Generalizing indicators of labor productivity as they are calculated. Labor productivity - calculation formula
Introduction
Labor productivity is the main indicator economic efficiency production of the industry and each enterprise. Identification of reserves and ways to increase labor productivity should be based on a comprehensive technical and economic analysis of the enterprise. Analysis of labor productivity allows you to determine the effectiveness of the use of an enterprise labor resources and working hours.
The growth of labor productivity means: the economy of materialized and living labor and is one of the critical factors improving production efficiency.
Factors in the growth of labor productivity are understood as the conditions or reasons under the influence of which its level changes.
When analyzing and planning labor productivity, the most important task is to identify and use the reserves for its growth, that is, specific opportunities to increase labor productivity. The reserves for the growth of labor productivity are such opportunities for saving social labor, which, although they have been identified, have not yet been used for various reasons.
The interaction of factors and reserves is that if factors are driving forces, or reasons for changing its level, then the use of reserves is directly the process of implementing the action of certain factors. The degree of use of reserves determines the level of labor productivity at a given enterprise.
In the first chapter term paper shown economic essence and the value of labor productivity, indicators and methods of measuring labor productivity are presented, as well as a methodology for planning the growth of labor productivity, taking into account the influence of individual factors.
In the second chapter, a technical and economic characteristic of activities is given, an analysis of labor productivity is carried out and the reserves for the growth of labor productivity are identified.
The third chapter provides a specific measure to increase labor productivity at the RUE GZLiN.
When writing the term paper, economic and educational literature, economic newspapers and magazines, textbooks on audit and analysis economic activity, as well as regulatory documents.
Chapter 1 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISE EMPLOYEES AND THE IMPORTANCE OF ITS INCREASING IN MARKET CONDITIONS
1.1. Concepts, indicators and methods of measuring labor productivity.
Labor productivity (PT) is the most important indicator of production efficiency.
PT is efficiency, labor efficiency in the production process.
Living labor is involved in the production of any product, i.e. labor expended by workers directly in the process of producing a product and past labor expended, as a rule, by other workers at previous stages of production and embodied in tools, buildings, structures, raw materials, fuel, materials, energy. [p.92]
Accordingly, when characterizing PT, the concept of the productivity of individual and social labor is used.
The productivity of individual labor is the productivity of the living labor of both an individual worker and a team of workers.
The productivity of social labor is the productivity, efficiency of living and materialized labor, reflecting the total (total) costs of labor in the sphere of material production. The indicator of the productivity of social labor is calculated as the ratio of the size of the national income to the number of people employed in the branches of material production.
The productivity of social labor is planned and taken into account as a whole for the national economy. For individual associations, enterprises, structural units, individual workers are calculated production and labor intensity - an indicator of individual PT, reflecting the costs of only living labor.
Production is an indicator of the number of products, services, the amount of work performed per unit of working time by a worker or a team of workers:
where: B is the volume of products in physical terms, value terms or standard hours;
PV - production per worker;
T is the cost of working time for the production of products;
Labor intensity is an indicator of individual PT, characterizing the cost of working time for the production of a unit of output:
where: Pt is the labor intensity of a unit of product volume in units of time;
Production is considered to be a direct indicator of PT, and labor intensity is considered to be the opposite.
For the analysis of the PT for the Republic of Belarus as a whole and for the Gomel region, the following data are available:
Average monthly accrued wages of employees thousand rubles
Table 1.1.
Sectoral structure of production industrial products(in% of total)
Table 1.2.
The main performance indicators of mechanical engineering and metalworking
Table 1.3.
The level of labor productivity is determined by the ratio of the volume of products produced (work performed, services) to labor costs or the ratio of labor costs to the volume of products (works, services). There are three methods of measuring labor productivity: natural, cost, labor.
Natural method comes down to determining the production of a specific type of product (work, services) per one average employee or per unit of time. Natural method - the volume of production is expressed in physical units - pieces, kilograms, meters, etc. For example: enterprise oil industry for the year produced 300 thousand tons of oil and 2500 thousand cubic meters. m. of gas, the power plant generated 20 million kWh of electricity, the confectionery factory produced 100 tons of chocolates.
This method of measuring the volume of manufactured products seems to be the most accurate, but it has a very limited scope, since a rare enterprise produces homogeneous products. Take oil, for example. It differs in different content of hydrocarbon fractions, paraffin, sulfur, water. Therefore, a ton of oil produced from one well is not equal in quality to a ton of oil produced from another well. Chocolates can also be of different varieties, and if a confectionery factory also produces caramel and cookies, then such products cannot be summed up in weight. Products of a machine-building or woodworking enterprise producing a large assortment goods, it is generally impossible to express through a natural indicator. Consequently, a natural measure of the volume of production is inapplicable for most enterprises. This is its essential disadvantage.
A conditionally natural method of measuring the volume of production is also used, based on bringing different products to one meter. For example, different grades of soap are converted into a single soap grade with 40% fat content, and different grades of fuel. into equivalent fuel with a calorific value of 7000 kcal / kg. The scope of this method is also limited to only some sectors of the national economy.
Cost method involves the definition of the production of products (works, services) in terms of value or net production (added value) per one average employee or per unit of time. The cost method is the most versatile, it allows you to compare the level and dynamics of labor productivity at an enterprise, industry, region, country. The question is what value to take to measure the volume of production.
The indicator of the cost of gross output, on the basis of which the volumes of production were planned and taken into account for many years, is good because the products different enterprises and for different years was calculated in uniform wholesale prices of enterprises as of some time. This made it possible to level out price changes in different periods and to achieve comparability of indicators by this criterion. However, the cost of production reflects not only the costs of living labor, but also the past, embodied in raw materials, materials, purchased semi-finished products, parts and assemblies supplied through cooperation. More expensive raw materials sent for processing increased the value of gross output and, accordingly, the level of labor productivity without any participation of the workers of the enterprise. The same consequences were caused by a change in the point of cooperation, when, for example, enterprise B stopped the production of any node of a future product due to the fact that this node began to come to him through cooperative supplies from enterprise A. The cost of the node continued to be included in the cost finished product, produced by enterprise B, but the labor costs for the manufacture of this unit were no longer borne by it and due to this it artificially increased its labor productivity.
The cost of gross output also includes the difference in the cost of work in progress at the beginning and at the end of the period. This will enable enterprises to increase the cost of gross output, and with it the indicator of labor productivity by increasing the volume of work in progress.
The indicator of the cost of marketable output is free from the influence of the volume of work in progress, but retains other disadvantages inherent in the indicator of gross output. In the garment, printing and some other industries, an indicator of the standard processing cost (NCO) was used to characterize production volumes, which included the standard cost of living labor costs: wages of basic production workers with deductions for social insurance, workshop and general plant costs, calculated according to standards.
The advantage of the VAT indicator is that it is basically free from the influence of the costs of past labor - the cost of raw materials, materials, purchased products (with the exception of a part of such costs included in general shop and general plant costs). The disadvantages of the VAT indicator are that it does not characterize the entire newly created value and does not take into account the actual cost of processing, but only its standard value. The economic content of this indicator is vague, so the expediency of its use is questionable.
Theoretically, the most complete idea of the contribution of the enterprise and the creation of products is provided by the indicator of the value of net production - the newly created value, since its value is not affected by the costs of raw materials, materials, purchased semi-finished products and components, it is free from the cost of depreciation deductions.
To determine the efficiency of production and its profitability, the formula for calculating labor productivity is used. Based on the data obtained, the management of the enterprise can draw conclusions about the introduction of new machines or changes in production technology, reduction or increase in the workforce. Calculate given value- very simple.
Basic information
Labor productivity is the most important criterion for assessing the effectiveness of workers. The higher it is, the lower the cost of producing goods. It is he who determines the profitability of the enterprise.By calculating the productivity of labor, you can find out how fruitful the work of workers is for a given period of time. Based on the data obtained, it is possible to plan the further work of the enterprise - to calculate the estimated volumes of production, revenue, make an estimate of costs and purchase materials for production in the required quantity, hire the required number of workers.
Labor productivity is characterized by two main indicators:
- Development , which indicates the volume of products manufactured by one worker for a certain period of time. Often calculated for one hour, day, or week.
- Labor intensity - on the contrary, it already indicates the amount of time that the employee spent on the production of one unit of goods.
Calculation of production and labor intensity
Production depends on the average number of employees and the time spent on production. The formula looks like this:B = V / T or B = V / N, where
- V
- T - the time spent on its manufacture,
- N
- V - the amount of the manufactured product;
- N - the average number of employees.
Both formulas can be used to calculate the productivity of one worker.
Let's consider a concrete example:
For 5 days, the confectionery department produced 550 cakes. There are 4 pastry chefs in the workshop.
The output is equal to:
- B = V / T = 550/4 = 137.5 - the number of cakes made by one pastry chef per week;
- B = V / N = 550/5 = 110 - the number of cakes made during one day.
R = N / V = 4/550 = 0.0073 - indicates the amount of effort that the pastry chef makes to make one cake.
Performance formulas
Let's consider the basic formulas for calculating labor productivity for each of the situations. All of them are quite simple, but at the same time, the following nuances must be taken into account in the calculations:- The volume of manufactured products is calculated in units of manufactured goods. For example, for shoes - a pair, for canned food - cans, etc.
- Only the personnel involved in the production are taken into account. So, accountants, cleaners, managers and other specialists who are not directly involved in production are not considered.
Balance calculation
The basic calculation formula is balance calculation. It helps to calculate the productivity of the enterprise as a whole. To calculate it, the main value is taken the amount of work specified in accounting statements for a certain period of time.The formula looks like this:
PT = ORP / NPP, where:
- PT - labor productivity;
- ORP - the volume of products produced;
- NWP- the average number of workers involved in the process.
PT = 195 506/60 = 3258.4, which means that the productivity of the enterprise for the year amounted to 3258.4 machines per worker.
Profit performance calculation
You can calculate productivity based on the profit of the enterprise. Thus, you can calculate how much profit a company brings in a given period.Labor productivity for a year or month for an enterprise is calculated using the formula:
PT = B / R, where
- PT - average annual or average monthly output;
- V - revenue;
- R - the average number of employees per year or month.
PT = 10 670 000/60 = 177 833.3 rubles. It turns out that for one year of work, each employee brings an average of 177,833.3 rubles of profit.
Average daily calculation
You can calculate the average daily or average hourly output using the following formula:PTC = V / T, where
- T - the total cost of working time for the production of products in hours or days;
- V - revenue.
PTC = 10657/30 = 255. 2 machines per day.
Natural calculation formula
With its help, you can calculate the average labor productivity per worker.This formula looks like this:
PT = VP / KR, where
- VP - manufactured products;
- KR - the number of workers.
PT = 150/8 = 18.75 cars.
Factors influencing the value
The following factors influence the value of enterprise labor productivity:- Natural and weather ... The productivity of agricultural enterprises is directly dependent on weather conditions. So, bad weather conditions - rain, low temperatures - can reduce human productivity.
- Political situation ... The more stable it is, the more attention is paid to the development of production, therefore, productivity is also higher.
- General economic situation , both enterprises and the state, the world as a whole. Loans, debts - all of these can also reduce productivity.
- Making changes to the structure of production ... For example, previously one employee performed 2 or 3 operations, then a separate employee was involved to perform each operation.
- Application of various technologies ... This includes more than just implementation new technology and equipment, but also methods and reception of production.
