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What is international economic relation. The system of international economic relations of the modern world economy

The main forms of international economic relations (IER) are international trade, international movement of capital, international labor migration, international economic integration. In addition, at the present stage, international specialization of production and scientific and technical work, monetary and financial relations and relations between countries, international tourism, etc., are of great importance.

At the present stage, the decisive role in the development of international economic relations belongs to international trade. In the previous question, we noted that the operation of the law of internationalization of production determines the process of internationalization of the market, the operation of the law of outstripping growth of foreign trade compared to the growth of production. If in 1913 - 1939. production growth (43%) outpaced the growth of international trade (19%), then in 1981 - 1996. world trade grew 1.6 times faster than production.

world trade- a form of international economic relations, which is based on a deep international division of labor, the specialization of individual countries in the production of certain economic goods in accordance with their technical and economic level, natural, geographical and other conditions.

The world market is a developed sphere of commodity exchange based on MRI.

Enterprises and organizations of Ukraine carry out foreign trade operations with partners from 139 countries of the world.

IN modern conditions There are certain patterns in world trade. Within the framework of the law of outstripping growth of foreign trade, the following regularities operate:

1 - outstripping growth of trade in services compared to the growth rate of international trade. So, if it takes less than 8 years to double the volume of trade in services, then for the corresponding growth in international trade it takes about 15 years. In 1970, the volume of exports of services amounted to 80 billion dollars, then in 1995 - more than 1 trillion. US dollars, which is more than a third of all world exports. This is due to the growing role of the export of services in the process of expanded reproduction (material product, the main productive force, the economic relations themselves both at the national and international levels), a significant reduction in transport costs, an expansion of the share of services in the implementation of trade in typical goods (for example, services of insurance companies ) and other factors. The volume of turnover of services in the total volume of Ukraine's foreign trade in 2007 was 5.5 billion dollars. USA (about 19%), the main share of which was accounted for by transport services.

2 - outpacing growth of trade in finished products compared to trade in the fuel and raw materials group, and within the first group - trade in machinery and equipment. Trade in machinery and equipment with Russia in 2011 had a positive balance of 4.2 billion dollars, with the EU - a negative balance of 6.1 billion dollars.

Our exports in 2011 are dominated by raw products in metallurgy - ferrous metals and products made from them.

3 - a gradual increase in trade in semi-finished products, individual parts, products from which a complex finished product is assembled. In the 1990s, about 60% of the world's trade in machinery accounted for component parts and products.

4 - an increase in the share of intercompany exchange in world trade. This share in the 90s was more than 35%, while in the 70s it was only 20%. This is due to the growth of powerful TNCs, an increase in the number of their branches. TNCs are increasingly monopolizing the service sector, which leads to the growth of intra-company trade.

5 - outstripping rates of trade between the developed countries of the world, which account for more than 70%, the share of underdeveloped countries of the world is 22-24%. Former socialist countries-6-8%.

6 - in the field of international trade, the law of unevenness operates. The United States, Japan and Germany, with less than 10% of the population, account for 35% of international trade. The eight leading countries of the world account for more than 65% of world exports and 50% of world imports, and four countries (USA, UK, Germany and France) account for about 45% of world exports of services. The unevenness in the sphere of international trade is due to the uneven economic development.

7 - an increase in the share of products produced with the help of intellectually information-saturated labor in the exports of developed countries. Leading positions in trade in such goods are occupied by Japan and the United States.

8 - strengthening the role of the state and over state regulation.

9 - gradual liberalization of international trade - average value customs tariffs decreased from 33% in the seventies to 5% in the 90s.

The action of these patterns determines the gradual growth of international trade in national reproduction, which is manifested in an increase in the volume of foreign trade in relation to the gross domestic product.

The rapid growth of the service sector, including international trade in services, is due to the fourth major social division of labor, a high standard of living in the developed countries of the world, the law of increasing needs, a significant acceleration of scientific and technological revolution, increased capital migration and work force. International trade in services has a number of features: the presence of direct contracts between service producers and consumers, an increase in the volume of international trade in services as foreign trade in goods grows (because for them successful implementation, especially complex goods, it is necessary to provide an increasing number of transport, information, consulting, after-sales and other services), greater protection of the service sector (providing research and development) from foreign competition from states and supranational bodies.

The main types of services in world trade are: 1) services related to foreign trade - transportation, insurance of goods; 2) services related to the exchange of technologies (trade in licenses, "know-how"); engineering, management, etc.; 3) social and cultural services; 4) banking services - the implementation of international settlements, leasing operations; 5) services related to the international migration of labor.

Maritime transport has the largest share of services related to world trade in goods. In the last two decades, air transport has become a serious competitor to maritime transport, especially when it comes to the transportation of valuable cargo. The international chamber of commerce deals with the regulation of the basic terms of supply.

The general goal of state regulation of foreign economic activity is to create favorable conditions for expanded reproduction within the country, in particular for the appropriation of maximum profits by national and transnational companies. In the process of realizing this goal, there is a contradictory combination of protectionism and liberalization.

Protectionism is a public policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition and assisting national companies in their penetration into foreign markets. In contrast, liberalism is a public policy aimed at reducing tariffs and other restrictions on foreign trade.

The system of protectionism is carried out through high tariffs on goods imported from abroad, the introduction of tariff restrictions, which include quantitative and currency restrictions, as well as through the establishment of increased requirements for technical, sanitary standards, and taxation in the domestic market. In recent decades, developed countries have used about 800 types of various non-tariff barriers, with the help of which they restrained up to 50% of imports of goods. A characteristic feature of protectionism in modern conditions is the approval of collective and selective protectionism, which is carried out

Member countries of integration groupings in relation to third countries. To the greatest extent, such protectionism is characteristic of the EU countries. On the other hand, the underdeveloped countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America have created 15 closed economic groupings within which trade is being liberalized, and various protectionist measures are being taken against third countries.

