficulty that comes with this comes from the difference in the density of the fabric in the warp and weft. On ordinary checkered paper with square cells, 10 longitudinal strips, corresponding to 10 warp threads, take up as much space in width as 10 transverse strips, corresponding to 10 weft threads, take up space in length. In a fabric, it can happen that 10 weft threads take up less or more space than 10 warp threads, and as a result, the pattern will turn out to be distorted: elongated or flattened. To avoid this, special paper is used, cut in length and width according to the ratio of densities in the intended fabric. So, if, for example, the density of the fabric is assumed to be 40 for the warp, and 50 for the weft, then the paper must also be taken such that the cell sizes are related as 5:4. The second task of T. drawing is to determine the dressing of the machine for a given fabric, that is, to determine the number of shafts necessary for the manufacture of a given weave, the order in which the warp threads are punched in them, the order in which the shafts are connected to the steps (in manual machines) and, finally, order of lifting and lowering shafts (drawing through). All these issues are resolved according to this rapport of the fabric. Number of shafts determined by the base rapport. Any weave can be reproduced on the T. loom, taking the number of shafts equal to the rapport of the warp of the fabric. Indeed, from the very definition of rapport, it follows that any warp thread in the fabric rises and falls in the same sequence as one of the threads of the first rapport. Therefore, if we n different threads of rapport will go through n different shafts, then we can slip each next warp thread into the same shaft where the rapport thread corresponding to it is threaded. In this way, ( n+1)-I am the thread will be threaded into the same shaft as 1 -I am, (n+ 2)-I am- same as 2 -I am etc.; finally threads (2 n+ 1)-I am, (3n+ 1)-I am etc. all can be pulled into the same shaft as 1 -I am, since they all repeat the same pattern when weaving, simultaneously rising and falling. If within the same rapport there are main threads that overlap all the time in exactly the same way, then, of course, they can be slipped into the same shaft, reducing their number. Having determined the number of shafts, choose the order in which the warp threads are inserted into them. Normal pulling order, straight: 1st thread (from left to right of the weaver) sneaks into the 1st shaft (behind), 2nd into the 2nd, 3rd into the 3rd, etc. The most convenient designation plugs (plug drawing) is shown in the figures. 3, 4, 5 and 6. On the continuation of the stripes corresponding to the warp threads, they are marked with the numbers 1, 2 ..., counting from top to bottom, that is, from back to front, the number of horizontal stripes equal to the number of shafts. The insertion of a known thread into a known shaft is indicated by the fact that a dot, circle, cross or some other sign is placed in the square at the intersection of the corresponding vertical and horizontal stripes. In FIG. 3 shown straight probing.

In FIG. 4 . - satin cork; in fig. 5 - cork, resulting in the presence in the rapport of equally overlapping warp threads; in fig. 6 - the same, and the pattern is symmetrical with respect to the 1st and 6th threads.

The resulting blockage is called consolidated. Having chosen the probing, it remains to designate the order of appearance of shafts, which is already completely determined by the previous data. To do this, on the continuation of the horizontal stripes corresponding to the shafts, we mark the number of vertical stripes equal to the duck repeat, counting the strips from right to left. Then paying attention to this weave and noticing that in order to obtain the main overlap on a known weft thread, it is necessary to raise the corresponding shaft, we trace successively all the weft threads of the rapport, counting them from bottom to top, and determine which shafts should be raised when passing each weft thread. On the vertical strips we have taken, we put a conventional sign (a dot, a cross, etc.) against those shafts that must be raised when passing the corresponding weft thread. Received tread drawing shaft and represents the solution of the problem. Guided by him, we install a mechanism that raises the shafts so that the lifting occurs in the order required for each shaft. So, with an increase in the rapport of the fabric, the number of shafts also increases, and at the same time, the entire device for lifting them becomes more complicated. Manual machines for several shafts (multiple shafts) are usually arranged according to the system countermarches(vol. II, f. 20). Each shaft below is tied to a countermarch b, and from above to crane ed laced with a countermarch With. Under the countermarches placed the number of steps a, corresponding to the weft repeat and the number of vertical stripes in the tread pattern. Guided by the latter, each footboard connects with lifting countermarches With those shafts that must be raised for a given pharynx, and with counter marches b(drop) of the remaining shafts. The specified lacing is assigned to obtain a full pharynx. With appropriate changes, it can be obtained both upper and lower pharynx. Sometimes the number of steps can be reduced against the duck rapport. Thus, in the weave shown in Fig. 6, instead of 10, you can get by with 6 steps, stepping after the 6th again on the 5th, 4th, etc. in the order indicated by the second line of numbers. With further increase in rapport, the number of steps also increases, and it becomes more and more difficult for the weaver to remember the order in which they appear. In such cases, it already applies armor(Plate II, fig. 21), which constitutes the transition to the Jacquard mechanism. In the armour, each shaft is tied to two hooks a 1 and a 2, producing: one - lifting, the other - lowering it. Lifting bar (knife) m can take only one hook with her, depending on which one is pulled over her with a needle n. This needle is moved horizontally by means of a device identical to that of the Jacquard machine (see below). With the number of shafts greater than 32, one has to move on to the mentioned machine. In multi-shaft mechanical machines, the mechanisms described in Art. Searching mechanism (see). They may look like or transgressive eccentrics corresponding to the steps of manual machines, or patron Woodcroft, representing a modified eccentric, or, finally, busting carriage, corresponding to the armure of the manual machine. The use of sorting mechanisms is limited to the number of shafts at most 40, with a larger main rapport giving way to a jacquard machine. Device idea jacquard machines next. As the main rapport of the fabric increases and, consequently, the number of shafts, the number of threads made into each shaft decreases and finally reaches one. But in this case, the flank arrangement of the shaft becomes redundant, and the latter can be replaced simply by an eye tied to the thread ( face), connected by its other end to a lifting hook. A similar device is shown in vol. II, fig. 22. Faces h with an eye through which the thread is threaded k, tied up through arcade threads s to the hook p, and from below it is loaded with a weight ( pendant) i. The hook is bent from iron wire (sometimes, however, there are also wooden ones) and consists of two parts of unequal length, each ending in a bend. The lower bend of the hook rests on the frame b, supporting all hooks in the same plane. Below the top fold is knife m able to rise and fall. About the middle of its length, the hook is covered with a loop curved on a horizontal needle. n. This loop freely allows the hook to rise, but when the needle moves to the left, it also deflects the hook, putting it in the position shown by the dotted line. In this position of the hook knife m, rising up, passes him; on the contrary, when the hook is not deflected, it is caught by the knife and raises the eyelet with the appropriate thread. So, raising or lowering the thread depends on whether the corresponding needle remains in place. n or lean to the left. This deviation is produced by the fact that a square roller is advancing on the needles on the right With, in which a corresponding recess is made against each needle. This roller is wrapped around by an endless chain l 1 card plates ( kart) tied with laces. The size of each card corresponds to the side face of the roller, so that when the roller is pushed over the needles, the card is just laid between the needles and the roller, pressing all the needles to the left, except for those against which there will be holes in it. So, only those hooks will rise, against the needles of which holes will be punched in the card. The general arrangement of the jacquard carriage is shown in Fig. 23. Hooks in the number 100, 200, 300 .... up to 1000 (rarely more) are arranged in several vertical rows. Each row has its own horizontal row of needles. The needles are supported on the right by a perforated needle board m, left - board n in which the springs rest g (f in fig. 22), squeezing the needles to the right after the action of the roller has passed. Knives d the number corresponds to the number of rows of hooks. They are all connected by a common frame With, which is raised by the action of levers connected to the footrest M(Fig. 24). The movement of the roller to the right and left is obtained from the roller p(Fig. 23), connected to the lifting frame With. This roller, acting when lifting on a curved spring k, deflects the swinging frame to the right h, in which the roller is reinforced with its trunnions. At the same time, one of the levers l, touching the corner of the roller with its ledge, rotates it by 90 °, and the next card turns to the needle board. Fig. 24 gives the general location of the carriage on the machine and the way it is supported and guided. cardboard(set of all cards) at work. In FIG. 25 shows the method of tying cards in cardboard and the location of the holes on the cards. Black circles correspond to holes, white circles to solid places abutting the needle. The binding of faces with hooks is carried out in such a way that the first warp threads are connected in turn with the first hooks (to the left, counting from the roller, Fig. 23), corresponding to the first needles in each horizontal row. So, with 4, for example, rows, the first 4 threads of the warp correspond to the first 4 circles on the cards (see card I in Fig. 25), the following 4 threads: 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th - correspond to the second circles of each row, etc. To facilitate punching holes on the cards, the weave pattern is made on such paper, the small cells of which are divided by thicker lines into groups containing as many cells (in width) as this machine there are rows of needles. So, in our example, you need to draw on paper, in which every 4 cells are separated by a thicker line. Then each horizontal strip of the weave drawing will be divided into groups of 4 warp threads; each of the groups will correspond to a vertical row of points on the map. This makes it easier to count the warp threads and find the map points corresponding to them. It is clear, of course, from what has been said that each weft thread, that is, each shed, corresponds to one card, so that the number of cards in the cardboard is, generally speaking, equal to the weft rapport of the pattern, and the number of all hooks in the carriage is the main rapport. The punching operation itself is performed either manually, by applying a copper template with holes on the card and punching holes at the appropriate points of the card with a puncher, or they use a punching or copying machine for this purpose, which greatly facilitates the operation. The general arrangement of this machine is shown in Fig. 26, and the actual punching apparatus - in Fig. 27. Penetrating card r pressed by plate s for punching pins k, in exactly the same order as the carriage needles. Each pin corresponds to a vertical plate h touching him from the side. The pin is provided with a shoulder x, against which in the plate h a hole is made. If the plates are lowered, then when the card is pressed on the pins, the latter freely move to the right and no punching occurs. But if any of the records h will be raised (ex. h"), then against the shoulder x you will have to have the smooth side of the plate, which will not allow this pin to move to the right and will force it to go deeper into the card, making a hole in it. Lifting records h made with laces With(Fig. 26), envelope rods d and ending with hooks e to which laces are tied f. Guided by the weave drawing, the worker selects the appropriate cords and, pulling them all together, by means of the footboard, pushes the slab s and card punching. Selecting the proper shoelaces f often done ahead of time. The laces selected for each card are tied up sequentially, and then the whole system is already hung on hooks e. If there is a ready-made cardboard and you need to recopy it, then use a jacquard carriage a, which already automatically raises the plates h using shoelaces b. The latest development of the Jacquard machine is Verdol carriage. In it, the square roller is replaced by a board equipped with separate protrusions against each needle. The needles pass through the loops of the second, vertical needles, which can already be affected by cardboard, which is a sheet of thick paper with small holes. Solid places of paper, pressing on the second needles, shift the first, horizontal needles to the side, which is why the protrusions corresponding to these needles pass by them and the corresponding hooks rise. The use of paper instead of cardboard is possible here because much less force is required to deflect the needle than to deflect the hook in a Jacquard machine. This system begins to spread strongly in the weaving of silk and linen fabrics.