- Change in management ... As you know, each manager tries to make his own additions to the production process. Not only the performance indicator, but also the quality of the product largely depends on his knowledge and qualifications.
- Additional incentives - bonuses, higher processing fees.
In general, the labor productivity of any enterprise is constantly growing. This is due to both the acquisition of experience and the building up of technical and technological potential.
Video: Formula for calculating labor productivity
Learn all the ins and outs of calculating labor productivity from the video below. It contains the main factors affecting the calculation of labor productivity, related concepts and formulas, as well as examples of solving the most common problems that the owner of the enterprise may face.Labor productivity is the ratio of the volume of work performed or manufactured products to the time spent on its production by an enterprise, workshop, department, or by an individual. It is quite simple to calculate it, knowing the basic formulas and knowing the data on the production volumes of the enterprise and the number of employees.
This is nothing more than the most important economic category, which characterizes the efficiency of the use of labor resources. It gives an idea of the relationship between labor time and the amount of products produced, the more different products are produced or the less time is spent per unit of production, the higher labor productivity.
p.s. Test and other topics can be found on our website.
There are various indicators of labor productivity:
1. Full (final exact indicator of labor productivity) the ratio of the amount of production and the amount of time spent on production.
2. Incomplete - the ratio of two factors of production - the amount of time and the amount of work, labor costs per hectare, and so on.
3. Indirect comparison of these two factors of production, one of which is (the load of livestock per 1 milkmaid or cattleman).
Complete indicators of labor productivity are:
straight,
reverse.
A direct indicator is the output per unit of time (output). The inverse indicator is labor costs per unit of output (labor intensity).
The higher the output and the lower the labor intensity, the higher the labor productivity. Consequently, the level of labor productivity is determined by the ratio between the amount of product productivity and the cost of producing it over time.
Let's denote:
Q - the number of products, c.
T - the number of labor costs for all products in people. - hour.
T - labor costs per cent of products in man-hours
y - the level of labor productivity c / man-hour.
Then:
Labor intensity = Labor costs for all products / Quantity of products T = T / q;
Output = Number of products / Labor costs for all products y = q / T.
The total labor costs for the production of products is determined as the cost per cent of products multiplied by the amount of products. T = t * q.
The system of indicators of labor productivity is solved by the unit of measurement of the quantity of products produced. These units can be natural, labor and value, conditionally natural.
Accordingly apply:
1.natural,
2.conditional natural,
3. labor,
4. the value method measures labor productivity.
Cost indicators of labor productivity have a number of assets in front of natural ones.
1. They reflect the industry structure of production.
2. Product quality.
Labor productivity in this case is characterized by the following indicators:
1. Production of gross output in comparable prices in 1994 per 1 average annual worker employed in agricultural production.
2. Output of gross output in comparable prices calculated per 1 man-hour, man-day. The cost level of labor productivity is expressed not only by the given level of labor productivity, but also by the level of use of labor power during the year.
Analysis of natural indicators over a number of years allows:
1. To establish the occurred change in the level of labor productivity for the production of each product.
2. Outline specific measures to increase labor productivity. Labor accounting is carried out in man-hours. With the distribution of labor in agriculture difficulties arose, since in addition to the main products, there are also associated and by-products.
Methodology for the distribution of the amount of labor expended on the main and by-products:
1. Determine the quantity of the basis of products, associated and by-products.
2. According to the coefficients, the conjugate and by-products are converted into the main one.
3. Recognize the specific weight of each type of product in the total volume.
4. By specific weights, the total labor costs are distributed for the main, associated and by-products.
Depending on how labor costs are measured, the following levels are distinguished:
1. Average - hourly output = number of products, c / man-hours;
2. Average - monthly output = number of products, c / average annual number of employees;
3. Average - daily output = number of products, c / man-days.
The productivity of useful labor is recognized on different levels from each individual labor productivity to the productivity of social labor in the country as a whole.
Social labor productivity = National income production / Average annual number of agricultural workers.
Labor productivity is fruitfulness, efficiency production activities people, measured by the amount of products (goods and services) produced per unit of working time (hour, shift, month, year), or the amount of time spent per unit of production. Labor productivity is the most important indicator of the efficiency of social production, depending on the level of development of the productive forces in society, the degree of use of its production, scientific, labor, natural potential, the correspondence of production relations to the nature of the productive forces.
Exists various forms manifestations of labor productivity.
First of all, labor productivity manifests itself as a reduction in labor costs per unit of use value and shows the saving of labor time. Most important is the absolute reduction in labor costs required to meet a specific social need.
Hence, the focus of enterprises on the search for methods of saving labor and material resources, that is, reducing the number of workers in those areas where possible, as well as saving raw materials, fuel and energy.
Labor productivity manifests itself in the same way as an increase in the mass of use values created per unit of time. Here important point- the results of labor, which mean not just an expansion of the volume of goods produced, but also an increase in their quality. Consequently, taking into account such a manifestation of labor productivity in practice implies a wide application in business planning and commercial incentives of approaches that reflect utility, that is, power, efficiency, reliability, etc.
Labor productivity also manifests itself in the form of changes in the ratio of the costs of living and materialized labor. If in production process past labor is used relatively more widely than living labor, the enterprise has a chance to increase labor productivity, and therefore, to increase the wealth of society.
However, options are possible. In one case, with a decrease in the costs of living labor, the costs of materialized labor per unit of output increase both relatively and absolutely (with a decrease in total costs). In another, the costs of past labor grow only relatively, but their absolute expression falls. Such processes, for example, are observed, respectively, either when manual labor is replaced by mechanized labor, or when modernizing outdated equipment, reconstructing enterprises on the basis of more progressive and efficient means of production.
Finally, labor productivity manifests itself in the form of reduced turnaround time, which is directly related to time savings. In this case, the latter acts as a calendar time. Savings in this case are achieved by reducing the production time and circulation time, that is, tightening the construction time and mastering production capacities, promptly introducing scientific and technological advances into production, accelerating innovation processes and replicating best practices.
As a result, the enterprise, with the same resources of living and materialized labor, receives the final results per year higher, which is tantamount to an increase in labor productivity. Hence, taking the time factor into account becomes extremely important in organization and management, especially in the context of a high dynamism of a market economy, constant transformations in the course of reforms, and the increase and complication of social needs.
Labor productivity is measured by various indicators. The expression of the social level used in international comparisons is the indicator of the produced national income per capita or per person employed in social production... At the level of industries, enterprises, the indicator is used - the production of gross (marketable, in certain industries, net) products per employee. In some monoproductive industries, natural indicators are used to measure labor productivity (for example, oil and coal production per 1 worker of industrial production personnel).
In enterprises, labor productivity is measured by the rate of output per worker or per unit of time. In these cases, the indicator takes into account only the economy of living labor. At the same time, labor productivity can be measured as the ratio of the physical volume of national income to the number of workers in material production. Specificity this indicator in that it directly reflects the economy of living labor and indirectly - through the volume of national income - the economy of social labor. Hence the most general approach determination of labor productivity can be expressed by the formula:
where Пт - labor productivity;
P is a product in one form or another;
T is the cost of living labor.
In modern economic conditions, the problem of significantly improving the quality and improving the development of a plan for increasing labor productivity is especially acute. This is the most important condition for ensuring an economically correct ratio between the growth rates of labor productivity and wages.
In plans for the growth of labor productivity, as a rule, two indicators are calculated: output - the amount of products produced per unit of working time, and labor intensity - the amount of working time spent on manufacturing a unit of output. Generation is the most common indicator for recording the level of labor productivity.
where W is production,
Q is the volume of products produced,
T is the cost of working time.
The opposite indicator is labor intensity (t): t = T / Q. The production can be calculated for different periods.
Depending on the units in which the volume of work performed and the hours worked are measured, there are several methods for calculating the level of production.
With the natural method of calculating production, the volume of work performed is expressed in natural units (pieces, tons, meters). This method most clearly characterizes the level of labor productivity, but it is applicable only for homogeneous products.
Under the conditional natural method of calculating the output, the volume of work performed is expressed in conditional natural units (in tons of fuel equivalent). The conditionally natural method is applicable to calculate the indicator of the level of labor productivity in the production of heterogeneous but similar products.
Labor method measurement of labor productivity assumes that the volume of work performed is measured in hours worked. The labor method is applicable to all types of products, regardless of the degree of their readiness and is widely used in the study of the relative changes in labor productivity. However, this method requires the stability of the applied norms, while the latter are constantly changing as the organizational and technical working conditions improve.
In practice, the most common is the cost method of measuring labor productivity, based on the use of cost indicators of the volume of products produced. The advantage of this method lies in the possibility of comparing dissimilar products with the costs of their manufacture both within the framework of one enterprise, industry, and throughout the country.
With the cost method, labor productivity is calculated by dividing the volume of products produced (in rubles) by average headcount industrial production personnel. The cost method for measuring labor productivity has a number of varieties, depending on the various cost expressions of the product produced (marketable, gross, sold, net, standard-net output, standard processing cost).
Indicators of labor productivity, calculated on the basis of gross, marketable, sold products, have similar advantages and disadvantages. Their main drawback is that these indicators are not free from the fact that: with a change in the assortment of products, the cost of raw materials and materials, a change in the proportion of semi-finished products, components received from other enterprises, the output indicator may increase or decrease. Changes in the level of labor productivity may in such cases turn out to be unrelated to the improvement or deterioration of performance. of this enterprise.
The essence of the method for measuring labor productivity on the basis of the standard cost of processing is that for assessing the volume of output, not the wholesale price is taken, but only that part of it that conventionally characterizes only the costs of living labor. The indicator of the standard cost of processing does not include the cost of materials, semi-finished products, general and general production costs, that is, that part of the material costs, the value of which mainly depends on the activities of the given enterprise. The disadvantage of the indicator of the standard cost of processing is that it does not take into account the surplus product. Currently, great importance is attached to the measurement of labor productivity in terms of conditionally pure production, which provides a more complete reflection of the work of a given enterprise, since this indicator excludes the distorting assortment shifts, cooperative deliveries, eliminates double counting.
Analysis of labor productivity allows you to determine the efficiency of the use of labor resources and working time by the enterprise.
The growth of labor productivity means: saving materialized and living labor and is one of the most important factors in increasing production efficiency.
Factors in the growth of labor productivity are understood as the conditions or reasons under the influence of which its level changes.
When analyzing and planning labor productivity, the most important task is to identify and use the reserves for its growth, that is, specific opportunities to increase labor productivity. The reserves for the growth of labor productivity are such opportunities for saving social labor, which, although they have been identified, have not yet been used for various reasons. Revealing reserves is a rather serious and complex task that requires high competence of specialists involved in this matter. By the time of use, the reserves are divided into:
- current,
- promising,
- intersectoral,
- industry,
- in-house.
Sectoral reserves include the possibility of increasing labor productivity through the use of more advanced technology and technology, optimal cooperation and combination of production in the industry, appropriate specialization and concentration in it.
Intra-production reserves of labor productivity growth are located directly at enterprises and its subdivisions. They are the most numerous and the most effective when used. These include: improving technology and production technology, raising the cultural and technical level and qualifications of personnel, improving the organization of labor, production and management.
The interaction of factors and reserves is that if factors are driving forces, or the reasons for changing its level, then the use of reserves is a direct implementation of the action of certain factors. The degree of use of reserves determines the level of labor productivity at a given enterprise.