State regulation of international trade is supplemented by supranational - from international organizations, primarily from the GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, now the WTO). This organization was founded in Geneva in 1947.

Initially, 23 countries were authorized members, and in 2000. it already included 129 countries, which accounted for 90% of world trade Ukraine joined the WTO in 2007. The main task of creating the WTO at the present stage was to ensure complete freedom of trade through "linkages", i.e. providing the opportunity to pursue certain forms of protectionist policies while liberalizing imports of goods. The transformation of the GATT into the WTO was accompanied by the inclusion of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) and an agreement on trade issues of intellectual property rights.

Another form of international economic relations is the export of capital. In the twentieth century, the export of capital begins to prevail over the export of goods. This is due to the process of monopolization of production, the emergence and development of large monopolistic associations, the emergence of TNCs, which concentrated huge capital in their hands and were looking for ways to make the most profitable investment. In the 1990s, the rate of return of American TNCs in developing countries was twice as high as at home. The reason for this was cheap labor, raw materials, etc.

The export of capital is also determined by the operation of the law of uneven development, in particular, the uneven development of some countries and regions of the world economy. In a country that occupies a leading position, the process of creating excess capital is faster, which can be used within the country, but is looking for ways to use it more profitably. In addition, the export of capital is caused by the asynchronous nature of the flow of the capitalist cycle, the presence of protectionist barriers that prevent the export of goods, the process of internationalization of production, and other reasons.

The export of capital is carried out in two main forms - entrepreneurial and loan. The export of entrepreneurial capital occurs through investments in industry, transport, agricultural, banking enterprises, through new construction or the purchase of existing enterprises through the acquisition of shares. This leads to the formation of property abroad.

Loan capital is exported in the form of short-term or long-term loans and credits. This makes it possible to receive a fixed income in the form of interest, but does not lead to the formation of property abroad. The total amount of capital that operates abroad is foreign investment. Over time, their source expands due to the capitalization of surplus value, the use of depreciation deductions, the issue of shares, etc. When exporting entrepreneurial capital, investments are divided into direct (provide the opportunity to exercise control over the enterprise, for which it is enough to purchase 10% of the shares) and portfolio (which make it possible to not for control, but for profit).

According to sources of financing, state, non-state (private, group) and supranational types of capital are distinguished. Within the framework of state capital, such forms of capital as loans, grants, assistance are distinguished. Non-state export of capital can be carried out by legal entities and individuals, private (individual or family) and group investors in the form of capital investments, interbank lending, trade loans, etc. Along with them, marketing, management, engineering services are provided, leasing operations are carried out, which contain certain investment opportunities. important role among various forms investments play direct investment. This is due to the fact that their subjects exercise constant control over this capital, while the capital in the loan form at the time of the loan is administered by the importer. Direct investments guarantee a stable market or form the basis for entering the markets of other countries. Such investments give the right to direct control (in the presence of a controlling stake) or active participation in the management of the enterprise through the mechanism of reinvestment of profits, the acquisition of a part of shares abroad (but not a controlling stake), intracompany loans or intracompany debt, as well as through the use of non-equity forms.

The patterns and features of the international movement of capital in modern conditions are:

Accelerated growth of foreign investment. If about 5 billion dollars are exported abroad every day in the sphere of international trade, then the volume of capital movement is about 200 billion dollars. The action of this pattern is due to the growth in demand for capital in the process of accelerated economic development, the development of scientific and technological revolution, overcoming customs barriers in the export of capital, saving resources (primarily labor) due to the internationalization of production, the desire to reduce economic costs when exporting capital to underdeveloped countries, and other factors.

A constant increase in the share of direct investment compared to portfolio. So before the First World War, the share of direct investment was about 10%, in the period between the two wars -25%, then in the 90s it reached 80%. This is due to the growing role of direct investment as a means of conquering new sales markets or expanding existing ones, a means of establishing control over production and property, and other factors.

Strengthening the processes of monopolization in the export of capital.

Growing concentration of direct investment in the developed world.

Increasing internationalization of property in the process of export of capital.

In modern conditions, the export of capital acquires the following characteristics:

The main investment flows are directed to developed countries, OECD countries account for 95% of direct investment abroad;

More and more developed elements of the export of capital are the placement valuable papers in international financial centers and deposit and credit operations of transnational banks, which are carried out through their numerous branches;

In the process of export of capital, rivalry between the main centers of the world economy - the USA, Western Europe, Japan - is intensifying;

Among the various forms of capital movement, non-state forms predominate, accounting for about 60% of all capital exports, state capital accounts for about 30% of capital exports and 10% for international financial organizations. The interweaving of state and monopoly capital means that, by its nature, the capital that is exported is mainly state-corporate, state-transnational in nature;

Since the energy crisis that began in 1974. , the export of capital in the form of petrodollars is intensively carried out by individual oil-rich countries in the Middle East.

In the early 90s, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the countries of the former USSR gradually became the sphere of migration of international capital. Only in 2000 32 billion US dollars were exported to these countries, while they themselves exported only about 1.5 billion dollars.

After the collapse of the USSR and the capitalization of the economies of most CIS countries, on the one hand, they become objects of capital export, and on the other hand, they become subjects of capital export by shadow structures. Thus, the volume of capital export from Ukraine at the beginning of 1999 amounted to about 40 billion dollars, from Russia more than 100 billion dollars. The volume of foreign direct investment in the economy of Ukraine in 1999 amounted to about 3 billion dollars from more than 20 countries peace. The influx of foreign investment in the CIS countries is constrained by imperfect and unstable legislation, the lack of a scientifically based economic policy.

The export of capital has an ambiguous meaning. For countries that export capital, the positive consequences of this process are the expansion of sales markets for domestic goods and services, profit from investments, the ability to influence the foreign and domestic policies of capital-exporting countries, the benefits of deepening the process of international division of labor, the possibility of using cheaper labor markets and other economic and non-economic benefits. At the same time, the negative consequences of the export of capital are the deterioration of the balance of payments, the narrowing of the labor market and the labor market in the national economy, the maintenance or modification of the economic system in the proper direction.