Special modifications are in T. machines that produce fabrics of some special types. Yes, in multicolored fabrics (see) the pattern is made by changing the weft. In hand weaving, it is produced by the weaver himself, replacing one shuttle with another. In mechanical machines multi-shuttle battan on one or both sides is supplied with several boxes located one above the other, enclosing shuttles with different ducks. Boxes can be raised and lowered with the help of various devices, controlled by a special sorting carriage, so that at the moment of hitting the pusher, the proper box stands against the slip and exposes its shuttle to the impact. Of course, there should be an empty box on the opposite side of the battan at this time to receive the shuttle. Double fabrics (piqué, see) require two warps for their production, for which two different beams are arranged. Sometimes two different lifting devices are arranged for them, for example. jacquard carriage for the top warp and shafts for the bottom warp. Two bases are also used for the production of velvet fabrics. To obtain a pile, the weaver, through a known number of threads, raising the forks of the pile warp (see floor, poal), lays a special trihedral rod instead of a weft thread. The formed loops are then cut with a thin knife. About the production of plush - see Cotton fabrics.

Ribbons are very thin tissues. In order to produce them more profitably, T. is equipped with machines that weave several ribbons at once. Such machines represent a type intermediate between mechanical and manual (figs. 28 and 29). It is set in motion by a rocking chair H connected at a point N with battan, and at the end - with shaft knees w. The warp is placed not on the warp, but on separate coils S, mounted motionless on the rods V". The tension of the warp and fabric is done by weights G" and G". The rise of shafts (or jacquard carriage) is made from the shaft w. The shuttle, due to the narrowness of the tape, is longer than the width of the fabric. Battan presents a solid box in its lower part with cutouts for each ribbon. Due to this, the transfer of movement to the shuttles is carried out by gears placed inside the battan box, meshing with gear racks connected to the shuttles. These rails are of such length that when its rear end disengages from its drive gear, the front end of the rail has already passed the gap and has engaged with another gear located on the other side of the tape slot. Details of machine tools can be found in Op. Lebois et Frécon, "Les métiers à tisser le ruban" (1899), as well as in the sources listed at the end of the article.

When a whole piece is finished, the weaver cuts it off from the rest of the warp (which contains threads 8-10 pieces long), ties the ends of the warp back to the composing shaft, and starts the next piece. The finished piece is handed over to the office and subjected to a careful examination, and the defects found, if possible, are corrected (darned). The main vices of weaving are as follows. one) Blizny- gaps in the fabric from the breakage of one or more warp threads. 2) Undercuts- transverse gaps resulting from the breakage of the weft, when the machine has made several single beats, and the regulator will gain some length of fabric. 3) nicks- places where weft threads lie too often (weft density is greater than normal). 4) redoch- reverse defect - weft threads are too rare. 5) Bumpy fight- alternation of frequent and rare bands. These three vices come from uneven winding of the fabric on the typesetting shaft by the weaver or from the incorrect operation of the regulator, from inept handling, from a weak load and other reasons. 6) Podpletiny- places where broken warp threads are intertwined with each other into a knot or flagellum. 7) Diving- violation of the correctness of the weave without breaking the threads. The last two vices stem mostly from a cliff nitchenok(peg) shafts. eight) Weft loops, or twists(see the corresponding article), from a too steep weft or from a weak spool. 9) wrinkles and weak spots in the fabric from incorrect or weak inhibition of the warp, too strong a fight, a faulty state of the shuttle and the shuttle box, etc. In addition to defects arising from irregularities in weaving, defects also come across in fabrics from poor-quality yarn: retraces(thick places in the thread), passes(thin places) stripes from a non-permanent yarn number, loops, knots, bumps from impure material, stripes in colored smooth fabrics from uneven coloring, etc. The fabric accepted from the weaver is measured and folded on a folding machine into pieces that are packed in bales for shipment to dyeing and finishing factories.

Literature for T. production. 1) Gerasimov, "The experience of theoretical and practical guide to weaving" (St. Petersburg, 1849); Shorin, "The experience of a practical guide to the mechanical weaving of cotton fabrics" (1881); Golgofsky, "Mechanical weaving" (1898, 2nd ed.); Werner, "A memorial book on the weaving of calico "(1898); Trusov, "Memorial book on the weaving of paper fabrics"; Ugarov, "Hand and mechanical weaving from linen yarn" (in the journal "Technical Collection and Bulletin of Industry."), 1892); Alcau, "Fabrication des étoffes" (1866); Bona, "Traité de tissage"; Joulin, "Industrie et commerce des tissus" (1895); Bipper, "Traité de filature et de tissage" and many others Reiser und Spennrath, "Handbuch d. Weberei" (1885-90); Reh, "Lehrbuch der mech. Weberei" (1889); Schams, "Handbuch der gesammter Weherei" (1890); Lembke, "Mechanische Wehstühle" (1886-90); his own, "Vorhereitungs-maschinen und s. w." (1877); Oelsner, "Die deutsche Webschule" (1891); Donat, "Methodik d. Bindungslehre"; Mikolaschek, ""Die mechanische Weberei"; Müller, "Handbuch d. Weberei"; Kinzer und Fiedler, "Technologie d. Handweherei" (1899) et al., Brooks, "Cotton manufacturing"; Neville, "The students handbook of practical fabric structure" (1897); Brown, "The powerloom" (1896); Holmes, "Cotton Cloth Designing" (1896).

S. Ganeshin. Δ .

Weaving from a sanitary point of view.- Work at the weaving mill at the present time includes a lot of unfavorable conditions that are characteristic of weaving production in general or depend specifically on shortcomings in the organization of factory and industrial establishments and on the method of exploitation of labor on them, and which are important in sanitary terms because although not cause certain forms of disease, but slowly wear down the body of the worker. T. is subdivided, on the one hand, into mechanical(self-weaving) and manual, and on the other hand, factory and home. Mechanical t., as requiring the application of special force, is carried out exclusively in factories, in special buildings, while manual t. - both in factories and in residential premises.