In the conditions of modern production, the main factors in the growth of labor productivity are:
- factors on the side of the employee: the level of his intellectual development, physical health, value orientations, labor activity, responsibility, discipline, etc .;
- factors associated with the material and technical base of production: the level of development of technology, technology, the rate of renewal of organizational, technical and technological principles in production based on the use of the achievements of scientific and technological revolution, etc .;
- organizational factors: development of cooperation, specialization, combination of production, improvement of the organization of labor and production;
- factors of optimal joining of production of products and their sale ( marketing research, service for the development and implementation of a marketing strategy), etc.
The problem of increasing labor productivity for the Russian economy is very urgent today. The main reason for the low level of labor productivity in industry is undoubtedly the deterioration of fixed assets, the use of outdated equipment and technologies. There is a depreciation of the labor force, which negatively affects the level of labor productivity. Cheap labor has never been productive, and there is no need to talk about its rational use. The cheapness of labor power, hindering the renewal of the means of production, also restrains the growth of labor productivity.
Russia needs nationwide targeted programs that would contribute to the development of the country's productive forces under various forms of ownership. In addition, enterprises need their own programs and plans aimed at increasing labor productivity, taking into account the specific economic conditions and financial capabilities.
Labor productivity (P) is measured by the amount of work (products, turnover, services) produced by one employee per unit of time (hour, shift, week, month, year), and is calculated by the formula:
P = O / H where O is the amount of work per unit of time; H is the number of employees.
Labor productivity- labor efficiency. Labor productivity can be measured by the amount of time spent on a unit of output or the amount of output produced by an employee over time. Pt = Q / Wt, where Q is the output, Wt is the cost of living labor. It is measured through two indicators: output (direct indicator) and labor intensity (indirect). Depending on the units in which labor costs are expressed, it can be annual, daily and hourly. When measuring labor productivity by the labor method, the standards of time for the production of a unit of output or the sale of a unit of goods are used:
Pm = Om / Bf where Pm is labor productivity, measured by the labor method; Оm is the amount of work in units of standard work time; Vf - actual operating time.
Indicators of the efficiency of agricultural production on ameliorated lands.
Rational use of reclaimed land includes full, correct and efficient land use.
Full use of reclaimed arrays in agriculture means the degree of their development for arable land, hayfields, pastures and perennial plantings. Over 2% of agricultural land is not used annually in the republic due to the untimely tilling of areas after the reconstruction of reclamation systems and the completion of their new construction.
Correct land use determines the voluntariness of the choice of forms of management and the lease terms for improved land, the provision of favorable conditions for the economic functioning of all land users by creating a compact land mass and convenient transport accessibility, the inadmissibility of occupying highly fertile drained and other valuable land for development.
Effective management of reclamation agriculture related to efficiency, cost-benefit commensuration. The effect of land reclamation in agriculture is manifested in a number of aspects:
the areas of radically improved land are expanding due to the involvement of swamps, wastelands, areas under shrubs and small forests
the coefficient of land use increases as a result of the elimination of the unfavorable water regime, the removal of boulders and stones, and other agromeliorative measures
the contours of the fields are increased and their configuration is improved, which creates conditions for the high-performance use of technical means
soil fertility increases and conditions are created for improving the structure of land and sown areas, cultivating more intensive crops, and expanding re-crops.
A program for ECOLOGIZATION of the agro-industrial complex of the Russian Federation is needed, including, first of all, the ecologization of agriculture, that is, the fight against soil erosion, the use of organic fertilizers, agroforestry, cultural and technical reclamation, liming, grass planting, minimization of anthropogenic impact on the soil, the use of crop rotations, etc.
Therefore, for a comprehensive assessment of the economic efficiency of agricultural use of reclaimed land, a system of indicators is used that:
determine the level of productivity and efficiency of use of reclaimed land (output in volume and value terms, gross and net income, profit per unit of reclaimed area)
characterize various aspects of the efficiency of agricultural production on reclaimed land (labor productivity, profitability, capital productivity, gross output, gross and net income, profit per 100 rubles. production costs, the cost of 1 centner of the most important types of products, the payback period of capital investments)
determine the main factors for increasing the efficiency of ameliorative agriculture (structure of land and sown areas, capital equipment and capital-labor ratio, material consumption, etc.).
The value of agricultural land area comparable in terms of cadastral value is determined by the formula:
Where 
- area comparable in cadastral value, ha; 
-cadastral value of 1 ha of farmland; 
- the average cadastral value of 1 hectare of farmland in the constituent entity of the Russian Federation where this farm is located, rubles; 
- area of farmland of the given farm, hectares.
Gross output- this is all agricultural products created in a year. The cost of gross output is the sum of the cost of commercial and non-commercial products, that is:
VP - gross production, rub.
TP - commercial products, that is, those that are sold outside the economy. It is valued at the prices of its realization.
NP - non-commercial products - this is a part of the gross output that remains on the farm for its needs (feed, seeds, etc.). It is estimated at the cost of its production on a given farm.
Gross income(VD) is the difference between the cost of gross output and material costs (VD = VP-MZ).
Net income is profit, that is, the difference between the cost of commercial products and the commercial cost (NP = TP- 
)
These or those indicators of the proposed system should be applied depending on the objectives of the assessment. The choice of the most rational direction is carried out by highlighting the decisive indicator, weighing the indicators according to their influence on the final result of agricultural activity on reclaimed lands.
The most effective will be that level of use reclaimed land, which ensures greater agricultural production and profits while maintaining and increasing soil fertility and preventing possible negative effects on the environment.
The potential for radically improved soils can increase overall crop productivity.
Real estate depreciation concept. Types of wear and methods for their determination.
Wear- this is the real loss in the cost of improvements in SP as a result of the influence of a number of factors with different sources of origin.
Types of deterioration - 1) physical, 2) functional (obsolescence, lack of components - there is no intercom in the entrance, superimprovement - there was a pharmacy with a sign-there was a bank, he needs to remove the sign), 3) economic (external).
Calculation of physical depreciation: 1) Expert method - based on the "Rules for assessing the physical depreciation of residential buildings" VSN-53-86 Gosgrazhdanstroy
И% = ∑ (Specific weight i *% wear i) / 100
2) Method of economic life period If / Sv = EV / SEZH
Concept - "labor force", "human capital", "labor potential". Labor potential components.
Traditional for economic science is the problem of the influence of the characteristics (qualities) of a person on labor productivity. So, Marshall analyzed "the conditions on which the health and strength of the population depend - physical, mental, moral" [Marshall. He noted that this corresponds to the "advanced) n km of the great classification of the elements of productivity, in which the following were distinguished: a)" body, b) "mind", c) soul "(! Ib, Verstand und I Set s)>.
To determine the possibilities of human participation in economic processes, the concepts of "labor force" and "human capital" are usually used. Under,working by force it is customary to understand a person's ability to work, that is, with the totality of his "physical and intellectual data that can be applied in production. In practice, the workforce is characterized, as a rule, by indicators of health, education and professionalism. Human capital is considered as a set of qualities that determine productivity and can become sources of income for an individual, family, enterprise and society. These qualities are usually considered health, natural abilities, education, professionalism, mobility.
The set of characteristics that are used in the literature to determine the opportunities for effective labor does not fully correspond to the realities of the modern economy. It is advisable to expand this set based on the concept rub new potential. E th components must characterize:
1) psychophysiological opportunities for participation in socially useful activities;
opportunities for normal social contacts;
the ability to generate new ideas, methods, images, ideas;
rationality of behavior;
availability of knowledge and skills necessary to perform certain duties and types of work;
supply on the labor market.
These aspects correspond to the following components of labor potential:
health;
morality and ability to work in a team;
creative potential;
activity;
organization and assertiveness
education;
professionalism;
working time resources.
The indicators characterizing these components can relate both to an individual person and to various teams, including the personnel of the enterprise and the population of the country as a whole (Table 1.1).
The labor potential of a person is part of his potential as a person, that is, in relation to an individual, labor potential is a part of human potential, which is formed on the basis of natural data (abilities), education, upbringing and life experience.
Table 1.1 Examples of characteristics of labor potential
|
Labor potential components |
Objects of analysis and their corresponding indicators |
||
|
Company |
Society |
||
|
Health |
Ability to work. Absence from work due to illness |
Loss of working time due to illness and injury. Staff health costs |
Average life expectancy. Healthcare costs. Mortality by age |
|
Moral |
Attitude towards others |
The relationship between employees. Losses from conflicts. Fraud. Theft |
Attitude towards disabled people, children, the elderly. Crime, social tension |
|
Creative potential |
Creative skills |
The number of inventions, patents, rationalization proposals, new products per employee. Enterprise | |
|
Activity |
Striving for the realization of abilities. Enterprise |
||
|
Organization and assertiveness |
Accuracy, rationality, discipline, commitment, decency, benevolence |
Losses from misconduct Cleanliness. Diligence. Effective collaboration. |
The quality of the legislation. The quality of roads and transport. Compliance with treaties and laws |
|
Education |
Knowledge. Years of study at school and university |
The share of specialists with higher and secondary education in the total number of employees. Staff development costs |
Average number of years of study at school and university. Share of education expenditures in the state budget |
|
Professionalism |
Skills. Skill level |
Product quality. Loss and marriage |
Export earnings. Losses from accidents |
|
Working time resources |
Employment time during the year |
The number of employees. The number of hours of work per year for one employee |
Able-bodied population. The number of employees. Unemployment rate. Number of hours of employment per year |
Concept, role, principles and methods of production planning. Types and features of plans in a market economy. The tasks of sectoral and territorial planning.
Plan- this is a list of measures to achieve the set task (goal), which in the form of tasks and indicators reflects the main goals and stages of the activities of economic entities (enterprises, sectors of the economy, regions, the country as a whole) and methods of their implementation. The best variant of the plan is usually recommended for implementation. The criterion of optimality can be economic, social, environmental and other indicators and constraints.
Planning- a special form of activity of management personnel, which is associated with the development, approval, communication to the performers of planned targets, control over their implementation and their adjustment if necessary, i.e. it is the process of studying the future, developing, justifying and making current and forecast decisions.
Basic aim planning is:
at the enterprise level is the solution of the problems of production and marketing of products in order to achieve the set economic social or other goal (maximizing profits, minimizing costs).
at the sectoral and state level of planning, the task of planning is to establish administrative, legal and economic regulators for the development of an economic entity (region, country as a whole), taking into account the interests of science and the state as a whole.
Planning principles These are the basic rules that must be followed in the planning process. Fr. economist A. Fayol proposed 5 basic principles:
1) Unity - assumes that the plan has a common systemic character, since any econom. the subject is a system of separate interconnected elements, and a change in the magnitude of individual factors causes a change in the results of activity.
2) Participation - each employee must participate in the development, adoption and implementation of management decisions. Participation provides a sense of ownership in getting results, working for oneself - it is better to plan than to be planned by another.
3) Continuity - provides that another plan is prepared in advance to replace one plan, so the name is produced. rolling planning.
4) Flexibility is the ability of a plan to change direction, even a goal, constant refinement, adjustment of plans under the influence external environment and internal factors.
5) Accuracy is the correctness or validity of the indicators, the focus of the plans on the diet. use of enterprise resources.
All planning principles (rules) are interrelated and should be used together.