The positive consequences of the international movement of capital for importing countries are the introduction of more advanced technologies and equipment, advanced forms of organization of production, a decrease in unemployment, an influx of foreign currency, the accelerated development of the existing economic system or its improvement. Among the negative consequences, one should note the gradual loss of control over some enterprises and industries, as well as the strengthening of foreign influence in the sphere of military-strategic and political interests.

Foreign economic activity is reflected in the trade and balance of payments of the country.

Balance of payments - a statistical report for a certain period of time (month, quarter, year), which shows the ratio between total receipts from abroad and payments abroad.

The structure of the balance of payments (according to the method of the IMF).

No. p / p	balance of payments account	Credit (receipt) payments	Debit (payment) payments	Balance

	Trade balance	Revenue from the export of goods	Import costs of goods
	Service balance	Revenue from services provided abroad	Overseas service charges	The difference between revenue and costs
	Investment income balance	Receipts of income from private and public investments from abroad and foreign investments in the country	Costs of paying income on investments abroad	The difference between revenue and costs
	Transfer balance	Transfers received from abroad	Transfers abroad	Difference between received and sent transfers
	Other services and income	Receipts of other services in the country	Costs of other services and payments of income abroad	The difference between receipts and payments
BUT	Total: current account balance (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5)			NE (net exports)
IN	Direct investments and other long-term capital: - direct investments; - portfolio investment; - other long-term capital	Raising capital (exporting debt)	Export of capital (import of debt obligations)	Net foreign direct investment (NI). Net portfolio foreign investment (NPT).
FROM	Other current capital
D	Errors and omissions
E	Compensatory items: - movement of gold; - distribution and use of SDR (Special Drawing Rights), SDR - special drawing rights; - revaluation of reserves
	Total A + B + C + D + E
F	emergency funding
G	Liabilities constituting foreign exchange reserves of foreign authorities
H	Total changes in reserves: - gold; - SDR; - reserve position of the IMF; - foreign currency; - other requirements; - IMF loans
	Balance (VR)

The balance of trade is a statistical report that reflects payments for exports, imports and re-exports of goods over a certain period of time. Trade, like the balance of payments, consists of credit and debit accounts.

Credit accounts provide foreign exchange inflows into the country.

Debit accounts associated with foreign exchange.

The difference between credit and debit forms the foreign trade balance. If exports of goods (Z) exceed imports of goods (IM), then the balance (net exports - Xn) will be positive, if imports are greater than exports, then the balance will be negative.

The balance of services consists of the expenses of Ukrainian tourists to pay for services abroad, which is equivalent to the import of these services to Ukraine (debit). Provision by Ukraine transport services, insurance, banking, medical and other foreigners is equivalent to export (credit). The balance of services is equal to the difference between exports and imports of licenses, know-how, transport services, communication services, communications, insurance, healthcare, etc.

Balance of capital flow.

The provision of a loan by one state to another, the acquisition by one country of the securities of another country in the balance of payments are reflected as trading in debt obligations.

Providing a loan to another country is the import of a debt obligation (debit), receiving a loan from abroad is an export of a debt obligation (credit).

Acquisition by Ukraine of securities of other countries - import of debt obligations (debit); acquisition by other countries of securities of Ukraine - export of debt obligations (credit).

Estimation of export-import operations in the balance of payments is carried out on FOB terms, i.e., without taking into account the cost of insurance and transportation in the price of goods.

Balance of payments - actually made payments and receipts.

The estimated balance includes all claims and obligations of the country to the sector abroad, including outstanding ones.

The balance of payments takes into account not only payments related to reimbursement, but also payments that have a unilateral basis, i.e., not related to reimbursement:

One-way transfers;

Providing SDR from the IMF;

Transferring part of the country's gold to its gold reserves and vice versa;

Revaluation of gold and foreign exchange reserves due to changes in world gold prices and exchange rates. Balance of payments items A, B, C are the main ones.

Articles of blocks related to the movement of foreign exchange reserves are balancing.

If the balance of payments for the main items is negative, then, by influencing the movement of foreign exchange funds, with the help of balancing items, the balance is balanced in such a way that the indicators for the main and balancing blocks are equal to zero.

Currency in the broad sense is the monetary unit of the country (hryvnia, ruble, dollar, etc.); in a narrow sense, it is the monetary unit of other countries.

National monetary system - a form of organization of monetary - financial relations country, determined by national legislation.

Table. The structure of the national monetary system.

The international monetary system has gone through a number of stages in its development.

1. The "gold standard" system - operated from 1867 until the beginning of the twentieth century.

Forms of the gold standard.

Benefits of the gold standard:

The stability of exchange rates reduces the level of risks and promotes the development of trade;

Rigid self-regulation.

Disadvantages of the gold standard:

Rejection of an independent monetary policy;

Dependence on gold mining.

2. Bretton - Woods system (created in 1944).

Basic principles:

Establishment of fixed exchange rates of the participating countries in relation to the dollar;

The dollar is fixed against gold;

Central banks maintain a stable exchange rate of the national currency against the dollar;

The organizational link is the IMF and IBRD.

Based on multiple currencies;

Canceled the gold parity of coins;

The main means of settlement is a freely convertible currency, as well as international credit money - SDR and reserve positions of the IMF;

Free floating exchange rates are determined by supply and demand;

Central banks of countries are not required to intervene in the work of foreign exchange markets to maintain the financial parity of national currencies;

The country itself chooses the exchange rate regime (fixed, floating, mixed).

The exchange rate is the price of the currency of one country, expressed in the currency of another country.

Quotation - determination by official bodies (central banks) of the price of foreign currency.

Factors affecting fluctuations in exchange rates:

The ratio of the purchasing power of currencies in domestic markets;

The ratio of supply and demand of national currencies in international markets.