At mechanical weaving, the main harmful moments of production are: 1) the continuously standing position of the worker, obliged standing observe the work of one or two mills, and in Western European and American states even 3-4; 2) a terrible noise reigning in large self-weaving departments; 3) the release of dust when weaving fabrics; and 4) the shaking of the floor. The terrible and, moreover, constant noise in self-weaving rooms has a highly harmful effect on workers, causing irritation of the nervous system, especially in women and adolescents, and causing functional disorders of the auditory organ. Dr. E. N. Malyutin, who in 1896 examined the hearing organ of 900 weavers from the Prokhorov factory in Moscow, found (Medical Review, January 1897) that noise dulls hearing and reduces the limits of hearing sensitivity for high and low tones. Those who have worked for more than 5 years are very hard of hearing, although it does not come to absolute deafness. Very many weavers suffer from subjective noises; subsequently, probably due to the blunting of the nervous system, the percentage of those complaining about the noise decreases. According to Malyutin, the cause of hearing loss is probably suffering. sound receiving device. Damage to the ear to such an extent that hearing remains significantly reduced even after a break in work for several years. Stuffing the auricles with cotton wool during work largely protects hearing from functional disorders. The location of the looms not in closed stone buildings, but in the middle of a covered courtyard, as is already beginning to be practiced abroad, will probably entail a reduction in painful noise. In addition to excessive noise, the nervous system of weavers is often extremely irritated by the constant increased tension of attention, especially among weavers of expensive silk and velvet fabrics, where subtlety, cleanliness, accuracy in work and the ability to more delicate manipulations are required. In large weaving workshops, especially in multi-storey buildings, irritation of the nervous system is often aggravated by constant shaking, vibration of the floor of the weaving room; the latter, being built of boards, often shakes so violently during work that by the end of the day the person begins to simply rock from side to side. These concussions are especially unfavorable for women in general, and in particular for pregnant women and those suffering from female diseases. Absolutely similar shaking vibrations in multi-storey buildings can be avoided only if the floors are built on brick vaults and with a cement floor instead of a wooden one; more better device one-story buildings with cement-asphalt flooring, which is already beginning to be practiced on a large scale here in Russia. In terms of sanitation, it is also important dust, constantly observed in weaving workshops, especially when weaving dyed fabrics, and often, along with silk, paper and wool fibers, separated from the mass of materials exposed to the fabric, particles of paints and the smallest grains of starch from the sizing of the warps are carried in the air. In weaving the simplest paper products, so much dust is released during the production of dust that the floor under the mills is often covered with a thick layer of loose coating; this dust, when the floor is shaken, sets in motion, which is why its amount in the air increases significantly. All these dusty particles penetrate the respiratory canals along with the air, linger on their mucous membrane and produce mechanical irritation, which often causes persistent bronchial catarrhs ​​and inflammatory processes, sometimes leading to more or less serious pathological and anatomical changes. The harmful value of dust is further aggravated in very many weaving workshops by the lack of expediently and correctly arranged devices for ventilation and humidification of the air. Over the past 10 years, artificial ventilation and humidification in weaving rooms has been used more and more widely, especially in German factories; in Russia, these devices are still functioning at a small number of large self-weaving factories, mostly of the latest construction. Among the latter, the extensive weaving building of the Tver manufactory (in the city of Tver), built in 1898 with the use of a pavilion roof system (a modification of Schoed), central ventilation and air humidification, partly by saturating it in the ventilation chamber, partly by spraying it in the system, stands out sharply. Zimin-Zotikov. Thanks to the hygienic arrangement of the weaving halls at this manufactory, neither particular heat is noticed in them, nor those sharp fluctuations in air temperature and relative humidity, which are almost constantly observed in self-weaving factories. In such factories, especially in Russia, a high temperature - from 22° to 26° or more R., which is completely unnecessary for production, and excessive dryness or dampness of the air are a common phenomenon, extremely favorable for the occurrence of catarrhal and rheumatic diseases among weavers. Under influence high temperature there is some kind of relaxation of the entire nervous and muscular system; anemia, dizziness, weakness, etc. common diseases are very common among self-weavers, and as one of the causes of these ailments, doctors point to the harmful effects of high temperature and the deterioration of the air in weaving workshops, where workers have to stay for a long time, sometimes almost half of their lives. From a sanitary point of view, it seems very rational to arrange roofs in weaving workshops according to the Schöda system, which gives uniform illumination from above; this significantly reduces the excessive tension of the visual apparatus with its consequences - a rush of blood to the head and a disorder in the act of vision, naturally caused by insufficient and inappropriate lighting of the workshops. If self-weavers have to reckon with a constantly standing position of the body (which, however, could be avoided by the introduction of simple benches), then for hand weavers the reverse moment has an unfavorable value, i.e., a constant sitting position with a half-bent state of the body, which, according to many researchers (Westergardt, Erisman, etc.), are much more unhealthy than the standing position of mechanical weavers. With manual T., the worker, sitting on a solid crossbar, strongly bends forward and presses his chest against the beam; with one foot he sets the loom in motion, with his hand he starts the shuttle. Naturally, such an abnormal position of the weaver's body, often continuing day after day for 12 or more hours, does not remain without harmful consequences for his body: pressing the epigastrium against the needle causes convulsions, gastralgia, functional disorders of the digestive tract and leads to fatigue of the respiratory apparatus. , which is also facilitated by the constant concussion of the chest, depending on the vibrations of the machine, and the constant movement of the foot often causes cramps in the calf muscles. The spoilage of air in hand-loom weaving by copious emission of dust is observed to an even greater extent than in mechanical weaving. The lack of artificial ventilation is exactly the same, if not even greater, especially in Russia. But on the other hand, small Russian weaving establishments have the advantage that, being located in small log houses, they enjoy the best conditions for natural ventilation (through walls, doors, etc.). However, this advantage is not so great that it fully compensates for the depravity of the air caused by the overcrowding of workshops with people, the release of dust during T., inappropriate evening lighting (smoky light bulbs), and often inappropriate heating (brickwork, and even iron stoves with iron pipes). Compared to self-weaving, hand-looms suffer much less from noise and floor shaking, because even in large hand-weaving establishments, neither one nor the other is ever observed on such an extensive scale as it is stated in mechanical weaving.

Concerning traumatic injuries in weaving mills, the main ones are blows to the leg and side with a shuttle (sometimes to the head if the weaver bends down). These injuries, however, are not strong, because the impact of the shuttle is softened by matter, which it must first break through in order to jump out of the loom, and are easily eliminated by the device of simple fences in the form of a grid, which is already widely used in self-weaving factories. Occasionally there are also damages, mainly to the fingers, by some gear of the self-loom itself. Among the chronic diseases, often leading to premature death, a prominent place is occupied by chronic diseases of the respiratory organs, and among them - tubercles of the lungs. According to Erisman ("Professional Hygiene"), the first among weavers are very common and account for 70% of all diseases; 25% falls on one consumption. In general, pulmonary tuberculosis in weavers is purely occupational disease and, according to the majority of researchers (Lyaye, Hirsch, Erisman, etc.), this disease is the result of the combined effect of the following main causes: 1) a sedentary lifestyle due to the torso bent forward and pressing the chest against the beam, 2) excessive working hours day and stay in stuffy workshops, 3) prolonged inhalation of dust and generally spoiled air due to the unhygienic arrangement of weaving workshops, 4) poor housing and poor nutrition for weavers. Fortunately, even now, especially in Russia, the majority of hand weavers, working both in factories and at home, are engaged in this profession not all year round, but only during autumn and winter, but in summer, and partly in spring, leave for rural field work, which has a beneficial and stimulating effect on the entire body. However, for Lately in Russia it is already observed that as soon as a small factory expands into a larger establishment, although it conducts its production by manual labor, a noticeable influence of capitalism immediately begins; So, according to Prof. Erisman, Drs. Dementiev and Pogozhev, in the large hand-weaving factories of the Moscow province, a fourth or more of the workers no longer go to field work at all, but remain all year round at the factories (see "Compilation. Statistical. Consolidated. According to Moscow Province." , department of sanitary, vol. IV, part II). Not unimportant in the sense of paralyzing the harmful aspects of labor conditions and the fact that work in small weaving factories is in itself free, so that the weaver can rest when he feels the need for it, and not only when the whistle of a steam engine or the ringing of a factory bell gives him the right to stop work, as it works in large weaving factories. But still, weavers working outside the home, even in small factories, not to mention large ones, enjoy a much lesser degree of freedom and spend much more time in closed, stuffy, poorly ventilated, dust-filled workshops than weavers working at home and often forced by various household chores to be distracted from the camp and move to fresh air. This favorable condition, in connection with some others, is probably the reason, as recent studies on the Bogorodsk industrial district show. Moscow lips., significantly less development and spread of consumption in that part of it, where the population is almost entirely occupied with handmade T. paper light materials in their homes, and much more where T. - silk and velvet - appears mainly in large and small factories and according to the light rooms (see "Collection of statistics for information on the Moscow province.", Department of sanitary, vol. VII, issue 1, 1901). According to F. F. Erisman, referring to the Moscow-Klin districts (see "Proceedings of the V Provincial Congress of Doctors. Moscow Zemstvos"), among hand weavers there are often workers with a strong physique, well-developed muscles and well-fed - an extremely rare phenomenon between spinners; in general, their chest is less developed than that of dyers, carpenters, etc., but it nevertheless represents a fairly solid size. Satisfactory breast development is also noted by Dr. P. A. Peskov in weavers engaged in manual weaving of paper materials ("Proceedings of the VI Provincial Congress of Physicians of the Moscow Zemstvo"). Much worse breast development, according to Peskov, is found in weavers of silk fabrics - real experts in their field, which is why there are significantly more such workers between them who already exclusively live by factory labor, have come off their villages and have completely forgotten field work. At silk weavers, according to Peskov, already in the present generation, weavers are not fit for military service in terms of chest size. As for the physical development of self-weavers, according to the measurements of F. F. Erisman, A. V. Pogozhev and E. M. Dementiev, it does not seem to be entirely favorable and comes close to the development of workers engaged in general processing of fibrous substances. The physical development of the latter is much lower than the development of people working in other industries.