The accuracy and detail of planned calculations decrease when moving from short-term to medium- and long-term plans. In our country, in addition to those mentioned, principles such as purposefulness, complexity, and the principle of a leading link are also used. Purposefulness of the plan-I means the need to highlight objectified. goals, i.e. before acting, every manager must know what he wants to achieve and what he can.
Complexity means the joint solution of 2 or more tasks in one plan.
The principle of the leading link provides for the allocation of naib. important, priority goals. This allows you to combat the dispersal of resources.
All planning principles are interrelated and must be used together in planning.
Planning methods are formed on the basis of planning principles.
The following planning methods exist:
1. System analysis - provides for the development of a development plan for an economic entity. The following main directions of its activity are considered: areas of interest, conditions of activity, tactics and policies, organizational structure of enterprise management, competitive environment. It is based on dividing more complex tasks into simpler ones: country, regions, industries, enterprises, divisions.
2. Program-target method - used in planning and forecasting in one direction, to solve one problem. It is part of the systems analysis. It is aimed at isolating one important task from the system and drawing up a program for solving this task (housing for military personnel, clean water of Russia).
3. Balance method - refers to the most common primary planning methods, which are not subdivided into smaller ones. Implemented by compiling dec. balances, i.e. comparison of resource requirements and sources of their coverage. There are material, financial, labor, resource, consolidated. The main task of the balance sheet calculation is its linking, i.e. ensuring equality between the availability and consumption of resources. If the needs are greater than their availability, then it is necessary to increase the production of these resources. If the availability of resources is greater than the needs, then the opposite is done, i.e. plan to cut production, cut purchases and increase consumption.
4. The normative method is the calculations for the determination and justification of plans using a system of norms and standards, within which the simplest economic processes take place. The application of this method allows you to ensure the rational use of limited resources and reduce the time and money spent on planning. The rate is the maximum allowable resource consumption per unit of production. The standard is a planned indicator that characterizes the rate of resource consumption and the degree of its use. There are technical and economic standards, tax standards, standards for mandatory payments and deductions, financial standards. The most common, primary planning method.
5. Economic and mathematical methods make it possible to determine and substantiate the value of planned indicators using the techniques of applied mathematics, mat. statistics and modeling, use computer technology in calculations.
There are also planning methods:
by the time of appearance - improved, traditional and new.
by approach - general and functional
according to the direction of the presented material - descriptive, empirical, graphic.
Types of plans - Classification of plans:
By timing: forecasts (> = 10 years), long-term (5-10 years), medium-term (2-5 years), short-term (1 year), current (1-6 months), operational (for 1 shift, day, week ...)
2. By scale: global, international; state; regional; industry; district, city; in-house; branded.
The need for planning is explained by the tasks that it solves:
make optimal use of limited resources;
proportionally develop all divisions of economic entities ( divisions of the enterprise, firm, region, industry);
the need to take into account the social, environmental and other consequences of management decisions taken;
taking into account the achievements of science and technology;
the need to take into account the spontaneous nature of changes in the market situation;
elimination of the consequences of crisis situations, military operations, natural disasters.
Peculiarities: A market economy is characterized by more difficult conditions than in an administrative-command economy, since ownership changes (to resources, means of production, products), the interests of entrepreneurs and managers (profit comes to the fore), there are fewer state-regulated indicators of plans and forecasts, decisions must be taken in a competitive environment, uncertainty, in the absence of complete and reliable initial data. All this limits the scope of long-term plans and forecasts, factual methods, the scope of operational and current planning, expert methods, and also the importance of recommendatory, indicative plans is growing.
V market conditions planning and forecasting is more important than in a command economy.
Sectoral planning- an integral part of the planning process for economic and social development country, which takes into account the sectoral characteristics of the production and sale of goods.
The main purpose EP is the planned and proportional development of sectors of the country's economy and ensuring compliance with a single technical and economic development policy within each of the sectors.
Key Features OP (in the field of material production) consists in the fact that at different levels of management in planning, various indicators are determined, for example, at the level of the enterprise, the volume of production, the range of products, the rate of their change and other similar indicators are determined.
At the level of the industry and the country as a whole, in addition, the social product, the final product, and the national income are determined.
Key Features OP (in the field of scientific and technical progress):
At different levels of management, planning determines different indicators. So, for example, at the level of p / n, the volume of production, the range of products, rates and changes, etc. are determined, at the level of the industry and the country as a whole, in addition, the total product (total product minus the cost of materials) is determined; national income (newly created net product value); total product - material depreciation cost.
Key Features(in the field of social development).
The need for planning and social development is explained by:
strengthening the role social factors in the life of society during the transition to the market.
The need state regulation supporting the implementation of social programs.
Unlike plans for economic development (where the task for the volume of production is given), the plans for social development provide the task for the volume of consumption of goods or services.
Social development plans assess the level of achievement of basic social standards in the following areas:
1) provision of workers with working conditions (availability of jobs, safety and comfort of work);
2) providing the population with living and recreation conditions (housing, school, medicine, culture);
3) provision of regions with natural resources and compliance of working conditions and forecasting with economic standards.
Plan indicators are mainly determined by the normative method.
Spatial planning tasks.
The specific tasks of territorial planning follow from the definition of its purpose in the Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation (Article 9, paragraph 1): “Territorial planning is aimed at defining the purpose of the territory in territorial planning documents based on a combination of social, economic, environmental and other factors in order to ensure sustainable development territory, development of engineering, transport and social infrastructures, ensuring that the interests of citizens and their associations are taken into account, Russian Federation, subjects of the Russian Federation, municipalities ".
Project proposals for territorial planning are aimed at achieving sustainable socio-economic development through the subsequent implementation of the planned activities by local self-government bodies of the urban district through urban planning, land, investment, and economic policies.
The Urban Planning Code of the Russian Federation presupposes the mutual coordination of measures for territorial planning and land use.
The procedure and the size of the determination of payments for environmental pollution, the conditions for the provision of benefits.
Payments for harmful effects on the environment are classified:
by types of harmful effects:
For emissions into the atmosphere
For discharges into water bodies (surface and underground)
For waste disposal
For noise, vibration, radiation, electromagnetic radiation, i.e. for unconventional types of harmful effects.
2) by types of payments:
Pollution payments within the limit (within the MPL and MPE) - payments are attributed to production costs.
Pollution payments in excess of the MPE, MPL, within the temporarily agreed limits of the TSV and VSL, are levied from the profit remaining with the enterprise.
Fines for over-limit pollution are levied from the profit remaining with the enterprise.
The value of MPE and MPL is set, as a rule, based on the MPC of the pollutant and technologically justified volumes of emission and discharge.
VSV and VSL are established by the relevant local authorities of the system of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation individually for each enterprise, taking into account its financial, organizational and technological capabilities.
In the general payments of the enterprise for the pollution of the OPS, the costs of the following types of environmental protection measures are protected:
To improve the efficiency of manufactured products;
To reduce resource consumption and pollution;
To reduce the concentration of toxic emissions and discharges.
2) As a matter of priority, the costs of activities, implementation of the main provisions of international agreements, regional programs for the protection of nature are to be credited against payments.
3) the costs of the activities provided for by the technical documentation are not eligible for offsetting.
For air pollution:
Мiпдв = 0.1 * mi a; Miwsv = 0.8 * mi a; where
Мiпдв and Мiвсв - the mass of the i-th type of polluting substance into the atmosphere, respectively, the maximum permissible and temporarily agreed, t / year;
mi a - actual mass of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere, t / year
0.1; 0.8 - conditional coefficients.
Then the actual mass of the emission is distributed in accordance with Mpdv and Mwsv.
Н1iа = Н1iba * Kea * 1,2, where
H2ia = H2iba * Kea * 1.2
Н1iа and Н2iа - differentiated rates of payment for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere within the maximum permissible emission limit and above the maximum permissible emission limit within the limits of the EET, respectively, rubles / ton.
Н1iba and Н2iba are the basic standards of payment for the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere within the maximum permissible emission limits and over the maximum permissible emissions within the limits of ВСВ, respectively, rubles / ton.
Kea is a coefficient that takes into account environmental factors (the state of the atmospheric air).
Differentiated by economic region. For CER = 1.9 applies with an additional area of 1.2. Ппдв = mфiпдв * Н1iа; Pvsv = mfiwsv * H2iа; Shsl = mphial * H2ia * 5; Psum = Ppdv + Pvsv + Shs / l
For pollution of water bodies Мiпдл = 0.365 * MPCi * V
Мiвл = H * Мiпдл, where
Мiпдл and Мiвл - the mass of discharge of the i-type of pollutant into water bodies, into the limit of the MPL and above the MPL within the VLR, respectively, t / year.
MPC- maximum permissible concentration of the i-type of pollutants in case of pollution of water bodies g / m3.
V- the actual volume of wastewater of the enterprise, thousand m3 / day.
For waste pollution.
Hjotx = Hjb ex * Ke ex, where
Hjotx and Hjb waste - standards of payment for waste disposal of the j-th hazard class within the established limits, differentiated and basic, respectively, rubles / ton.
Ke ex is a coefficient that takes into account environmental factors (soil condition), for CER = 1.6
Pl = mfil * Hjoth; Shs / l = mfis / l * Hjotx * 5
Fully or partially exempt from payments for environmental pollution:
Enterprises and organization of the social and cultural sphere;
Budget users of natural resources.
These benefits are provided only if the natural resource user observes the established pollution standards. Otherwise, payments are collected on a general basis.
Not recognized as a subject of payment use of water bodies for the purposes of:
Water abstraction for disaster relief;
For agricultural needs;
For fishing;
Water protection measures;
Recreation for sanitary and medical purposes, etc.
Flow methods of construction of irrigation and drainage systems, scheduling, network modeling, development of technological maps and other tools for organizing and technology of irrigation and drainage works as a means of implementing existing management methods.
The flow method is called a method of organizing construction, which ensures a systematic, rhythmic release of finished construction products on the basis of continuous and uniform work of labor collectives of the same composition, provided with a timely and complete delivery of all the necessary material and technical resources.
Continuous construction production is characterized by a continuous and even movement of a permanent composition of workers and tools both inside the facilities under construction and from one facility to another during the massive construction of buildings of the same type, which allows the most efficient use of the production capacity of construction organizations, reduce the time and cost of construction. The best results of the in-line construction method are achieved at typical housing construction projects (quarters, microdistricts, workers' settlements, villages), a complex of industrial enterprises and linear-extended objects (pipelines, power lines, communications, roads, canals, etc.).
Let us consider an example of calculating the arrangement of the set machines and constructing a flow sequence diagram when organizing work by the flow method on a 10 km long canal section using a set of concrete-laying machines MB-4, MB-5, MB-6.
The parameters of the canal are taken: width along the bottom - 2.0 m, depth - 2.0 m, slope placement 1: 1.5. The thickness of the concrete lining is 12 cm. The channel's earthen bed was prepared by general construction earth-moving machines.
The leading machine in the set will be a concrete paver MB-5 with interchangeable capacity P cm - 82 m 3 / shift (according to B-43 standards).
The length of the interchangeable grip for laying the concrete mixture is determined by the formula
ω - area cross section cladding
ω = p · δ = 9.6 · 0.12 = 1.15;
p - channel lining perimeter, 9.6 m;
δ - cladding thickness, 0.12 m.
With a distance between the transverse seams l= 4 m on one exchangeable jaw will need to be cut
total length
L = R I n= 9.2 17 = 156 r.m.,
R I is the length of the perimeter of the cladding without shoulders.