For international payments, artificial currencies were established - SDR, or SDR - special drawing rights, created in 1969 and replacing the gold exchange standard. This is a collective currency created by the IMF with the aim of turning it into the main reserve asset of the IMF, alternative to the US dollar, and is used to establish the parity of exchange rates. As shown by the crisis of 2008-2009, it fails to fulfill its main purpose.

The European Monetary System established its own currency unit (1979) - ecu; with the strengthening of integration processes, the ecu gave way to the euro (the beginning of the introduction in 1999). This currency is designed to perform all the functions of full-fledged money. All payments and settlements related to the EU budget are calculated in euros.

Currency convertibility is the ability of a national currency to be exchanged for other currencies.

Full convertibility - the ability for individuals and legal entities to freely carry out all foreign exchange transactions.

Partial convertibility implies certain restrictions in the implementation of foreign exchange transactions, which, in accordance with the requirements of the IMF, should not affect payments on current international transactions.

External convertibility - providing complete freedom to foreign individuals and legal entities to conduct foreign exchange transactions. Internal convertibility - granting the right to carry out exchange operations of national monetary units for foreign currency only to individuals and legal entities of a given country.

One of the forms of international economic relations is international labor migration (IMRS) - the movement of the able-bodied population from one country to another in order to find work, new areas of application of their abilities, better living conditions.

Migration processes of the labor force practically extend to all countries of the world.

The main flows of labor migration come from developing countries and countries with economies in transition to the most developed countries.

Migration processes from one developed country to another have intensified. Increased interstate migration within developing countries. The pendulum migration between the countries with transitional economies revived. A new form of labor force migration has emerged - scientific and technical personnel, the trend of "brain drain" from developing countries and countries with economies in transition to developed countries has intensified. New attractive migration centers have emerged in the Middle East and Southeast Asia, the proportion of “young migration” has increased, and the volume of illegal migration has expanded due to the strict migration policy of the United States and European countries.

The action of objective economic laws in the global economic system leads to the emergence of factors that give rise to international economic integration - the process of gradual convergence and interaction of the national economies of two or more countries, aimed at creating a single international economic system, including a single economic mechanism.

The objective factors of economic integration include:

1) increasing internationalization of production;

2) deepening MRI;

3) global in nature scientific and technological revolution;

4) increasing the degree of openness of national economies.

The advantages of economic integration are:

1) an increase in the size of the market - the effect of the scale of production (for countries with a small capacity of the national market), on this basis, the need to determine the optimal size of the enterprise;

2) increased competition between countries;

3) providing better trading conditions;

4) expanding trade in parallel with improving infrastructure;

5) dissemination of advanced technologies.

The negative consequences of economic integration are:

For more backward countries, this leads to an outflow of resources (factors of production), there is a redistribution in favor of stronger partners;

Oligopolistic collusion between TNCs of the participating countries, which leads to higher prices;

The effect of losses from increasing the scale of production at a very high concentration.

The simplest form of economic integration is a free trade zone, within which trade restrictions between participating countries, and above all customs duties, are abolished. Another form - the customs union - involves the establishment of a single foreign trade tariff and the implementation of a single foreign trade policy in relation to third countries during the functioning of a free trade zone. In both cases, interstate relations concern only the sphere of exchange in order to provide the participating countries with equal opportunities in the development of mutual trade and financial settlements. A more complex form is the common market, which provides its participants, along with free mutual trade and a common external tariff, freedom of movement of capital, labor, as well as the coordination of economic policy. The most complex form of interstate economic integration is an economic (monetary) union, which combines all previous forms with the implementation of a common economic and monetary policy.

The countries of Western Europe reached the most mature forms of integration processes, in particular in the creation and functioning of the European Economic Community, or the "Common Market". At first it was an association of six countries - Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland and Luxembourg, which in 1957 signed the Treaty of Rome, which entered into force on January 1, 1958. In 1973 they were joined by Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland; in 1981 - Greece; in 1986 - Portugal and Spain. In 1991, at the session of the EEC, an agreement was signed between the EEC and the European Free Trade Organization (EFTA) on the creation of the European Economic Area (EEA). The EFTA, which was formed in 1960, included Great Britain, Norway, and Sweden. Austria. Switzerland, Portugal. The EEA currently consists of 17 countries. In the European Union until April 2003 there were 15, then another 10 countries of Eastern Europe entered, in 2006 - 2 more - these are Bulgaria and Romania.

The main economic groupings of the countries of the modern world.

Regional economic groupings:

EU - European Community;

NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement;

ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations;

Latin American Integration Association;

Caribbean Commonwealth and Common Market (CARICAM);

Commonwealth of Independent States.

Industry economic groupings:

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC);

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC);

European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM).

The main forms of MEO are:

International trade;

International movement of capital;

International labor migration;

International economic integration;

International specialization of production and scientific and technical cooperation;

Monetary and financial ties and relations between countries.

The processes of internationalization of the technological mode of production are accompanied by an increase in the international concentration of production, international cooperation and specialization. Taken together, they are the material basis for the internationalization of production relations and the economic mechanism, which accelerates the process of internationalization of social, legal, and other superstructural relations.

The most mature forms of these processes are reflected in the integration of the countries of Western Europe, in the creation and functioning of the European Economic Community.

Development of detailed and technological specialization and combination of production and technological processes;

Elimination of administrative and economic barriers that impede the free movement of goods, capital, labor within the boundaries of the region;

Coordination and implementation of joint economic, monetary, scientific, technical and social policies;

Formation of regional economic complexes with a common production infrastructure and institutions of supranational and interstate regulation.

In world practice, there are several successive stages of integration and the corresponding types of integration associations, these are:

Free trade Area;

Customs Union, payment union;

Common Market;

Economic Union.

The higher the level of development of the country, the greater the opportunities for its participation in MRI and integration.

Integration leads to the emergence of two types of effects - static and dynamic, Canadian scientist D. Weiner came to this conclusion.