From all of the above, it clearly follows the need to improve the weaving industry. For this, not to mention the extreme urgency of improving the dwellings of workers, their food, reducing the working day to 8 hours. and the use of prolonged rest, weaving workshops should be improved in general, especially with regard to cleanliness and ventilation, combining the latter with air humidification, with the help of which it is possible to achieve a decrease in temperature in weaving rooms, reduce the formation of dust in the air and impart the humidity necessary for a person to dry and hot air; in addition, it is necessary to reduce the noise and shaking of the floor in the weaving rooms, to give uniform and quite sufficient lighting to the workshops, to provide the self-weavers with benches for the seat, etc.; hand weavers should be strongly advised to avoid pressing the epigastrium and chest against the beam. Undoubtedly, the best organization of factories in sanitary terms has a significant effect on the improvement of the weaver's profession. So, in poorly ventilated weaving workshops in the Düsseldorf district, the number of sick weavers reached 61% among men and 58% among women (in one workshop the number of sick people reached 116%), while in well-ventilated halls the number of sick people does not exceed 33%. At one plush factory, before the introduction of ventilation, 54% of the weavers fell ill, after the installation of ventilation - 33% (V. V. Svyatlovsky).

T. production embraces a set of operations assigned to turn yarn (see) into a harsh (unfinished) fabric, the required appearance from which is achieved already in further finishing processes (see the corresponding article). Central ... ...

The set of technological processes necessary for the production of textile fabrics from yarn. Weaving includes preparatory operations (they serve to create packages of warp and weft threads suitable for work on looms), ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

weaving- A set of technological processes performed in the production of textile fabric from yarn. Weaving consists of the preparation of a strand, the manufacture of fabric on looms, the final processing of a gray fabric before finishing ... ... Textile glossary

Weaving- the same as weaving. 1. A set of technological processes necessary for the manufacture of harsh (unfinished) textile fabrics. It is divided according to the type of raw material into cotton weaving, wool weaving, silk weaving, flax weaving, etc. ... ... Encyclopedia of fashion and clothing

The set of technological processes necessary for the manufacture of harsh (unfinished) textile fabrics (See Textile fabric). Sometimes T. p. is called weaving. Depending on the type of processed raw materials (fibers, threads) ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

The set of technological processes performed in the production of textile fabrics from yarn. T. p. consists of the preparation of yarn, the manufacture of fabric on looms, concludes, the processing of gray fabric before finishing or releasing ... ... Big encyclopedic polytechnic dictionary

In 1881 there were 69 R. factories producing goods for 536 thousand rubles, with 4997 workers, in 1892 there were 52 factories, the production of 381 thousand rubles, with 4351 workers, in 1896 R. 127, with a production of 1280 thousand rubles, with 7514 workers. On the… … Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

- (lat.). spinning weaving. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Historical chronicle of Orekhovo, Zuevskaya land: March 26, 1209, the first mention in the annals of Volochka on Klyazma, the future village of Zuyevo. OK. 1339 the suburbs of Vokhna and Guslitsa near Moscow were first mentioned in the spiritual ... ... Wikipedia

This is a set of technological processes necessary for the manufacture of harsh (unfinished) textile fabrics. Sometimes weaving is called weaving. Depending on the type of processed raw materials (fibers, threads), cotton, wool, silk, flax weaving, etc. are distinguished. History reference.

Weaving, like spinning, arose in the Neolithic era and spread widely under the primitive communal system. A hand loom with a vertical warp appeared about 5-6 thousand years BC. e. The invention of the loom F. Engels considered one of major achievements man at the first stage of his development. During the feudal period, the design of the loom was improved, devices were created to prepare yarn for weaving.

The first attempts to mechanize the weaving process date back to the 16th-18th centuries. Among them, the invention of J. Kay in 1733 of the so-called aircraft shuttle was of the greatest importance. At the end of the 18th century in Great Britain, E. Cartwright invented a mechanical loom, the design of which was subsequently made various improvements (mainly in Great Britain): a receiving goods mechanism (R. Miller, 1796), shaft-lifting devices (J. Todd, 1803), a mechanism for coordinating the movement of the main beam and the commodity roller (R. Roberte, 1822), etc. In 1833, a self-acting sparutka (a device for stretching fabric at the edge) was invented in North America. Significant Contribution Russian inventors also contributed to the improvement of the design of the loom: D.S. Lepeshkin, who patented a mechanical self-stop in 1844 when the weft thread breaks; S. Petrov, who in 1853 proposed the most advanced system of a combat mechanism for laying a shuttle, and others. 19th and early 20th centuries were created machines with automatic change of shuttles. The most successful solution to the problem of automatic change of the weft spool in the shuttle belongs to the Englishman J. Northrop (1890).

However, shuttle looms have significant drawbacks: the small size of the weft package; free, with large accelerations, the flight of the shuttle through the throat; simultaneous laying of only one weft thread, etc. At the beginning of the 20th century, several designs of shuttleless machines appeared, in which the weft thread was unwound from large fixed packages and laid in the throat with special mechanical devices. Machines of this type were created in 1926 by Gabler (Germany), Soviet engineer V.E. Leontiev in 1936, and others. In 1949, V.A. Prozorov (USSR) created a flat multi-slot machine. Weaving technology. In accordance with the technological process of manufacturing fabrics, weaving consists of preparatory operations, weaving itself and final operations. The preparatory operations include rewinding the warp and weft threads, warping, sizing, piercing the warp and tying the ends of the threads.

The purpose of the preparatory operations is to create packages of warp and weft threads suitable for work on a loom. The warp threads are usually rewound from spinning bobbins onto conical cross-wound bobbins (less often onto spools) necessary for the next operation - warping. Rewinding is carried out on winding machines and automatic winding machines. If the spinning packages meet the requirements of the warping process, then rewinding is avoided. When warping, threads from a large number of bobbins or spools (up to 1000 threads) are wound onto a warping roller.

The process is carried out on warping machines. Sizing of the base (impregnation with a sticky colloidal solution - dressing) increases the endurance of the threads and resistance to abrasion and repeated stretching during weaving. The penetration of the warp threads into the lamellas is necessary for the automatic stop of the machine when the thread breaks; threads are threaded into the eyes of the heddles of the shaft to form a gap on the machine (space for the movement of the shuttle) and obtain a fabric of a given weave.

Penetrating the threads into the teeth of the reed ensures that the weft thread is beaten to the edge of the fabric and the necessary density of the fabric is obtained along the warp. Weft rewinding on spools for shuttle machines is carried out on weft-rewinding machines. For shuttleless looms, a bobbin is used from winders or directly from spinning machines. Weft yarn often undergoes an additional operation - wetting (or emulsifying, steaming) to wind it without the so-called rally (falling off the package of several turns). For weaving, the warp and wefts from the preparatory workshop go to the weaving workshop for the production of fabric from them. The warp threads during the weaving process experience greater impacts of the working bodies of the machine than the weft threads, therefore, they are subject to increased requirements for strength, endurance and wear resistance. The warp, as a rule, is made from better raw materials than weft, with a higher twist and is further enhanced by sizing. Yarn breakage, especially warp thread breakage, is a major cause of weaving looms to stop, deteriorating fabric quality and creating yarn waste.