Changeable performance of the MB-6 floor saw
t t - technical productivity, r.m./h;
t p is the duration of the shift, h;
k 1 - coefficient of transition from technical to operational performance;
k 2 - coefficient of transition from operational to average hourly productivity.
Load factor of the machine for cutting seams
In free time from the main work, the seam cutter will be used to apply the film-forming compound to the concrete surface.
On the two previous concrete grabs, the track will be laid, removed from the areas after the work of the seam saw, the channel will be profiled and the soil will be moistened.
The length of the interchangeable grab for the MB-4 excavator-profiler, from the condition of its continuous operation, should be
V- working speed of movement, m / min.
At the lowest working speed of movement, the load factor of the profiler
Due to the fact that the load factor of the profiler is lower than 0.5, it is advisable to perform work with it in one shift, and concrete placement in two. Then the profiler load will be equal to
WITH- the number of shifts per day.
In free time from the main work, the profiler is used to moisten the base soil.
The process of sealing the joints is released into an independent private stream after the concrete has hardened for 5 days.
The labor productivity of insulators should be at least 71 running meters of the finished channel per shift.
When developing the flow sequence diagram, it is accepted:
the length of the interchangeable grip = 71 rm;
number of interchangeable grips n h = 1000/71 = 140;
flow rhythm t= I shift;
sealing of joints - 5 days after placing the concrete in the facing (that is, after 10 work shifts).
In this case, the duration of the full deployment of the stream
T development = ( n- one)· t= (14-1) 1 = 13 work shifts,
n= 14 - the number of captures on which construction processes(taking into account 10 grips of concrete hardening before grouting).
Total flow duration in the considered section of the channel
T = n s + T development = 140 + 13 = 153 shifts.
Length of the working front of the set
L f = n= 71 14 = 994 m.
Scheduling is an integral element of the organization of construction production at all its stages and levels. The normal course of construction is possible only when it has been thought in advance in what sequence the work will be carried out, how many workers, machines, mechanisms and other resources will be required for each work. Underestimation of this entails inconsistency in the actions of performers, interruptions in their work, delaying deadlines and, naturally, higher construction costs. To prevent such situations, a calendar plan is drawn up, which performs the function of a work schedule within the framework of the accepted construction duration. Obviously, the changeable situation at the construction site may require significant adjustments to such a plan, nevertheless, in any situation, the construction manager must clearly understand what needs to be done in the coming days, weeks, months.
The purpose of scheduling when developing a project is:
justification of the specified or identification of the technically and resource-based possible duration of the project;
determination of the timing of the project and the commissioning of individual parts of the project, as well as the timing of certain major works;
determination of the size of capital investments and scope of work in certain calendar periods;
determination of the delivery time of the main structures, materials and equipment for the implementation of the project;
determination of the required number and terms of use of personnel and basic types of equipment.
The scheduling process consists in studying the available and preparing the necessary data, determining the time parameters for the implementation of the project of the complex as a whole and the timing of the construction of individual buildings and structures that are part of it, the distribution of capital investments, the formation of production lines, drawing up schedules of resource consumption in time in accordance with estimated terms of work.
Network schedule is a graph in which all elements of the technological process are united by a network of mutual and indirect connections.
The sequence of network development is as follows:
All work to be carried out for the construction of structures is grouped so that they can be performed by one or more complex or specialized teams.
A card identifying work and network resources is being compiled
A network diagram model is being drawn up
The calculation of the parameters of the network schedule
Optimization of the network schedule
The basis for building a network diagram model should be based on:
Technological sequence of execution certain types works
The ability to simultaneously perform various types of construction and installation work and link them in time
The ability to perform various works by teams of a permanent composition
Uniform need for labor force, both for individual professions and for the whole object
Compliance with the flow of work
Compliance with the rules of labor protection and safety.
After drawing up a network diagram model, its main parameters are calculated:
Early and late beginnings and endings of works;
The duration of the critical path; works on the critical path;
General and partial reserves of time for work that are not on the critical path.
Routing contains a set of measures for the organization of labor with the most effective use of modern means of mechanization, technological equipment, tools and devices. The technological map includes the most progressive and rational methods for the technology of construction production, contributing to the reduction of terms and improvement of the quality of work, reduction of their cost. The technological map provides not only economical and high-quality, but also safe work performance, since it contains regulatory requirements and safety rules. 3. The availability of organizational and technological documents, including technological maps, and their use in construction production largely predetermine the adequacy and competitiveness of a construction organization. 4. Technological maps can be used when licensing of a construction organization- as documents confirming the readiness of the organization to carry out work, with the certification of quality systems and construction products - as enterprise standards. 5. Technological maps are developed by types of construction and installation and specialized work on technological processes, as a result of which complete structural elements of buildings and structures, as well as technological equipment, pipelines, heating, ventilation, water supply systems, etc. are created. 6. Technological map usually consists of the following sections:
Application area; - general provisions; - organization and technology of work performance; - requirements for the quality of work; - the need for material and technical resources; - safety and labor protection; - technical and economic indicators. 7. Composition technological map can be changed depending on the specifics and complexity of the technological process: shortened or supplemented with new sections. So, when developing and describing a simple technological process, there may be no sections "General provisions" and "Technical and economic indicators", when developing and describing a complex technological process, the section "Organization and technology of work performance" can be divided into two sections - "Organization of work" and "Technology of work".
Technologies of hydromeliorative works... In the process of designing the technology for the erection of monolithic and precast-monolithic structures, the student must master:
progressive technology for the production of concrete, formwork and a complex of reinforcement works and assembly of prefabricated elements;
the composition and application of the Uniform norms of production and prices;
the sequence of the design of the production of work at a separate facility.
provisions and requirements of SNiP, materials on the methodology for selecting machines, variant design of technological processes.
As starting points in the design of the production of concrete and other works, the following should be taken:
complex mechanization, flow and industrial methods of work, which reduce the construction time with strict observance and implementation of the fundamentals of the technology (basic rules) for the production of concrete works, especially the calculated intensity of laying the concrete mixture;
compliance with the zonal cut of the structure for reasons different conditions work of its individual parts and cutting into sections with temperature-sedimentary seams.
The main rules (the basis of technology and organization) for the production of concrete works are:
timely and continuous overlap of the working layers of the concrete mixture to be placed in the concreting block, i.e. overlapping of the working layers before the start of setting, before the hydration of cement in the concrete mixture begins - this causes the structure to be cut into concreting blocks of certain sizes with the maximum allowable area depending on the capacity of the concrete plant;
ensuring normal thermal and humidity conditions for concrete hardening after its laying in all conditions, especially in extreme conditions (hot time and in winter).
Compliance with the basic rules for the production of concrete work necessitates preparation for it, namely:
design of classes and selection of the composition of the concrete mix by zones for summer and winter concreting conditions;
design of the temperature regime of concrete hardening in winter and summer;
design of technological schemes for the supply and placement of concrete mixture and the necessary conditions (measures) for the reliability of their implementation in winter and summer.
Ownership of real estate, its three components. Other property rights.
Ownership of real estate Is a set of legal entities. norms fixing and protecting the ownership of real estate nat. and legal. to persons providing for a certain amount of the owner's rights in relation to the property belonging to him, the methods and limits for the exercise of these rights. Provides for the right of ownership and disposal.
Possession- physical control over the object. The ability to actually possess, have, keep on your balance sheet.
Use- the possibility of exploiting consumption by extracting useful properties.
Order- the ability to perform actions that determine the legal fate of the object (donate, sell, bequeath)
Advantages and disadvantages of a sole proprietorship in market economy... The concept of "peasant economy", the purpose of their creation. Legislative acts on the peasant (farm) economy, summary these documents.
Farming is the primary link in agricultural production and the most efficient form of management. A farm is understood as a voluntary family labor association of persons jointly leading agricultural workers. production of a commodity nature, based mainly on the personal labor of the peasant, his family members, joint ownership of the means of production, the grown products and the income (profit).
Farming is an equal and independent form of management in the agro-industrial complex, along with other forms. It independently determines the directions of its activities, the structure and size of production, sales channels, products, chooses partners for joint activities, including foreign ones, organizes the production process. Economic relations with state bodies, agricultural and other enterprises is carried out, on the basis of agreements, taxes are paid to the budget, etc.
Interference by the state and other bodies in the production, commercial and other activities of the farm is prohibited by law, except in special cases.
The maximum size of the land plot of a farm plot is determined by local authorities, taking into account local conditions, type of agricultural. activities and the possibility of processing the provided land.
If one of the members of the farm leaves its structure, the means of production in kind (with the exception of those in personal ownership) do not belong to the section, and the due share is compensated in monetary form.
When organizing a farm on an undeveloped territory, where there are no production or non-production facilities, the state can assume all or part of its primary arrangement, as well as the costs associated with the construction of reclamation systems. In this case, the corresponding investment and the created objects become the property of the farm.
Farms can volunteer to form associations. First work experience farms in our country showed that they can more flexibly and quickly respond to changes in consumer demand, are more adapted to the production of scarce types of products and therefore contribute to the diversification of the country's food market.
Legislative acts.
Law of the RSFSR from 22.11.90 N348-1 (revised from 24.12.93) “On the peasant (farm) economy. This law defines the economic, social and legal foundations of the organization and activities of the cross. (farms.) farms and their associations on the territory of the RSFSR.
Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation of 01.24.92 N44 “On measures of state support cross. (farms) farms in 1992 "
Decree of the President of the Russian Federation dated 27/07.93 Т1139 “On some measures to support cross (farms) farms and agricultural enterprises. cooperatives "
Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation of 06.21.96 N723 "On measures to stabilize the economic situation and the development of reforms in the agro-industrial complex"
Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of 29.04.94 N 406 "Issues of lending to peasant (farmer) households" Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of 24.12.93 N2287 "On carrying out the land legislation of the Russian Federation in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation."
Advantages and disadvantages of a sole proprietor in a market economy.
Peasant farm members are able-bodied family members and other citizens. One is the head of the farm.
Sources of formation of the property of peasant farms:
cash and mat. Wed KFH;
income received from the sale of products, works, services, as well as other types of activities;
income from securities;
bank loans;
gratuitous charitable contributions, donations and other sources not prohibited by law.
The property of a peasant farm belongs to its members on the basis of common share ownership. The peasant farm independently determines the direction of its activities, it can engage in any type of activity not prohibited by law, but it has preserved. As processing of agricultural products. products.
ADVANTAGES:
simplicity in design;
ease of entering the market, because agricultural market products closest to their competition;
flexibility of business activities, the ability to quickly respond to changes in market conditions;
savings on on-farm transportation;
LIMITATIONS:
Late payments for products delivered by the state;
The start-up capital is very small;
Insufficient level of knowledge and laws of a market economy;
Sales problems;
Lack of service organizations for peasant farms.
Principles and methods of forecasting social economic development.
Forecasting principles.
For forecasting as one of the stages of the planning process, all planning principles (unity, continuity, flexibility, accuracy, participation, complexity, etc.) are harnessed.
However, the specifics of forecasting require compliance with such rules as alternativeness, adequacy, probabilistic assessment of the res-in.
Alternative predictions - provides for the need to study almost all possible options for the future state of the object and ways to achieve it.