Static effects include economic consequences that come to light immediately after the creation of a customs union.

The objective reason preventing Ukraine from entering the world economy as a full partner is the low competitiveness of its products on world markets, the lack of personnel, their insufficient professional level, which makes the system of foreign economic activity management imperfect.

The complexity and dynamism of transformational processes associated with intra-system and inter-system transformations, asymmetry and disproportion in the evolution of the world economy under the dominance of the neoliberal model of globalization exacerbate the problem of rapid and effective self-identification of Ukraine as an independent highly developed state in a complex system of world relations and international economic relations.

Based on the ideology of monetary liberalism, modern globalization is spontaneous, one-vector and motivated, aimed at realizing the interests of highly developed countries seeking to redistribute world wealth in order to strengthen their own potential. Therefore, the formation of the national model of development of each country takes place in the conditions of a sharp struggle between the economic interests of representatives of transnational and national capital, influential international organizations and the domestic elite, and national competitiveness acts in the appropriate market environment as a condition for the functioning of multi-level economic systems. Therefore, the activity of the state to ensure competitiveness on the basis of structural and technological renewal is of decisive importance for the successful integration of the Ukrainian economy into the global economic system.

National competitiveness is the stable position of the country in the domestic and foreign markets, in the global economic system, in global political and economic processes due to economic, social and political factors; the ability to maintain sustainable growth in real per capita income.

The most important criteria for the competitiveness of the national economy are reflected in the integral index of competitiveness - a comprehensive indicator of the comparative competitiveness of countries, which is calculated on the basis of combinations of relative values. To date, the most influential studies of the international competitiveness of countries are: the "Global Competitiveness Report" of the World Economic Forum in the Swiss city of Davos; "Global Competitiveness Yearbook" of the International Institute of Management and Development. Ukraine takes part in international competitiveness surveys conducted within the framework of the World Economic Forum. In 2005 Ukraine's rating was 84-. Position from 104 countries. In 2011, Ukraine continues to have serious problems with competition in the world. In the global competitiveness ranking of the World Economic Economic Forum 2010 - 2011. Ukraine was on the 89th place among 139 countries of the world. Albania is ahead of Ukraine, followed by the smallest country in continental Africa - the Gambia, and Honduras is in 91st place. Ukraine showed the largest drop in the Macroeconomic Stability group, dropping by 26 steps over the year (to 132nd place). Group 2 Efficiency of Commodity Markets became worse by 20 positions, falling to 129th place. In the "Institutions" group, our country lost 14 positions, dropping to 134th place. The "Institutions" group is a regulatory, business environment of activity, which consists of property rights, independence of the judiciary, the level of public sector waste and bribery, trust in law enforcement agencies and politicians, transparency public policy, intellectual property protection. According to the indicator "independence of the judiciary" Ukraine is in 134th place, in terms of waste of public funds - in 131st, in terms of "organized crime" - in 116th, in terms of "development of the financial market" - in 119th place, in terms of " budget deficit" - in 134th place. We talked about indicators of economic growth and per capita income in previous topics.

It is time for Ukraine to decide on the problem of integration into the world economy, based on the interests of the people of Ukraine. Having embarked on the creation of a free trade zone with the EU, our rulers did not take into account that at this stage of the development of integration processes, Ukraine is not ready for integration with European countries due to internal and external factors. The internal ones include the unpreparedness of the Ukrainian monetary and foreign exchange systems to function in the conditions of the euro area. The most acute is the excessive "overregulation" of financial markets, including foreign exchange market Ukraine, as well as the lack of existing modern market mechanisms for financial regulation in Ukraine. Moreover, such criteria as the level of inflation, the size of the budget deficit, the level of external debt also do not meet the criteria for joining the eurozone. External factors impeding the possibility of European monetary and financial integration of Ukraine are, first of all, debt problems within the European Union itself. At present, a united Europe is not ready to expand its borders, and even more so for countries with an unstable and unstable financial and economic system.

After Kyiv and Brussels finally initialed the text of the association agreement, a draft law "On ratification of the agreement on a free trade zone within the framework of the CIS" was submitted to parliament.

According to the financial and economic substantiation of the document, if the agreement enters into force, the annual additional growth of the Ukrainian budget could amount to about UAH 9.5 billion.

The main advantages of such an agreement are the fixing of duties for goods withdrawn from the free trade regime; no new restrictions on trade: fixing the provision on the beginning of the abolition of export duties.

If we take a free trade zone with the EU on the terms on which it was initialed, then Ukraine significantly loses the possibility of GDP growth, and the negative trade balance increases even more.

To create a competitive economy, Ukraine needs to:

Form a national innovation system, increase the share of innovative products, increase the volume of high-tech services;

Carry out structural modernization aimed at overcoming excessive dependence on individual global markets and deepening participation in global high-tech projects;

Strengthen competitive advantages domestic business, support the most efficient import-substituting industries and ensure protection against unfair competition in world markets;

Strengthen the country's export potential, increase the share of goods with a high share of value added;

To form industrial regional clusters of global importance;

Effectively use the geopolitical position of Ukraine and enhance its role as a transit state;

Implement effective mechanisms to protect against economic and technological risks and dangers, adverse changes in the international situation;

Improving the processes of Ukraine's integration into modern economic and political alliances;

Development of the internal market as the basis for the formation and testing of national competitive advantages.

The world economy is a set of national economies and economic relationships between them, or a set of economic relations that operate at the national and international levels.

characteristic feature formation of an integral organism of the world economy is the rapprochement between enterprises of different countries and the countries themselves. This finds its manifestation in the development of specialization and cooperation in production, the creation of international economic organizations, companies, joint ventures.

The totality of economic relations of the world economy is manifested in the system of economic interests peculiar to it: the interests of individual states, national enterprises and associations, international organizations.

The internationalization of production is economic form the development of MRI and the socialization of production, which is reflected in international specialization, cooperation, combination, concentration of production.