Final operations of weaving production. - measuring the length of the fabric on measuring machines, cleaning and cutting it, quality control on rejecting machines and stacking on folding machines. All final operations are carried out on production lines, on which the gray fabric moves in a continuous web, sewn from separate pieces of fabric. Harsh fabric defects are evaluated by points (defective units), the number of which determines the type of fabric.

Weaving production is also called the totality of the weaving workshop (shops), prepares, workshops and the rejection department. Weaving production can be independent (usually called a factory) or be part of a textile mill, consisting of spinning, twisting, weaving and finishing industries. The optimal capacity of weaving factories depends on the industry, for example, a cotton factory usually has 2-4 thousand shuttle looms or up to 2 thousand shuttleless, silk weaving - up to 3 thousand pneumatic, worsted and cloth - up to 800 shuttleless. Further improvement of textile production is aimed at the mechanization of labor-intensive operations and the automation of production. processes; the introduction of shuttleless and multi-shed looms, the development on their basis and the development of new forms of labor organization; aggregation of processes and machines in order to reduce transitions in the preparation of yarn for weaving.

In the 19th century, until the 1870s, one of the most widespread crafts, especially in the center of Russia and in the Russian North, was weaving. Weaving "manufactories" at that time were just beginning to emerge. And homespun cloth, according to the peasants, then had almost no competition.

Zeitlin E.A. Essays on the history of textile technology. M.-L., 1940; Rybakov B.A. Craft of ancient Russia. [M.], 1948; Kanarsky N.Ya., Efros B.E., Budnikov V.I. Russian people in the development of textile science. M., 1950; weaving technology. T. 1-2. M., 1966-67: Gordeev V.A., Arefiev G.I., Volkov P.V. Weaving. 3rd ed. M., 1970; Design of weaving factories. M., 1971. I. G. Ioffe, V. N. Poletaev.

Source: Great Soviet Encyclopedia and other materials

Gradually, the production of yarn and homespun canvases for making clothes was replaced by handicrafts, which existed in some places on a very small scale for another twenty to fifteen years - the manufacture of “paths” on looms from bobbin threads and old calico cut into narrow strips. Now this can only be seen in museums.

The loom consists of a simple frame made of thick beams and a pedestal. On the latter, all its moving parts are attached: frames of threads - shafts with loops of linen threads. Even warp threads are threaded into the loops of one of the frames, odd threads are threaded into the loops of the other frame. Ropes are passed through the movable blocks tied to the pedestal, connecting the steps with the healds. To step on one of them - an even group of the base rises, on the other - an odd one.

The weaving technique determined the nature of the woven patterns and their compositional structure. On valances and towels, patterns were arranged in strict horizontal rows, with a predominance of three-part compositions: a middle wide strip and borders symmetrically framing the central border. Multi-tiered compositions were decorated with especially elegant - gift towels intended as a gift.

History of weaving and Weaving in Russia

Origin (read on the next pages. Weaving of Russia - on the last page of the article)

It is difficult to judge the time of the birth of art and crafts, the roots of which are lost in the depths of millennia, and the material traces (wood, fibrous materials) are fragile and short-lived. We are left with one path - the path of a reasoned hypothesis based on the following main groups of information sources: ethnographic - ancient devices and methods preserved in the traditions of modern civilizations or used by primitive tribes;

• archaeological - finds of weaving devices or their details, fabrics;
  artistic - images in works of art of the corresponding period (vase or wall painting, reliefs, etc.);
  literary and folklore - historical descriptions from various literary monuments of the corresponding period or descriptions preserved in folklore;
  analytical - based on the analysis of socio-economic conditions, preserved tissues, their possible distribution by geographical regions.

Applied to initial period only the fifth group will be useful in the history of weaving technology, in that part of it where we are talking about the analysis of socio-economic conditions. The main stimulus for the appearance of clothing in humans is the need to protect the body from the adverse effects of the environment. According to some researchers, an additional incentive was the satisfaction of the instinct of creation in ancient people, especially those who lived in places with favorable climatic conditions.

A prerequisite for weaving is the availability of raw materials. H and at the weaving stage, these were strips of animal skin, grass, reeds, creepers, young shoots of bushes and trees. The first types of woven clothes and shoes, bedding, baskets and nets were the first weaving products. It is believed that weaving preceded spinning, since in the form of weaving it existed even before a person discovered the spinning ability of the fibers of some plants, among which were wild nettle, "cultivated" flax and hemp. Small-scale cattle breeding provided various types of wool and down.

None of the types of fibrous materials could survive for a long time. The oldest fabric in the world is linen fabric, found in 1961 during excavations of an ancient settlement near the Turkish village of Chatal Huyuk and made around 6500 BC. e. Until recently, this fabric was considered woolen, and only a thorough microscopic examination of more than 200 samples of old woolen fabrics from Central Asia and Nubia showed that the fabric found in Turkey was linen.

During the excavations of the settlements of the lake inhabitants of Switzerland, a large number of fabrics from bast fibers and wool were discovered. This was another proof that weaving was known to people of the Stone Age (Paleolithic). The settlements were opened in the winter of 1853-1854. That winter was so cold and dry that the level of the Alpine lakes in Switzerland dropped sharply. As a result, local residents saw the ruins of pile settlements covered with centuries-old silt. During the excavations of the settlements, a number of cultural layers were discovered, the lowest of which date back to the Stone Age. Coarse, but quite usable fabrics made of bast fibers, bast and wool were found. Some fabrics were ornamented with stylized human figures painted with natural colors.

In the 1970s, with the development of underwater archeology, research of settlements in a vast alpine region on the borders of France, Italy and Switzerland began again. Settlements date from 5000 to 2900 BC. e. Many remnants of fabrics were found, including twill weave, balls of thread, reeds of wooden looms, wooden spindles for spinning wool and linen, and various needles. All finds indicate that the inhabitants of the settlements were engaged in weaving themselves.

The first fabrics were very simple in structure. As a rule, they were produced by plain weave. However, quite early they began to produce ornamented fabrics, using religious symbols, simplified figures of people and animals as decorative elements. The ornament was applied to the harsh fabrics by hand. Later, they began to decorate fabrics with embroidery.

The monuments of culture and applied art that have come down to us have made it possible to restore the nature of the patterns used at that time, covering the border of the collar, sleeves and hem of clothes, sometimes a belt. The nature of the patterns varied from simple geometric, sometimes with the use of plant motifs, to complex ones depicting animals and people.

Anterior Asia and tissues

Weaving and weaving were widely developed in the Ancient Mesopotamia. For weaving, reeds were most often used. Reed braids covered or wrapped the dead, they hung door and window openings, walls of houses. Baskets were woven from reeds to store documents in temples and palaces. More subtle things were woven from grass. Such weaving is depicted on the gold filigree scabbard from the tomb of Meskalamdug.

The date palm culture played a leading role in the economy of Mesopotamia. From its leaves they made reins, whips, various covers, weaving for a cargo cart.

V fine arts Mesopotamia there is only one relief of a late time depicting a noble Elamite woman engaged in spinning, but in the most ancient settlements of Khlama spindle whorls wrapped in pieces of cloth copper axes were found. Whorls made of baked clay and stone were found by R. Koldewey during excavations in Babylon. Texts from Farah-Shuruppak mention threads, fleece, yarn wound on a spool. During excavations in Ur, remains of fabric (or felt) were found, with which the famous golden helmet of Meskalamdug was lined.

Weaving was done by both slaves and free artisans. Slaves worked under an overseer in the "house of weavers" in the royal and temple households and were divided into two categories: senior and junior weavers. Free artisans lived in a special quarter: a text from Kerkuk, kept in the Louvre, mentions the "weavers' quarter". Records of weavers working around 2200 B.C. e., found in the Chaldean city of Ur. In large farms, weavers were given "copper looms" by the bill: probably, we are talking about some kind of weaving accessories.

Entire lists of clothes from the time of the III Dynasty of Ur have been preserved, where, along with clothes made of fiber and “grass”, luxurious clothes covered with gold and precious stones, soft, tender, hard and dense clothes are mentioned. The made clothes were weighed (one of them, for example, weighed about 1300 grams).