Adequacy - this requirement corresponds to the methodology of isp-x calculations to the peculiarities of the objects and processes under consideration. To assess the adequacy of isp. Truth criterion: To ist. = VP fact / VP plan . - the ratio of the actual cut to the calculated one.
Probabilistic assessment of res-in. calculation caused by the need to take into account the possible risk when assessing forecast indicators.
Expert forecasting methods:
1) direct: survey; analysis
2) methods with feedback: survey methods; analysis methods (final model); methods of collective development (generation of ideas).
Expert methods based on receiving progn information from the qualifications of expert experts.
Direct methods imply a one-time, one-time contact between an expert and a forecaster. Polling methods imply that the forecaster presents to the expert a questionnaire about the object or process of interest to us, and the expert gives answers to these questions. Based on the results of a survey of several experts, we will receive a forecast or initial data for its calculation. Analysis methods this is an independent work of an expert on a forecast, as a result we will get a forecast value.
Feedback methods provide for repeated contacts, several meetings of an expert with a forecaster, since inaccuracies are possible, both in questions and in otv. Polling methods differs in that after summarizing the results of the survey, the forecaster again comes to the expert with these results and asks to answer the same questionnaire, knowing the result of the generalized answer several times (no more than 3). Analysis methods envisage the expert's independent work on the forecast, the result of the cat is specified several times based on the results of the previous stage. The collection method was developed. ideas These are methods of a team of forecasting by a selected group of specialists.
Expert forecasting methods have a number of advantages:
Insignificant investment of time and money.
The ability to obtain long-term and ultra-long-term forecasts.
The ability to get a forecast, even in the absence of initial data.
The ability to predict qualitative, revolutionary leaps in development.
The disadvantages include:
Low accuracy and poor validity of calculations.
Psychological dependence, herd feeling when making joint decisions.
The expert method is used most often in cases where it is necessary to quickly and inexpensively obtain an approximate forecast value, as well as in the absence of initial data, in cases where it is necessary to obtain a long-term and ultra-long-term forecast.
Factographic methods.
Types of factual methods:
factor analysis
Statistical: extrapolation, correlation-regression analysis
Analogies: historical , physical
Leading: STP research , research of STI information
Factographic methods based on the use of predictive calculations of actual initial data characterizing the state of the object or process in question in the past and present.
Statistical Methods statistical and reporting data are used as initial data, and theory techniques in statistics and applied mathematics are used as calculation methods. Extrapolation methods received the greatest distribution. They are based on the transfer of previously observed trends to the future and their results are reliable, only for the period of inertia (1/3 of the period). Correlation-regression methods analysis began to be used since the 1970s (widespread use of computing technology in economic calculations). They are based on the use of functional relationships between two factors. Factor analysis so far, little is used in forecast calculations. This is mainly due to the need to collect a large amount of initial data.
Analogy methods based on the use of data obtained during the operation of a previously implemented object (historical analogy) or specially built physical models.
Advanced methods materials from special special sources of information are used as initial data.
NTP is presented in samples, models, at various exhibitions, demonstrations. And they can be used to judge the development trends in the future.
STI information makes it possible to judge development trends based on the results of publication in special literature.
Advantages:
the relative accuracy and validity of the results of forecast calculations;
the possibility of performing alternative, variant calculations.
Flaws:
the need for a large amount of initial data;
relatively large expenditures of money and time;
the need for modern computing technology, software and staff qualifications;
the impossibility of taking into account qualitative, revolutionary leaps in development.
Therefore, factual methods are usually used in cases where a more substantiated forecast result is needed, when an alternative calculation of development options is needed, and also when there is money and time for this work.
Accounting principles and rules Money and accounting for loans and borrowings.
Cash enterprises are kept in bank accounts. They are used for settlements with suppliers and buyers, with banks, financial authorities by means of non-cash transfers. Cash can be kept at the cash desk of the company within the established limit.
Credits and loans- debts of the enterprise to other organizations. Loans include the amount of shares issued and sold by the enterprise of the labor collective, bonds. Distinguish between short-term and long-term loans.
Taken in The central bank loans are provided by banks to other economic entities, but at a higher interest rate. With the help of the interest rate, the Central Bank thereby has an indirect effect on the ratio of supply and demand in the capital market. Interest rate growth, i.e. "Appreciation" of the loan, limits the size of the demand for borrowed resources and reduces the intentions of firms to increase investment. A decrease in the interest rate "makes the loan cheaper", as a result of which the private sector (households, firms) has an increased desire for investment. This incentive is realized in the form of buying shares, manufacturing equipment or building new production buildings. This is the scheme of this mechanism. V real life the effect of the parameters is, of course, not always so simple.
Organization of accounting of funds on the current account is carried out in accordance with the regulation of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation "On cashless payments in the Russian Federation", dated April 12, 2001 No. 2-P. To store free balances of funds and carry out various settlement operations, the bank opens a settlement account for organizations, the number of which is affixed in all payment documents. The following documents serve as the basis for opening a bank account: 1. Application for opening an account. 2. Two copies of bank cards with samples of signatures of the head of the organization and the chief accountant and their deputies and the seal of the organization. 3. Notarized copies of the organization's charter, memorandum of association and registration certificate. 4. Certificates of registration with tax office , The Pension Fund and the Mandatory Health Insurance Fund. If organizations are allowed to open several current accounts (this issue was resolved differently in different years), then they are obliged to submit information on all current accounts to the tax office on a quarterly basis. The receipt of cash from the organization's cash desk to the bank is formalized by an announcement for a cash contribution. This document is a written order of the organization to the bank for crediting cash to its current account. It is written out in one copy with ink or paste. The bank issues a receipt for the money received. The basis for receiving funds from the current account to the cashier is a check for receiving money in cash (not to be confused with a checking check). The organization receives checkbooks from the bank upon written application. Each checkbook sheet consists of a spine and a check. The issued check is torn off and serves as the basis for receiving money in the bank, and the spine remains in the checkbook. In the bank of each organization, a personal account is opened, which reflects the movement of funds. Own funds are taken into account on the current account of the organization, therefore, from the standpoint of the organization, the current account is active. From the point of view of the bank, the settlement account of the organization is passive, since the borrowed funds are taken into account on it. The bank regularly submits to the organization an extract from the current account with the attachment of supporting documents. The credit of the statement reflects the receipt of funds to the settlement account of the organization, the debit is written off. The bank statement is processed by machine, therefore it is sent to the organization in a coded form. For decryption in the accounting department of the organization, there is a template for the statement. The form of execution of statements in different banks may differ due to different service equipment. After a thorough check of each statement amount, reconciliation with the primary documents, the accountant affixes the correspondence of the accounts, reflecting the debit records of the credit statement of the current account, and the credit records of the debit of the current account. Thus, the control functions of the bank statement are as follows: 1. Mutual control over the movement of funds on the current account is carried out. 2. The statement is the analytical accounting register the only basis for the synthetic accounting of funds in the current account. For synthetic accounting of funds on the current account, the main active cash account 51 "Settlement accounts" is intended. The opening and closing balance reflects the availability of funds at the beginning and end of the reporting period. The turnovers on the debit of the account show the receipt, the turnovers on the loan, the debiting of funds from the current account. Primary accounting of funds on the current account is carried out according to primary documents (payment orders, claims, checks, letters of credit, etc.). Analytical accounting is carried out according to bank statements on debit and credit of account. 51. The data of bank statements are reflected in ZhO No. 2, according to which synthetic accounting for the current account is carried out. In turn, ZhO No. 2 is the basis for filling out Ch. books and balance. When using computer technology, effective information is formed in the machine chart "Statement of cash and settlements". The receipt of funds to the current account is reflected according to Dt 51 in correspondence with the accounts:
CT 62 - from buyers for products sold, work performed, services received, advances received by way of prepayment; CT 50 - depositing cash from the cash desk; CT 76 - from debtors to repay the debt; Кт 52, 55 - from foreign currency and special accounts in the bank; Kt 66, 67 - receipt of short-term and long-term credits and loans; Kt 91 - received fines, penalties, penalties; proceeds from the sale of assets (except for finished goods); Kt 90 - proceeds from the sale of finished products. The write-off of funds from the current account is reflected according to CT 51. Depending on the direction of use of funds, the following accounts are debited: Дт 68 - transfer of taxes to the budget; Дт 69 - transfer of the unified social tax; Dt 50 - cash to the cashier for the payment of wages, for travel and business expenses; Дт 60 - to suppliers for purchased material values, to contractors for work performed, services rendered, advances issued by way of advance payment; Дт 76 - to various creditors in order to pay off the debt;
Forecasting the development of regions and sectors of the economy in a market economy.
The purpose of regional forecasting and planning is to ensure an integrated and most effective socio-economic development of the region. Its purpose is to substantiate the directions and prospects for the development of the region, to provide information material for the development of economic and social policies and the adoption of appropriate management decisions. Its probabilistic nature is increasing due to the high degree of uncertainty in the market economy. Regional planning includes a territorial section of a forecast plan for the country's economic and social development and comprehensive forecast plans for the socio-economic development of regions, districts, cities, etc. The central section of territorial forecast plans includes indicators characterizing the main parameters of regional development, in particular, the volume of production by industry, sales of paid services, etc.
However, to assess the performance of the regions, not only sectoral, but also generalizing indicators should be used, in particular, gross regional products (GRP). It characterizes the final results of economic activity of both the branches of material production and the service sector. Created on the territory of the region, the GRP includes the income of all enterprises, organizations and the population received in both areas, as well as depreciation deductions.
Justification of promising directions for improving the regional structure of the national economy is carried out on the basis of strategic goals and objectives, taking into account those affecting their implementation factors... For this, an appropriate system of qualitative and quantitative characteristics is being developed. It reflects the features of the transition to market relations and integration Russia into the world economy while stabilizing its economic development: the formation and effective use of production potential, the impact of a new geopolitical position, the state of the environment, the need for radical organizational and market reforms, etc. parameters.
When forecasting and planning the development of regions, basically the same methods are used as at the state level. For the implementation of the outlined priorities, structural shifts, and a comprehensive solution to social and economic problems, first of all, the program-target method is used, and target programs are developed. An important role in ensuring the proportionality and balance of the regional economy is played by the balance method based on the system of territorial balances. These are balances of labor resources, financial resources, cash income and expenditures of the population, the main types of material resources. However, the most widely used is the normative method based on a system of economic and social norms and standards. Differentiated social norms and standards, which characterize the provision of the population with the main types of material goods and services, play a goal-oriented role in forecasting and planning the development of regions.
In modern conditions, the most acceptable are search forecasts, which determine the value of the parameters for a specific period under changing conditions. The methods of expert assessments and logical modeling are widely used, which qualitatively characterize the development of the predicted phenomenon and proceed from the general laws of economic development. The use of these methods is associated with the need to take into account the scenario of economic development and its consequences.
Forecast and planned calculations financial indicators are calculated using various methods. Most often - methods of extrapolation, normative, mathematical modeling (or matrix method), balance, expert assessments.
Calculations are made using extrapolation financial indicators with the identification of their dynamics. The calculations are based on the indicators of the reporting period, adjusting them to a relatively stable rate of change in region.
The normative method is based on the use of established norms and standards in the social and production spheres.
Mathematical modeling (matrix method) consists in constructing financial models simulating the course of real economic and social processes.
To coordinate the directions of use financial resources with sources of their formation in region for the forecast period, linking all sections financial of plans, the balance method is applied to each other.