The internationalization of production is closely related to the transition of MRI from partial to single.

The general division of labor is based on the specialization of the spheres of social production, the partial division of labor is based on the subject specialization of individual industries, and the individual division is based on the detailed, operational specialization of individual production units. The single division of labor went beyond national boundaries with the development of TNCs.

The law of internationalization of production expresses the internal, necessary, stable and essential links between the process of outgrowing production of national boundaries, on the one hand, and the gradual formation at the international level of the mechanism for combining personal and material factors of production, the interaction of man with nature, the reproduction of man himself, on the other.

The forms of its manifestation at the level of productive forces are the internationalization of the process of technical and economic unity of personal and material factors of production, the interaction of man with nature, the development of the human worker.

In conditions when for the production of the final product, supplies through cooperation in certain industries account for about 80% of the cost finished products, a significant part of which is created by foreign firms, value as an economic relation expresses production ties and relations between industrial companies from many countries of the world. Within the framework of multinational monopolies, the elements of production lose their national origin, and the goods that are produced become carriers of international value.

The economic benefit of a country in which a higher level of complexity of labor, its productivity and intensity has been achieved, will be calculated by the difference between international and national labor costs.

The theoretical substantiation of the benefits that all participants in world trade receive was first made by D. Ricardo in the theory of comparative costs. Further development of the theory of foreign trade is associated with the names of the Swedish scientists Eli Heckscher and Bertal Ohlin, their theory has occupied a leading position since the 1930s. up until the 60s. 20th century P. Samuelson made a significant contribution to this model by identifying the mathematical conditions under which the model becomes real for economic practice. Therefore, this model is usually called the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson model in the West.

International economic integration is the intertwining of national reproduction processes based on the division of labor between national economies, the establishment of stable ties and interactions between them in various forms.

Important areas of modern integration are:

Development of detailed and technological specialization and combination of production and technological processes;

Elimination of administrative and economic barriers that impede the free movement of goods, capital, labor within the boundaries of international economic relations.

Questions for self-control

1. What are the patterns of international trade at the present stage?

2. Name the forms and reveal the essence of the export of capital.

3. What patterns are manifested in the export of capital at the present stage?

4. What is international economic integration, what are its main forms?

5. Name the problems of Ukraine on the way of integration into the world economy and ways to solve them.

6. Justify your point of view on the problem of Ukraine's integration.

7. What are the objective prerequisites for the emergence of the world economy?

8. Define the category "world economy".

9. Name the main subjects of the world economy.

10. What laws determine the development of the modern world economy?

11. Expand the essence of the theories of benefits that all participants in world trade receive.

12. Name the main forms of export of capital.

13. What international economic organizations can you name?

Economic relations between various organizational forms of human communities (tribe, clan, nation, state, etc.) have a long history. Initially taking the form of single transactions, these connections, due to the constant increase in their number, connecting more and more actors to them, expanding the range of objects that become the subject of international trade (capital, labor, services, scientific knowledge, inventions, information, historical sights etc.) gradually turned into a complex set of relations affecting the interests of all countries of the world.

International economic relations are an element of an extremely complex and highly mobile system, which is the world economy. It is known that the world economy as an integral system was formed by the end of the 19th century. This was preceded by a number of conditions:

* the end of the era of geographical discoveries, when almost all "white spots" disappeared from the face of the Earth and geographical maps;
* securing all territories of the Earth for any national-state formation;
* recognition of this formation by the community of other states.

Only after the completion of the process of formation of the world economy, it became possible to consider international economic relations as a single and interconnected set. The ongoing changes in the correlation and alignment of the main economic forces in the world are inevitably reflected in the content, structure and role of international economic relations.

International economic relations are the basis of the construction of the world economy (Figure 2.1), its mechanism and link between national economies. Without international economic relations, the world economy cannot function. The level of international economic relations and the degree of their development predetermine the state of the entire world economic system.

Main forms of international economic cooperation

The most ancient form of IER is international trade (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.1 The concept of international trade

In the modern world, five main forms of IER have been formed. (Figure 2.3)

1. International trade - international exchange of goods, results of intellectual work, services and labor force. In other words, MT is the exchange of factors of production at the international level. MT is the leading form of MEO.
2. International production cooperation (IPC) is a process that implements international production relations for joint activities based on MT.
3. Investment activity - an activity based on international financing in order to achieve a social effect and profit from partners.
4. Services are useful activities that are not embodied in a material product by a foreign consumer.
5. International monetary and financial and credit relations - a kind of economic relations associated with the functioning of world money and securities.

Figure 2.3 Main forms of international economic relations

The essence and foundations of international economic RELATIONS.
Objects and subjects of international economic relations in market conditions.
Principles and features of the MER mechanism.

1. The essence and foundations of international economic relations

International economic relations - a system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries, the relevant business entities /1/. International Economic Relations is a special field of activity based on the international division of labor. International economic relations find practical expression in the exchange between countries representing their enterprises, firms and organizations with products (goods and services) of international trade, scientific, technical, industrial, investment, monetary and credit, information international relations, movement between them labor resources.

MEO objectively follow from the process of division of labor, the international specialization of production and science, and the intentionalization of economic life. The formation and development of international economic relations are determined by the strengthening of the interconnection and interdependence of the economies of individual countries. The deepening and development of the international division of labor, and hence the IER, depend on natural (natural, geographical, demographic, etc.) and acquired (production, technological) factors, as well as social, national, ethnic, political, and moral and legal conditions. The above practical components and forms of IER cover a number of areas of world economic activity:

international trade;
international specialization of production and scientific and technical work;
exchange of scientific and technical results;
information, monetary and financial and credit connections between countries;
the movement of capital and labor;
activities of international economic organizations, economic cooperation in solving global problems.

Opportunities, prospects and role of international economic relations, the significance and correlation of their main forms and directions are determined by the deepening of the international division of labor, the transition to its higher types. The general type of international division of labor predetermines intersectoral international exchange, in particular, goods from the extractive and manufacturing industries of individual countries. The private division of labor leads to the development and predominance of international trade in finished products of various industries and industries, including intra-industry.