Bas-reliefs give a good idea of ​​the patterns of fabrics of that time. For example, the alabaster bas-reliefs that once covered the walls of the palaces of Nineveh date from no later than the 8th century BC. e. According to many Assyriologists, the ornament of the bas-reliefs is nothing more than an imitation of Babylonian fabrics, and the bas-reliefs themselves are indirect evidence of the existence of carpet production.

Among the first textile materials were wool and linen. In the 7th century BC e. after the conquest of Babylon by Sennacherib, the peoples of Mesopotamia became acquainted with cotton. "Wool-giving trees" are mentioned on an Assyrian cylinder of the time.

Known in antiquity, Babylonian fabrics were famous for their multicoloredness and complexity of ornamentation. According to Pliny the Elder, it was in Babylon that multicolored embroidery was invented.

Copper and bronze needles found during excavations indicate that embroidery and sewing in Mesopotamia were known, possibly earlier than 1100 BC. e.

The weaving technique of the peoples of the Ancient Mesopotamia still remains unknown, since no details of weaving machines or their images have yet been found, and weaving technology is also unknown to us.

The oldest of the colored textile products of Western Asia are carpets and fabrics found in the glaciated burial mounds of the Altai Mountains. The oldest in the world is a woolen knotted sheared carpet of the 5th century BC. e., discovered in the fifth Pazyryk burial mound, made somewhere in Media or Persia. The rectangular carpet measuring 1.83 x 2 meters has a complex pattern, including images of riders with horses, fallow deer and vultures. In the same barrow, fabrics were found that covered a felt saddlecloth and a breastplate and were made on a horizontal loom with the vertical lines of the pattern along the weft. All fabrics are double-sided, multi-color, warp density 22 - 26 threads per centimeter. In the fabric covering the saddlecloth, the weft density is 55 threads per centimeter, in some patterned areas - up to 80 threads per centimeter, the width of the fabric is at least 60 centimeters.

A strip of fabric 5.3 centimeters wide and 68 centimeters long with a weft density of 40 to 60 threads per centimeter is sewn onto the bib. The fabric depicts 15 lions walking in a line, along its edges a border of alternating colored triangles is made.

The quality of the fabrics and the subtlety of the pattern allow us to judge a rather high level of weaving in Western Asia in the middle of the first millennium BC. e. For example, it can be noted that in the images of human figures on the fabric covering the saddlecloth, even fingernails can be distinguished, and this is with the width of the fabric itself 6.5 centimeters. High quality fabrics suggests a good level of weaving in an earlier period. The well-known Soviet art critic S. I. Rudenko believes that “the needle-embroidered patterns mentioned by ancient authors ... are not embroideries in their modern sense at all, but the finest tapestry drawings obtained in the process of making fabric on a loom.”

Ancient Egypt

Beginning around 3400 BC. e. It is quite easy to follow the development of weaving. The Egyptian method of mummification, the burial together with the deceased of many items from everyday life, the special climatic conditions of Egypt, which contributed to the preservation of a large number of burials, gave mankind significant practical information about the life and habits of the ancient Egyptians. In addition, many monuments of Egyptian painting and sculpture have come down to us, which can also be used to judge the development of weaving.

Linen fabrics from the Neolithic, Badarian and pre-dynastic periods and the era of the 1st dynasty have been preserved. Fragments of linen from a pre-dynastic burial at Gebelein depict a hippo hunting scene in two boats of different sizes. In the tombs of the pharaohs of the I and II dynasties (3400 - 2980 BC), fabrics were found with warp and weft threads of the same thickness and with a warp density of 48 threads per centimeter, and weft density of 60 threads per centimeter. Fabrics of the Memphis dynasty (29802900 BC), found in tombs in Upper Egypt, are thinner than modern linen and have a density of 19X32 and 17X48 threads per square centimeter.

Wooden and clay figurines (circa 2500 BC) of weavers and warpers at work have also been found in Egyptian tombs. Warping with the help of pegs hammered into the ground is still used by some peoples in hand weaving (for example, in Guatemala).

Among the drawings on the walls of the tomb of Hemotep from Beni Hasan (2000 - 1788 BC), there are several drawings depicting a vertical loom and working weavers, as well as the processes of making yarn and preparing it for weaving. Similar images are found on the walls of several more tombs of the XII dynasty in Beni Hasan and El Bersh, as well as in the tombs of the XVIII dynasty in Thebes. In Thebes, the archaeologist Winlock found a model from the 11th dynasty, depicting weaving women.

The fabrics of Egyptian mummies show that the people of Ancient Egypt possessed perfect weaving skills. With all our modern equipment, we cannot achieve some of the results once obtained by the ancient masters. In some Egyptian mummy fabrics, the warp density exceeds 200 threads per centimeter, while modern weaving equipment does not allow the production of fabrics with a warp density greater than 150 threads per centimeter. So, for example, the bandage on the forehead of a mummy kept in one of the English museums is made of linen with a basis density of 213 threads per centimeter. The linear density of the yarn in this fabric is 0.185 tex (i.e., the mass of one kilometer of yarn is 0.185 grams). The mass of one square meter of such fabric would be 5 grams.

The results of a study of a tissue sample of an Egyptian mummy stored in the Ivanovo Art Museum are of interest. The fabric dates back to the 16th-15th centuries BC. e. and consists of four layers: canvas impregnated with a transparent yellow-ocher substance, white ground, reminiscent of loose snow in color and luster, green, red and yellow paints, grayish-ash transparent varnish. Plain weave fabric has a warp density of 24 threads per centimeter, weft density of 13 threads per centimeter. The soil consists of small anisotropic white crystalline fragments, insoluble in ether. The paint is amorphous, with crystalline inclusions, insoluble neither in water nor in universal organic solvents, retained its freshness and brightness. The varnish is amorphous, not subjected to crystallization. The results obtained indicate that at the dated time, the Egyptian craftsmen were able to produce durable linen fabrics, they knew how to protect them from decay, they knew a non-crystallizing varnish that retains the brightness and freshness of colors for a long time.

The museums of the world hold a large number of samples of ornamented fabrics dating back to about 1500 BC. e. Several samples of colored tapestry linen were found in the tomb of Pharaoh Thutmose IV (1466 BC). On the carpet from this tomb, a pattern is visible in the form of lotuses, semicircles and a cruciform amulet, common for Ancient Egypt. In the burial of the young pharaoh Tut, dating back to about the same time, a large number of amazingly beautiful fabrics were found.

On the wall of the bedroom in the main palace of Akhetaten, the capital of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton), there are remains of a painting depicting the pharaoh's daughters sitting on pillows. The pattern of fabrics on the pillows is a blue rhombus arranged in parallel on a pink background. In the relief from the tomb of Parennefer in Akhetaten there is also an image of a pillow covered with patterned fabric. The fabric pattern is made in the form of "roads" of rhombuses of different sizes. On the lid of the casket from the tomb of Tutankhamun (1375-1350 BC), a scene of the pharaoh hunting lions is depicted. The pharaoh is wearing clothes made of golden-colored fabric with a simple geometric ornament. The horse in the pharaoh's chariot is covered with a patterned fabric, probably a carpet, with geometric motifs on a golden background and with three dark blue stripes along the edges. The field of fabric between the stripes is filled with the same pattern as the main background of the fabric.

The ancient Egyptians knew and widely used yarn dyeing. The mummy fabrics have blue and yellow-brown edges. The bed of the mummy of Tutankhamun was covered with a dark brown cloth. The fabric covering the ceremonial wands is dyed in a color close to black. A thin dark yellow cloth was draped over the bodyguard statue at the entrance to the tomb. In the tomb of Tutankhamen, several items made of colored tapestry linen were also found.

In ancient Egypt, weaving was closely associated with small farming. Fabrics were a natural tribute from landowners in both the Old and New Kingdoms. During the 18th dynasty, the vizier Rehmir accepted various types of fabrics among the gifts brought to him.

Based on the fabrics of the Roman period found in Antinous and Alexandria, the archaeologist E. Flemming suggested that they were made on a garter loom. However, the question of the origin of these tissues has long been debatable. The first finds were made in Antinous back in 1896 - 1897, and the leading orientalists of that time - Strzhigovskiy and later Hertsfeld - recognized the Iranian origin of fabrics, dating them to the time of the Sassanids (224 - 651). The German art historian O. von Falke, in his famous work “The Artistic History of Silk Weaving”, defended the hypothesis of the local origin of fabrics. This point of view was held by many scientists, including E. Flemming, until R. Pfister, on the basis of additional materials obtained by the French archaeological expedition, proved that the fabrics were made in Sasanian Persia. The greatest historian of textile art A. Mayer, who devoted her whole life to the study of artistic fabrics, like E. Flemming, believes that the mentioned fabrics were worked out on a loom with garters. Iran is the birthplace of this remarkable technical invention, which we will talk about later.