The method of expert assessments is based on proposals made and substantiated by competent specialists in certain branches of science, the national economy, regional economy.
Regional forecasting developments are distinguished by a number of specific features. They are characterized by a relatively narrow range of predicted parameters, lower reliability and stability in comparison with economic plans (with a relatively wide implementation mechanism), more general indicators at the upper (federal) level and specific, detailed at the following (subjects Federation). In these forecasts reflects the specifics of regulation market economy- a combination of the self-regulation mechanism with the administrative and legal principles of planning.
World practice shows the prevalence of opportunistic short-term regional development forecasts. At the same time, there is an increasing interest in identifying medium and long term trends in economic growth to determine the most profitable areas capital investment and expanding global markets. In this case, they usually proceed from an assessment of the primary resources of production and social demand especially solvent demand population (with him and begin forecast).
Prospective designs, in addition to factor analysis, can be based on target (normative) or genetic ( extrapolation) methods. Market economy its instability makes it difficult to use the targeted approach, but interest in it remains both at the country and regional levels. For in a regulated market, national and regional goals become important, priorities and standards whose achievement is not only desirable, but often and urgently necessary. Still, "market" regional forecasts largely boil down to identifying emerging and emerging trends development. At the same time, one should distinguish between long-term strategic goals and trends and the nearest, requiring urgent measures.
A systematic approach to regional forecasting primarily affects the relations between the country and the region. V forecast you can go deductive way, from the general to the particular, from the national economy to the economy a separate region (using a predominantly targeted method). In practice, in market conditions, it is more convenient inductive path, from the region, its own prerequisites and trends development (using mainly a genetic approach).
Methodical arsenal regional forecasts quite wide. When substantiating the forecast indicators, they are used based on the modern theory of regional the economy and a comprehensive location of production traditional and newest methods of economic and technical and economic analysis. It should be noted that they can reflect not only purely quantitative, but also qualitative methodological techniques, designate directions and ways of implementing regional strategy and tactics. This approach is very common in schemes for the development and distribution of productive forces, in other territorial-forecasting developments and the corresponding teaching materials. A common generalizing method of forecasting is the development of future scenarios with a variant study on an alternative basis, using a probabilistic approach (i.e., taking into account the expected impact of certain factors). Some authors propose to include in scenarios schemes (matrices) of interaction of economic, social, scientific, technical and others interests arising when solving a regional problem. The indicated conceptual methodological approaches are formalized, implemented in quantitative methods, techniques calculations. They are used in various combinations, categorized into four main groups:
expert assessment methods, including Delphi method- identification of coinciding assessments during autonomous poll experts;
Methods extrapolations(using a genetic approach);
Graphic method, method of mathematical functions; reception based on the ratio with benchmark and correlations; way of geographical analogues; a comparative evaluation methodology with the help of indices- territorial (base - the average level for the country) and dynamic (base - the level of the reporting period);
Normative method (specification of the target and scenario
approaches);
Balance and optimization methods, including economic and mathematical modeling.
Given the specifics of modern market economy, its regulation by the state, it is recommended evaluation of results to produce regional development according to a three-criterion system of indicators - commercial, regional and interregional (national economic) efficiency. The effectiveness of any emerging sectoral component of the territorial complex can be identified from the results of upcoming territorial placement shifts industries taking into account regional differences in the main indicators ( investment, wages, labor productivity, etc.)
Long-term data forecast should form the basis of training forecasts and programs for the medium term, and the latter are the basis of short-term forecasts and programs. The regional aspect of forecasting is reflected in government deepening programs economic reform, stabilization and economic development Russia.
Labor productivity is the most important indicator of the efficiency of crop production on reclaimed land.
Labor productivity- the economic category characterizes the efficiency of the use of labor. This is the ratio between working time and the amount of products produced. The more products are produced per unit of work. time, or the less time is spent on the production of a unit of production, the higher this indicator.
Labor productivity- This is an indicator of the efficiency of labor activity of workers, the ratio of the cost of resources used to the cost of manufactured products.
Labor productivity is determined by the ratio of the amount of goods and services produced to the cost of labor. The development of society and the level of well-being of the population depend on labor productivity.
Labor productivity(P) is calculated by the formula
P = O / H
where O is the amount of work per unit of time; H is the number of employees.
An important role in solving the food problem is played by comprehensive targeted programs for the production of crop products. They have been developed for all major industries - grain farming, fodder production, vegetable growing, potato growing, etc. Based on the use of highly efficient agricultural technology, fertilizers, plant protection products, new high-yielding varieties and means of mechanization, it is planned to increase the gross grain harvest and increase labor productivity.
Comprehensive target programs have been developed to improve the efficiency of the use of reclaimed land and water resources, productivity and soil protection, rational use of fertilizers; on the creation and development of production and the use of effective chemical and biological means of protecting plants and animals from pests, diseases, weeds, safe for humans and the environment.
Distinguish between the productivity of living and aggregate labor. The productivity of living labor is determined by the cost of working time in a given production, and the productivity of aggregate (social) labor is determined by the cost of living and social labor. As production improves, labor productivity increases, but at the same time the amount of living and social labor costs per unit of output decreases.
Labor productivity acts as an intensive factor in increasing the volume of production; change in the mass of expenditure of working time is an extensive factor.
The level of labor productivity is measured by the production of products per unit of time, and the labor intensity of manufacturing products.
Production is the amount of products produced per unit of working time or per one mid-term employee per year (quarter, month). This is a direct value of labor productivity: it increases with an increase in labor productivity and decreases with a decrease.
Labor productivity- an economic category that characterizes the efficiency of the use of labor; it is the ratio between working time and the amount of products received. The more products are produced per unit of labor time, i.e. the less time is spent on the production of a unit of output, the higher this indicator. The essence of productivity growth lies in saving time.
Labor productivity in agriculture is characterized by a system of direct and indirect indicators. Direct costs are defined as the ratio of products produced to the amount of time spent. Indirect indicators are calculated taking into account the amount of work performed.
Labor productivity can also be expressed using the reciprocal, which is characterized as the cost of working time per unit of output, i.e. labor intensity. Distinguish between labor intensity of production (person * hour / c) and labor intensity of culture (person * hour / ha) Level of labor productivity for grain production
Increasing labor productivity is one of the most important factors in increasing the efficiency of agricultural production. Labor productivity is measured by the amount of output produced per unit of labor time. The more output is produced per unit of labor time, or the less labor time is spent on the production of a unit of output, the higher is labor productivity.
To characterize labor productivity in agriculture, a system of indicators is used, which are divided into direct and reverse, complete and incomplete, indirect, natural and cost.
A direct indicator of labor productivity is the output per unit of labor time, i.e.
Fri = Bn: T ,
where Bn - volume of products received;
T- labor costs (working time).
When determining labor productivity, products are taken into account in natural units and in value (monetary terms). Labor costs (working time) are expressed in man-days, man-hours, full-time and average annual workers.
Labor productivity can also be judged by the inverse ratio, which reflects the labor intensity of production, i.e. t= T: Bn.
Full indicators of labor productivity reflect the efficiency of the aggregate labor that creates a certain product (grain, potatoes, vegetables, etc.)
Indirect indicators of labor productivity are a combination of two factors of production, one of which is labor (for example, the area planted with potatoes per 1 field worker, etc.).
Natural indicators of labor productivity are determined for a particular industry (in grain production, vegetable growing, etc.). In this case, the products are accounted for in natural units (kg, c, t, pcs., Etc.).
Comparable cost indicators of labor productivity are calculated for the industry or the economy as a whole, and for this, heterogeneous products are converted into comparable terms by means of prices.
Industrial and social infrastructure of the agro-industrial complex.
The infrastructure includes enterprises and organizations serving the agro-industrial complex. They provide general conditions for the development of production and human life. According to its purpose, the infrastructure as an integral system is subdivided into production and social.
The industrial infrastructure includes: a system of material and technical services (electricity, gas, water supply, etc.); a system of material and technical supply and procurement of agricultural products, elevator, refrigeration and storage facilities; a system for bringing products to the consumer (distribution refrigerators, wholesale depots, etc.); transport and communications to service the production needs of all branches and enterprises of the agro-industrial complex.
The production structure of the agro-industrial complex ensures the interconnection of all phases of the reproduction process: production, distribution, exchange and consumption. The task of the production infrastructure is to ensure the normal functioning of agricultural enterprises, freeing them from unusual functions and focusing their efforts on their core activities. The efficiency of the production infrastructure is expressed in increasing production, maintaining quality and eliminating the loss of agricultural products.
The social infrastructure is formed by: preschool institutions, bodies of education, education, science; institutions of health care, sports, environmental protection; housing and communal services; retail and catering; public transport, communications; information service; occupational health and safety service. The task of the social infrastructure is to ensure normal life, reproduction and consolidation of the labor force. The efficiency of the functioning of the social infrastructure of the agro-industrial complex is expressed in an increase in labor productivity and the standard of living of its workers.
Consequently, production and social infrastructures serve all stages of agro-industrial production. Therefore, their role in increasing the level of intensification and efficiency of the agro-industrial complex is steadily increasing.
The agro-industrial complex is characterized by particular complexity. The ratio of the industries included in it expresses its structure. It can be viewed from different angles.
The organizational and financial structure of the agro-industrial complex includes three areas.
Industries producing means of production for all parts of the agro-industrial complex.
Agriculture producing food and agricultural raw materials.
Industries that ensure the delivery of agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing of agricultural products, their storage, transportation and sale). These include: food, meat, dairy, fish, large-scale flour, compound feed, as well as light industry operating on agricultural raw materials, trade in food products.
The reproductive and functional structure of the agro-industrial complex consists of five stages of agro-industrial production.
Production of means of production.
Agricultural production.
Food production, consumer goods from agricultural raw materials.
Production and technical maintenance of all stages of the reproductive process.
Implementation final product Agro-industrial complex to the consumer.
The reproductive and functional structure of the agro-industrial complex shows the ratio of the main technological stages of production of the final product of the agro-industrial complex and the role of each of them in the formation of its value. The main direction of improving the reproductive and functional structure of the agro-industrial complex is to optimize the proportion of development between the individual and all together stages of a single reproduction process of the final agro-industrial complex product.
The territorial (regional) structure of the agro-industrial complex includes a set of relevant industries within a given territory, i.e. on the scale of the republic, region and district. Territorial agro-industrial complex of districts and regions are constituent elements of the unified agro-industrial complex of the republic. Their main target function is to optimize the size of production of agricultural and industrial products from agricultural raw materials of their own production for the needs of the local population and for sale and exchange with consumers of other regional agro-industrial complexes. A distinctive feature of the regional agro-industrial complex is that the specialization of agricultural production in a particular region accordingly affects the specialization of their agro-industrial complex.
The food and raw materials structure of the agro-industrial complex includes a food complex and a complex of non-food products. The food complex includes subcomplexes: grain, potato, sugar beet, fruit and vegetable, vodka and wine, meat, dairy, and fat and oil. The complex of non-food products includes the following subcomplexes: fodder, textile, leather, fur, etc.
The main target function of food and raw materials complexes and subcomplexes is the maximum satisfaction of the needs of the population in the corresponding types of products.
Travel, nodal and estimated costs in the sections of the water supply network. Fundamentals of hydraulic network calculation.