Finally, a single type of international division of labor means specialization at certain stages of production (assemblies, parts, semi-finished cards, etc.) and stages of the technological cycle (repartitions), as well as within the framework of scientific, technical, design and technological developments and even investment process. This creates the prerequisites for accelerated growth in the capacity of the international market and sustainable expansion of international economic relations.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that, in principle, international economic relations, which are the field and result of the application of labor, capital, natural and other resources, are one of the areas of the market economy with its main features. As is known, based on the principle of freedom of choice for sellers and buyers, market relations in this area also imply:

the plurality of their objects and subjects;
the determining influence of supply and demand;
their relationship with prices with the necessary flexibility and mobility of the latter;
competition.

This is complemented by the freedom of enterprise. The very fact of international exchange, the exclusive space for its implementation, which goes beyond the borders of individual countries, creates more than sufficient prerequisites for the multiplicity of objects. The same can be said about the plurality of subjects - their number in the market is increasing: along with national entrepreneurs and firms, foreign, international companies and organizations, government agencies of various countries participate in the IER.

Without changing the mechanism of supply and demand, IEOs expand its boundaries, the volumes covered and the range of exchange. The system of market prices acquires new quantitative and qualitative characteristics. And, of course, competition conditions are getting tougher. The following can be named as the main features of the MEO as a sphere of a developed market economy.

First, as in any national economy, the world economy and international economic relations are based on the division of labor and exchange, only not intranational, but international, assuming that the production and (or) consumption of individual countries are to some extent interconnected.

Secondly, the participants in the IEO are economically isolated, in particular, in a special form of national economic isolation, which objectively determines the commodity-money nature of relations.

Thirdly, in the totality of world economic exchange relations, the IEO more fully operate the laws of demand, supply and free pricing, which are the cornerstones of any market mechanism.

Fourth, just like national markets, the global IER market is characterized by competition between goods and services, sellers and buyers. This competition is tougher due to the large volumes and range of goods and services circulating on the market. It is supplemented by the movement of factors of production (capital, labor) between countries.

Fifth, one of the main forms of international economic relations - international trade - is a set of cross-country product flows. Under these conditions, world commodity markets are being formed, where operations for the sale and purchase of goods are carried out, which are of a stable, systematic nature.

Country differences in wealth labor resources, in the opportunities and conditions of employment of the population determine the emergence and development of interstate labor flows, which leads to the formation of the world labor market. The growing role of information support, intellectual property, the widespread introduction of a system of patenting and licensing of inventions and discoveries, interstate agreements on copyright protection create the preconditions for the formation of the global information market.

Seventh, international economic organizations assume their own infrastructure, special institutions. They are represented by international economic, financial and credit institutions and organizations of both global (WTO, International Chamber of Commerce, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, etc.) and regional significance (European Commission, EBRD, etc.).

Eighth, international economic organizations are subject to monopolization. It is possible through the concentration of production and marketing by private business structures (for example, the creation and operation of TNCs), and as a result of international, interstate agreements and unions that unite major countries and firms of suppliers of certain types of products (for example, the International Oil Cartel - IOC, OPEC).

Finally, international economic organizations are not free from international, regional, government interference and regulation. It manifests itself in interstate economic, trade, credit, currency, customs and payment agreements and unions. In addition, the results of the regulation of foreign economic activity in each individual country also affect the state and development of international economic relations.

All of the above fundamentally characterizes the content and field of action of modern international economic relations, their features.

2. Objects and subjects of international economic relations in market conditions

Objects and subjects of international economic relations, in principle, do not differ from those within the framework of the national market economy. New quantitative and qualitative moments characterize their multiplicity. The objects of international economic relations are primarily goods and services circulating in international trade, the volume of which currently exceeds 8 trillion. dollars /2/. An important feature here is the stability and scale of commodity flows. The exchange of goods and services is characterized by large volumes, breadth of assortment, differentiation in quality, and, as a rule, greater competitiveness.

The subject of the international economic relations are direct links in the field of specialization and cooperation in the field of production and scientific and technical work. Of particular importance is the movement of factors of production between countries, although, as noted, there are a number of obstacles to this in world economic relations. This includes primarily the movement of capital into different forms, international use of financial and credit resources, international labor force migration, intellectual property exchange.

As a special object, one should highlight the multilateral and diverse cooperation of countries and international organizations in the field of ecology and in solving other problems of a global nature. More features in the subjects of the international economic relations. But even here, as in a market environment as a whole, relations between partners from different countries are primarily connections at the level of private firms, enterprises, and individual entrepreneurs, which form the basis of world economic contacts, with the necessary freedom of choice. In practice, for most countries with a market economy, this means that business entities do not require any special conditions and permits to conduct foreign economic activity, for them there is no fundamental difference between the domestic and foreign markets.

Nevertheless, their marketing task becomes more complicated: they need constant study of the external market, the current and future situation on it, comparative assessments of domestic and international conditions and partners. The role and scope of macroeconomic analysis is growing significantly. At the same time, in many cases, state structures act as subjects of the international economic relations: directly governmental and other government bodies various levels (central, regional, municipal), as well as state enterprises and organizations. Such options state participation different:

direct implementation of operations by central ministries and departments;
regional and municipal governments, including targeted purchases and sales of products on the foreign market;
granting powers to individual enterprises, firms, commercial and banking structures, including private ones, to carry out specific operations, to carry out certain foreign economic transactions;
guaranteeing export-import operations. Finally, international organizations, in particular the UN system, act as subjects of the IER, especially when providing financial and credit assistance, investing funds in individual projects. Large-scale activities in the field of international economic relations are also carried out by transnational corporations and international associations. The role of these MEO subjects is all the more significant in the market of capital, financial, credit and foreign exchange resources.