Let's go back to Egypt. In the Ptolemaic period, weaving was a royal monopoly, but from the 2nd century BC. e. private weaving began to spread. As a rule, private weaving was family-owned, but sometimes hired workers were also used.

America

North and Central America. Weaving on the American continent, like weaving in the countries of the Old World, has its roots in the depths of centuries. Excavations of settlements that existed long before the Inca civilization showed that ancient people were very skilled in weaving.

The Indians, like the Egyptians, started out with simple plain weaves, but soon developed weaves such as twill and leno. They created complex geometric patterns that were woven or painted by hand.

Ancient people used flax, grass, hair of bison, rabbits and opossums in weaving. Later, they learned to use the wool of these animals, and their acquaintance with cotton occurred simultaneously with the peoples of the Old World. The looms were similar to those found during excavations in Egypt. The only difference was that instead of a shuttle, they used a long twig to bring the duck into the throat.

Woven bags, fishing nets, grass-woven shoes, and feather clothing have been found in ancient stone caves in the Ozarks. Ancient clay vessels of the Algonquin tribe have prints of fabric or rope, indicating that the vessels were wrapped in woven material during manufacture.

The so-called basket makers (2000 BC) made woven bags and perfectly woven baskets. A significant step forward in the weaving art was made by the peoples who lived after the "basket makers" in the southeast of North America. Among the samples of fabrics made at that time, there are fabrics made from yarn obtained from fibers wild plants. After the use of cotton as a raw material for yarn, feathers (for example, turkey feathers) were often woven into cotton fabrics. The prehistoric Indians passed on their ability to make fabrics to the descendants of the Indians, about whom there is written evidence. The latter, in turn, taught the Navajo Indians, who moved after the Spanish colonization to the toro-west of North America. The Navajo proved to be capable students and soon surpassed their teachers. They made thinner and more complex fabrics.

And at present, Navajo Indian women weave on hand looms in the same way as their distant ancestors did. They weave blankets whose patterns are stored only in their memory. Navajo blankets and bedding are made using the tapestry technique. Most of these products are woven so tightly that they do not let water through. Until now, Indian women in one place break the pattern so that the "evil spirit" can come out of the blanket. This peculiar marking distinguishes Navajo blankets.

From the weaving of the Maya, only the whorl and a small number of fragments of fabrics found at the bottom of the Chichen Itza spring remained. And only frescoes, ceramics and sculpture tell us about Mayan fabrics, which, judging by the images, were as beautiful as Peruvian fabrics. From raw materials, annual and perennial cotton, which grows throughout the Yucatan Peninsula, was widely used. Rabbit hair was brought from Mexico. Before weaving, the yarn was dyed in accordance with the symbolism adopted by the Maya. They made simple coarse manta fabrics 16.5 m long, colorful huipil fabrics for women, fabrics for men's trousers and curtains, capes for leaders, priests and idols. Protective equipment was made from manta fabric soaked in saline.

Maya weaving devices were no different from the common devices used by all American Indians. Maya weaving was a household occupation of women. Unlike the Incas, the Maya did not appoint "selected women" to weave at the monasteries. Fabrics were made both for themselves and for sale.

Peru. One of the outstanding centers of ancient weaving is Peru. The dry climate of the Peruvian coast resembles Egypt. As in Egypt, burial sites were chosen in desert areas where there was practically no rain, which ensured good preservation of the tissues. Peruvian "mummies", like Egyptian ones, were wrapped in thin fabrics, probably specially made for burial purposes.

The ancient inhabitants of Peru knew cotton, wool and bast fibers (except flax, which was unknown). We have no information about the beginning of textile production in the mountains, but on the coast the first fiber was cotton, bast fibers were used mainly for special products: thin nets for hair, ropes, etc. Very early among the materials, wool of llamas, alpacas and wild vicuna. For coarse fabrics, llama wool (yellow-brown) was used, alpaca wool (white, black and brown colors) was finer.

The earliest textiles of Peru were found in the excavations of Huac Prieta, a Paleolithic site on the North Coast dating from about 2500 BC. e. About 3 thousand fragments of fabrics were found, mostly cotton, and only a small amount of some local bast fiber, there were no woolen fabrics at all. About 78 percent of the fabrics are made using the interlacing technique, which has directly developed from weaving.

Europe

Animal bones were used by our ancestors to make a variety of things. In Northern Europe, including in Ancient Novgorod, where more than 400 such bones and tools were collected during excavations. But even more pointed objects were found there, called piercers and made from the bones of a sheep, goat, horse, dog, elk or other animals. The largest number of Novgorod piercings belongs to the most ancient horizons of the 10th century, fewer of them turned out to be in the layers of the 11th century, and the number of even later ones is completely insignificant. The same is true for other centers of Ancient Russia. If we assume that such pointed bones were used as a tool for piercing the skin, then the decrease in their number could be associated with the appearance of more advanced tools. This, however, is not observed.

Most likely, the piercers served as a weaver's tool, knocking out duck threads with them, and, by the way, xiphoid wooden tools, usually mistaken for children's toys, could be used for the same purpose. The decrease in the number of both of them in the later archaeological layers, apparently, is associated with a period of improvement in weaving production. The fact is that such padding was needed only when working on a vertical loom, where the fabric was woven from top to bottom. Such machines - due to their exceptional simplicity - were available literally in any household, because all the clothes in those days were homespun. With the advent of the horizontal loom, the weaving technology itself changed: a special lattice device began to evenly distribute the warp threads and press the weft threads.

(The horizontal machine was already much more efficient and usually belonged to a professional artisan. In Western Europe, it became widespread in the 11th century - with the advent of the first major centers textile industry in Flanders, England and northern France.

Archaeological evidence of the appearance of a horizontal machine is scarce: some of its details are found in 11th-century strata in Hedeby and Gdansk. And it is more often necessary to judge its distribution by the absence in the layer of details of a vertical machine - such as piercings and xiphoid objects from Novgorod.

Weaving in Russia

The whole history of Slavic weaving can be told in terms of peasant household items. The most common types of folk household art were embroidery, patterned weaving, knitting, carving and painting on wood, birch bark and metal processing. Such a variety of forms fine arts determined by the life of the people. The conditions of subsistence farming made it necessary to create a home environment, utensils, tools and clothes with their own hands. These things accompanied him throughout his life, and therefore it is clear that the peasant sought to make not only useful and convenient, but also beautiful items.

Patterned shaft weaving - an old look folk craft - was developed in many villages of the Nizhny Novgorod region, especially on its northern outskirts. Peasant women decorated rugs, clothes, bedspreads, tablecloths, countertops, towels with homespun patterns. Linen, wool and cotton served as the material for weaving. Nizhny Novgorod weaving was distinguished by a large pattern of geometric ornament and subtlety of color. The number of colors in the fabric is not numerous, harmonious and noble in shades. Basically it is white, red, blue colors. Thanks to the subtly found compositional solution of color and ornament, the products of weavers had a special sophistication.

The art of patterned weaving reached a high level of development among the Slavs. On primitive looms, they produced smooth fabrics and patterned fabrics beautiful in their artistic merit. Part of the patterned items adorned clothes, the other - a peasant interior. The material was linen threads. Often, hemp or woolen thread was added to linen.

Ornament patterns were created through the use of various methods of weaving threads in the fabric itself.

The simplest and most common method of ornamentation was used by the Slavs in variegated fabrics with linen weave. These fabrics were used for everyday wear - men's and women's shirts, sundresses. Patterns of motley for clothes were in a cage, stripes, very restrained colors. Blue, gray, lilac tones prevailed, echoing the color of the surrounding nature. Sometimes bright and rich colors were used in fabrics with the addition of woolen or hemp thread: red, brown, pink and others.

Festive clothes, in particular women's shirts, were sewn from white canvas, the hems were decorated with a red stripe of a woven pattern. The general coloring and selection of tones in traditional clothes testify to the amazing taste and sense of harmony among Slavic craftswomen.

Woven patterned towels, valances and women's shirts were made with a two-day weaving technique. The technique of double-double weaving is not particularly difficult, but it is very laborious and required from the weaver great attention- the slightest mistake in counting the threads caused a distortion of the entire pattern.