The purpose of the hydraulic calculation of the network is to determine the economically most advantageous pipe diameters and head losses in the pipeline. An economically viable pipe diameter is such that the reduced costs for the construction and operation of the pipeline will be minimal. The minimum diameter of the pipeline, combined with the fire-prevention one, cannot be assigned less than 100 mm. The network is divided into calculated sections with a length of no more than 800 m. The sections are delimited by nodes. Nodes are assigned at all points of the network where there are concentrated water flows, as well as at all points of intersection of the line and changes in the diameter of the pipes, and are numbered (1, 2, 3, etc.). Areas are designated and specific, travel, nodal and estimated costs are determined. Specific water withdrawal, that is, withdrawal per second per 1 m of pipe length, is determined by the formula
qsp = Q0 / Sl, where Q0 is the water flow, evenly distributed along the length of the network, l / s; equal to the difference between the total estimated flow and concentrated; l is the length of the entire distribution network, m.
Travel water discharge
qпi = qsp Li, where Li is the length of the section, m.
In addition to the track flow rate of water, a transit flow rate qtr passes through each calculated section, feeding the underlying network sections. Consequently, the water flow at the beginning of any section of the pipeline is qtr + qp, and at the end - qtr. Water consumption of the line supplying both travel and transit costs:
q = qtr + 0.5qpi. (9)
To simplify further calculations, the travel costs of the water of the sections give to the nodal ... The nodal water consumption is taken to be equal to the half-sum of the travel costs of water in the areas adjacent to this node:
According to the planned water consumption for each section of the network, the economically most profitable pipe diameters are determined
dek = 1.13 q uch / Vek
where quch is the estimated water consumption at the site, m3 / s; Vek - the speed of water movement in pipes, take no more than 2.5 m / s from the condition of preventing water hammer and not less than 0.5 m / s from the condition of non-clogging or non-overgrowing of pipes.
1) At each section of the network, we determine the travel costs (the expense given to the sections along the way):
q put = q Wed * L uch [l / s]
2) The estimated flow rate is determined by the formula:
q i = q i -1 ± ∆q
q i - design flow
q i -1 - previous consumption
∆q - correction flow
3) The nodal flow rate is determined by the formula (flow rate out of the unit):
Q knot = 0,5 ∑ q put + Q sosr
q put - track flow rate, adjacent areas.
Q sop - consumption concentrated in the node.
Hydraulic calculation of water supply networks is performed in order to determine the head losses in them and the diameters of pipes of individual sections of the network. The head loss must be known to determine the height of the water tower and the required head of pumping stations. The water supply network should be designed for the cases of the highest water consumption and the moment of fire, which coincides in time with the hour of maximum water consumption.
When determining the pipe diameters of network sections, you need to know the estimated water consumption for these sections, that is, the amount of water that will pass through them during the estimated periods of the system's operation.
Friction head loss in pipes:
λ - coefficient of head loss due to friction along the length;
l is the length of the pipe section;
d is the calculated inner diameter of the pipe;
V is the average speed of water movement;
q is the acceleration of gravity.
where, A - resistivity, depending on the diameter of the pipe and the mode of water movement.
K - correction factor for non-squareness.
h = i * l, where i is the hydraulic slope.
Development of linear schedules and network schedules, adjusting them in time.
Scheduling is an integral element of the organization of construction production at all stages and levels. The normal course of construction is possible only when it has been thought in advance in what sequence the work will be carried out, how many workers, machines, mechanisms and other resources will be required for each work. Underestimation of this entails inconsistency in the actions of performers, interruptions in their work, delaying deadlines and, naturally, higher construction costs. To prevent such situations, a calendar plan is drawn up, which performs the function of a work schedule within the framework of the accepted construction duration. Obviously, the changeable situation at the construction site may require significant adjustments to such a plan, nevertheless, in any situation, the construction manager must clearly understand what needs to be done in the coming days, weeks, months. The duration of construction is assigned, as a rule, according to the norms (SNiP 1.04.03-85 * Standards for the duration of construction ...) depending on the size and complexity of the objects under construction, for example, the area of irrigation and drainage systems, types and capacities of industrial enterprises, etc. In some cases, the duration of construction can be planned different from the normative (most often in the direction of tightening the terms), if required by the needs of production, special conditions, environmental programs, etc. For objects erected in difficult natural conditions, an increase in the duration of construction is permissible, but this must always be properly justified. In construction practice, simplified planning methods are often used, when, for example, only a list of works with the timing of their implementation is drawn up without proper optimization. However, such planning is permissible only when solving small current problems during construction. When planning large projects for the entire construction period, careful work is needed to select the most appropriate sequence of construction and installation works, their duration, the number of participants, it is necessary to take into account many factors mentioned above. For these reasons, various forms of scheduling are used in construction, allowing in their own way to optimize the planned course of work, the possibility of maneuvers, etc. linear calendar charts network schedules In addition, depending on the breadth of the tasks to be solved, the required degree of detail of decisions, there are different types of schedules that are used at different levels of planning. When developing schedules in PIC and PPR, the best results are achieved when several versions of the schedule are drawn up, and the most effective one is selected. Types of schedules (schedules). There are four types of calendar schedules, depending on the breadth of the tasks to be solved and the type of documentation they include. All types of calendar schedules should be closely related to each other. The consolidated schedule (schedule) in the POS determines the sequence of the construction of objects, i.e. start and end dates of each object, the duration of the preparatory period and the entire construction as a whole. For the preparatory period, as a rule, a separate calendar schedule is drawn up. The existing norms (SNiP 3.01.01-85 *) provide for the preparation of calendar plans in cash in the POS, i.e. in thousand rubles with distribution by quarters or years (for the preparatory period - by months). For complex objects, especially water management and hydraulic engineering, additional summary schedules are drawn up, oriented to physical volumes. When drawing up calendar plans for the construction of hydraulic and water management structures, it is required, as already noted, a careful coordination of the course construction works with the timing of the passage of water flows in the river, the timing of blocking the channel and filling the reservoir. All these terms should be clearly reflected in the calendar plan. During the reconstruction of such facilities, minimum interruptions in the operation of the hydroelectric complex or hydraulic structure must be ensured. At the stage of developing a consolidated schedule, the issues of dividing construction into queues, start-up complexes, technological units are being resolved. Calendar plan signed by the chief engineer of the project and the customer (as the coordinating authority). The object schedule in the PPR determines the sequence and timing of each type of work at a specific facility from the beginning of its construction to commissioning. Typically, such a plan is broken down by month or day, depending on the size and complexity of the object. The object schedule (schedule) is developed by the compiler of the PPR, i.e. a general contractor or a specialized design organization involved for this. When developing calendar plans for the reconstruction or technical re-equipment of an industrial enterprise, it is necessary to agree on all terms with this enterprise. Working schedules are usually drawn up by the production and technical department of a construction organization, less often by line personnel during the period of construction and installation work. Such schedules are not developed for a week, a month, or several months. The most widely used are not daily schedules. Working scheduling is an element of operational planning, which must be carried out continuously throughout the entire construction period. The purpose of work schedules, on the one hand, is the detailing of the object schedule and, on the other, a timely response to all kinds of changes in the situation at the construction site. Work schedules are the most common type of scheduling. As a rule, they are compiled very quickly and often have a simplified form, i.e., as practice shows, they are not always properly optimized. Nevertheless, they usually take into account the actual situation at the construction site better than others, since they are drawn up by persons directly involved in this construction site. This especially applies to taking into account weather conditions, the peculiarities of interaction between subcontractors, the implementation of various rationalization proposals, i.e. factors that are difficult to account for in advance. Hourly (minute) charts in technological charts and maps of work processes are drawn up by the developers of these charts. Such schedules are usually carefully thought out, optimized, but they are focused only on typical (most likely) working conditions. In specific situations, they may require significant adjustments. Simplified forms of scheduling. In short-term planning, as already noted, in construction practice, a simplified form of scheduling is often used in the form of a list of works with deadlines. This form is not clear and is not suitable for optimization, but when solving current problems for the coming days or weeks, it is acceptable due to the simplicity and speed of its preparation. Usually this is the result of an agreement on the timing of work between the performers, which is recorded in the form of a protocol of a technical meeting, an order from a general contractor, or another current document. The simplified form should also include construction planning in cash. In this case, some optimization is possible, but it solves such issues only in an extremely generalized form, since it relates primarily to the financing of construction. The calendar plan in monetary terms is usually drawn up in especially large volumes of work, when a whole object or a complex of objects acts as a planning element. Such plans are typical, for example, for POS. Linear calendar charts Linear calendar chart (Ganges chart) is a table "work (objects) - time", in which the duration of work is depicted as horizontal line segments. Such a schedule provides opportunities for optimizing construction and installation work according to a variety of criteria, including the uniform use of labor, machinery, building materials, etc. The advantage of line charts is also their clarity and simplicity. The development of such a schedule includes the following stages: drawing up a list of works for which a schedule is made determining their production methods and volumes determining the labor intensity of each type of work by calculations based on existing time rates, aggregated rates or local experience data drawing up an initial version of the schedule, i.e. preliminary determination of the duration and calendar dates for each work with the display of these dates on the schedule; optimization of the calendar schedule, i.e. ensuring a uniform need for resources, primarily in the labor force), ensuring the timely completion of construction, etc., setting the final calendar dates for work and the number of performers. The results of each stage of development, the schedule must be carefully verified, because errors, as a rule, are not compensated for at subsequent stages. For example, if at the first stage the volume of any work is estimated incorrectly, its duration and deadlines will be incorrect, and optimization will be imaginary. When determining the labor intensity of work, it is necessary to pay special attention to the reality of the calculations, taking into account the specific working conditions. The latter can differ significantly from those accepted in the norms, therefore the compiler of the schedule must be well acquainted with the actual construction conditions. The main disadvantage of line charts is the difficulty of correcting them in case of violations of the initial terms of work or changes in the conditions for their implementation. These disadvantages are eliminated with another form of scheduling - network schedules. Network graphics The network graph is based on the use of another mathematical model - the graph. Graphs (outdated synonyms: network, maze, map, etc.) are called "a set of vertices and a set of ordered or unordered pairs of vertices" by mathematicians. In a more familiar (but less precise) language for an engineer, a graph is a collection of circles (rectangles, triangles, etc.) connected by directed or non-directional line segments. In this case, the circles themselves (or other figures used) in the terminology of graph theory will be called "vertices", and the non-directional segments connecting them - "edges", directed (arrows) - "arcs". If all segments are directed, the graph is called directed, if undirected - undirected. The most common type of network work schedule is a system of circles and directed segments (arrows) connecting them, where arrows represent the works themselves, and the circles at their ends ("events") - the beginning or end of these works.
Markets. Their classification and characteristics.
The concept of the market is ambiguous. For the convenience of research, economists have divided the markets into classes according to certain criteria, that is, signs. Below are the most commonly used signs of classification of markets and a brief description of these markets.
By the role of market participants
Distinguish seller's market and buyer's market... On the seller's market a “shortage” situation arises, in which the value of the buyers' demand for the goods on the market exceeds the value of the supply of these goods from the side of the seller. Therefore, prices in the seller's market are usually high, as well as competition between buyers for the right to buy goods. Buyer's market characterized by a situation of "excess", in which the value of the supply of goods exceeds the value of the demand for them. In such a market, the market rule is observed: “The buyer is always right!”, Therefore, in the buyer's market, prices are usually low, and the competition between sellers for the “votes” of buyers is high.
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