The weaving technique determined the nature of the woven patterns and their compositional structure. On valances and towels, patterns were arranged in strict horizontal rows, with a predominance of three-part compositions: a middle wide strip and borders symmetrically framing the central border. Especially elegant gift towels were decorated with multi-tiered compositions.

Despite the small range of original motifs, woven patterns are extremely diverse in general view, which was achieved through various combinations and rearrangement of figures. Even a simple lengthening or shortening of geometric figures created a new ornament.

The looms of the ancient Slavs were made of thick beams of the bed and the slab. On the latter, all its moving parts are attached: frames of threads - shafts with loops of linen threads. Even warp threads are threaded into the loops of one of the frames, odd threads are threaded into the loops of the other frame. Ropes are passed through the movable blocks tied to the pedestal, connecting the steps with the healds. To step on one of them - an even group of the base rises, on the other - an odd one.

A feature of North Russian folk fabrics is their patterning, careful graphic development of the pattern itself, sometimes quite intricately woven, and at the same time restraint in its use: only the edge of the product was decorated with a colored pattern, leaving the main part of it either smooth white or with white relief. , a very modest and discreet pattern. The coloring of northern fabrics is also restrained: it is based on a classically strict combination of red and white, where white quantitatively predominates (the white field of the fabric itself and the narrow red border). In the border itself, the red pattern appears on a white background, and the white and red colors are balanced, their number is almost the same, which is why the general tone of this pattern is not deep red, but pinkish. This gives the color of northern fabrics a certain lightness and sophistication. If the fabric is multi-colored, for example, a striped rug or a checkered motley, then here the color is often soft, relatively light.

The artistic solution of patterned fabrics is largely determined by the technique of weaving. And the technique of patterned weaving in Pomorie was very diverse. So for the manufacture of everyday and work clothes (men's shirts, work skirts and sundresses), household items (pillowcases and sheets), they used the technique of linen and twill weave. The material for the manufacture of linen, cloth, linen and semi-woolen fabrics were flax, hemp, paper and wool. The most common were Pomeranian motley. The basis for them was cotton linen fabrics in a cage or stripes. Less common in Pomorie patterned-shaft weaving. Fabrics made in the technique of multi-shaft weaving were called "Kamchatka". Craftswomen decorated bedspreads, tablecloths, countertops, towels with such patterns.

The most complex patterns were made possible by the technique of weaving. The characteristic types of Pomeranian handicrafts are towels, women's shirts, and floor runners. Their ornamentation was dominated by geometric patterns.

In the most ancient weaving techniques, without the use of a loom, weaving belts was carried out. They were carried out - on boards, weaving, on a birch ("on a thread", "chock", "in circles"). Belts were an obligatory part of the traditional northern costume.

Literary sources for this article:

• Boguslavskaya, I. Ya. Patterns on the canvas// Boguslavskaya. I. Ya. Northern treasures: about Nar. art of the North and its masters. - Arkhangelsk: North-West. Book. Publishing house, 1980.S. 53-63.
• Klykov S. S. Belt as an element complex of women's costume / S. S. Klykov // // Folk costume and rituals in the Russian North: materials of the VIII Kargopol scientific conference/ scientific ed. N. I. Reshetnikov; comp. I. V. Onuchina. - Kargopol, 2004.S. 242-249.
• Kozhevnikova, L. A. Features of folk patterned weaving of some regions of the North // Russian Folk Art of the North: Sat. articles.L. : Owls. Artist, 1968.S. 107-121.
• Lyutikova, N. P. Ornamentation of Russian fabrics population of the Mezen river basin at the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century: weaving, embroidery, knitting / N. P. Lyutikova // Folk costume and modern youth culture: Collection of articles. - Arkhangelsk: 1999. - S.110-125.
• Fabrics and clothes of Pomorie in the collection of the Solovetsky State Historical, Architectural and Natural Museum-Reserve: cat. / Solovets. state historical architecture. and nature. museum-reserve, Vseros. artistic scientific-restoration. center them. acad. I.E. Grabar, Arkhang. Phil. ; ed. intro. Art. and comp. G. A. Grigorieva; photo V. N. Veshnyakov, M. F. Lugovsky; drawing S. M. Boyko, G. A. Grigorieva. - Arkhangelsk: Pravda Severa, 2000. - 280s.
• Fileva, N. A. Patterned weaving on Pinega/ N. A. Fileva // Folk masters. Traditions, schools: no. 1: Sat. articles / Research Institute of Theory and History of the Image. Art Order of Lenin Acad. arts. THE USSR; ed. M.A. Nekrasova.M. : Image Art, 1985. - S. 122-129.
• Churakova, S. V. Types of hand-patterned weaving / S. V. Churakova // Folk art. - 2006. No. 5. C. 34-47.

Manufacturing technology of fabrics and knitwear

Lecture #1

Basic concepts about the weaving process

Weaving is a technological process of production various kinds woven products for household and technical purposes.

Weaving- the technological process of manufacturing fabrics and woven products.

Weaving (weaving) - This is a set of technological processes necessary for the manufacture of harsh (unfinished) textile fabrics. Sometimes weaving is called weaving. Depending on the type of processed raw materials (fibers, threads), cotton, wool, silk, flax weaving, etc. are distinguished
Modern textile industry manufactures a wide range of textile products. On the one hand, this assortment is determined by the raw materials of various types used for the production of woven products, and on the other hand, by the use of various types of weaving, the ratio of fabric densities and yarn thickness.
Weaving originated in antiquity, 2500 BC. At the beginning it was hand weaving, then hand looms appeared. At the end of the 14th century, hand looms with a batan and a shaft-lifting mechanism appeared. In 1733, the airplane shuttle (John Kay) was invented, which significantly increased the productivity of hand-weaving production. In 1785 Carte Wright invented the mechanical loom. At the end of the 18th century, mechanical looms appeared in Russia.
In 1798, the Alexander Manufactory was established in St. Petersburg - the first mechanical textile factory in Russia, which also organized the production of mechanical looms. In 1894, an automatic machine was produced equipped with a device for automatically changing the weft spool inside the shuttle.

In 1804-1808, Joseph Jacquard invented the jacquard machine for making intricate weaves of paintings.

Textile- a textile product obtained on a loom as a result of the interweaving of two systems of threads located perpendicular to each other in the same plane and connected to each other by weaving. Threads running along the fabric are called main, and the whole system of longitudinal threads is called basis. The threads that run across the fabric are called weft(one thread is a weft), and the whole system of transverse threads is called duck. The warp threads during the weaving process experience greater impacts of the working bodies of the machine than the weft threads, therefore, they are subject to increased requirements for strength, endurance and wear resistance.

Requirements for yarn

The yarn used in weaving must meet the following basic requirements:

1. Have a certain linear density (Tex) and be uniform in linear density.

2. Have sufficient tensile strength and be uniform in strength.

3. Have a given twist and be uniform in twist

4. Be clean, free from external defects (knots, bumps, non-spreads, foreign inclusions)

5. Packages entering the weaving industry must be properly wound.

Technology system weaving production

The yarn that came from spinning to weaving goes through certain technological transitions.

For the production of fabric, weaving machines of various design features are used. But, general principle fabric formation on the loom remains unchanged.

Fabric formation on a loom
1 - weaving beam;
2 - warp threads;

3 - rock;
4 - lamellas;
5 - top;
6 - reed;
7 - shuttle (microplotter);
8 - chest;
9 - guide roller;
10 - valian;
11 - commodity roller;
12 - batted shaft;
13 - batan blade;
14 - shaft;
15 - peephole heddle;
16 - batan.
The warp threads, unwound from the beam 1, go around the guide roller (rock) 3 and take a horizontal or inclined position. Then they pass through the holes of the lamellae 4 and through the eyes of the heddles 15 of the shafts 14, which move the warp threads in the vertical direction to form a shed. A weft thread is inserted into the shed by a shuttle or a weft layer of another type, which advances (nailed) to the edge of the fabric with reed 6, which reciprocates together with the batan 16. At the edge of the fabric, the warp threads, intertwining with the weft thread, form a fabric that goes around the breast 8, valian 10, guide roller 9 and is wound on a commodity roller 11. The order of alternating shaft movements ensures the manufacture of fabrics of various weaves of threads.
At present, the performance of shuttle machines is considered insufficient and the leading firms foreign countries and Russia developed new types of looms that differ in the way weft insertion and shedding. These are the so-called machines of new operating principles. These include: machines with micro-plotters, pneumatic machines (the weft thread is laid with a strong jet of air), pneumatic rapier machines, rapier machines, hydraulic machines (the weft thread is passed through the shed with a thin stream of water (drops)), machines with a wave shed.