3. Principles and features of the MEO mechanism

The market for its participants is a set of direct mutually beneficial agreements with equal partners aimed at meeting the needs for goods and services, providing the necessary resources, factors of production and allowing them to improve their own economic situation, make a profit. The fact that the parties are citizens or legal entities of other countries fundamentally changes little for the subjects of the IER. When positioning on the world market, the same principles and rules apply that are suitable for the domestic market /3/.

The basis of the activities of the participants of the IER and the mechanism of the latter is the marketing approach. A potential exporter, in particular, needs to know exactly the needs, inclinations and preferences of buyers, the state and prospects of the market and its respective segments in the country where he intends to export his products. For this, as already noted, it is not enough to analyze only the sales market itself, it is necessary to study, evaluate and forecast the macroeconomic environment (economic, climatic, environmental, socio-cultural, moral and legal, religious-ethnic, psychological and political) conditions.

Reliable information about the demographic, geographical, socio-psychological characteristics of their foreign buyers makes it possible to more or less accurately predict the possible demand for exported products, the amount of foreign exchange earnings, and the profitability of the export operation. This applies to fairly large and stable transactions, long-term contracts, and is not always applied to single, individual contracts and minor batches of external supplies. Even in this case, however, minimal information is needed. Is it something that "shuttle traders" do, offering tempting and cheap goods to foreign and domestic buyers, often not of the highest quality.

Similar work is necessary for imports, although it is somewhat simpler and smaller in volume, since it mainly covers the commercial part of the operation and concerns the domestic market.

In order to conduct an effective export operation that guarantees the intended foreign exchange earnings within the stipulated time frame, the supplier must work out various options for the movement of goods: methods and routes of transportation, the possibility of using the infrastructure of the country and the importing company, the feasibility of involving intermediaries, and, if necessary, creating their own sales network of trade missions, distribution , dealer structures, stores, warehouses, etc.

To promote goods on the foreign market or imported, a flexible combination of advertising methods, the development of individual sales, financial incentives for intermediaries and own sellers will be required. The pricing policy, the system of payments and commercial credit should create conditions that are attractive especially for foreign, as well as for domestic clients who purchase foreign goods and services.

Undoubtedly, the most important component of foreign economic activity, the more necessary in the field of international economic relations, is the analysis of competition. It should be specially emphasized that in the International Economic Relations, in the international market, special importance is attached to the requirements for the exclusion of unfair competition and the prevention of abuse of a dominant position in the market. This is all the more important since competition in international trade is much tougher than in the domestic market.

To reliably identify and assess the competitiveness of products and the positions of competitors, determine their comparative advantage entering a foreign market should be preceded by a study of competitors' products, including taking into account consumer tastes and preferences of this market segment, as well as the overall picture of the activities of competing firms (the so-called corporate analysis): economic and financial situation, image, goals in a particular market, features production activities and management, applied marketing methods, possible strategic decisions. The issue of using non-price competition options deserves special attention. The task of positioning, mastering a market niche is extremely relevant in the face of fierce international competition.

The MEO mechanism requires the provision of a marketing policy arising from the analysis of competition in terms of planning future goods and services, i.e., the development and implementation of the concept of modernizing today's and creating new products, based on life cycle indicators in its international application. This applies to the actual product, its packaging, trademark, service conditions, etc.

The inclusion of a firm in world economic relations must be accompanied by an economically favorable combination of resources used for export production. The competitiveness of an enterprise in the MEO can be ensured, ceteris paribus, if there are advantages in the availability and cheapness of resources, production technologies, and information tools.

Since enterprises - consumers of resources and the population of any country also purchase imported products, an important issue is a reasonable combination in production and on consumer market domestic and imported products and resources. Issues of international industrial and scientific-technical, investment cooperation, attraction of foreign labor force, financial and credit funds need to be more carefully studied.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that the world economy, international economic relations have specific features that are reflected in the characteristics and features of the functioning of the mechanism of world economic relations. First of all, what has already been noted is the volume of exchange, which exceeds the size of the internal trade turnover of any country. A large number of entities participate in the IER, which is incomparable with the domestic market.

Commodity and brand competition is very large-scale and tougher. As a result, the aggregate power of the impact of the world market on individual national markets is very significant (of course, with sufficient openness of the domestic economy). As a result, the international division of labor has an increasing impact on the internal division of labor in countries, which changes the structure of national economies, the volume and composition of domestic barter transactions.

It can be argued that the market mechanism of international economic relations is more perfect in terms of economic feasibility and objectivity of the pricing process, the formation and use of other management tools. It is no coincidence that therefore the prices of world commodity markets act as one of the criteria in the formation of prices in the national economy, they are an indicator in determining the expediency of participation in the international division of labor, IEO.

The peculiarities of international economic relations as a sphere of market relations, including their mechanism, also follow from other essential points mentioned in part above.

Firstly, these are the spatial scales of the world economy, which determine the significant remoteness of sellers and buyers, and hence the increased role of the transport problem and the associated costs. The latter can become an obstacle to the establishment of foreign economic relations, the conclusion of specific transactions.

Secondly, less mobility, that is, the mobility of resources, which primarily concerns land and natural resources, in particular minerals, tied to location. The mobility of labor resources is also limited, although they are more mobile, especially now. State intervention (migration rules, prohibitions on the sale of land to foreigners, restrictions on foreign investment and the activities of foreign firms, protectionism in foreign trade) often affects the decrease in resource mobility.

Thirdly, the use of national currencies in international exchange complicates settlements for foreign economic transactions and requires the presence of a foreign exchange market. And the latter involves the organization of currency control, the introduction of a particular system of currency regulation.

Fourthly, international standardization and certification of products are becoming an important, independent factor, the fulfillment of the requirements of which is associated with additional costs, sometimes quite significant.

These circumstances determine the peculiarities of the market mechanism of international economic relations, encourage their participants to make adjustments to the principles and methods of their market policy.

On the one hand, the emerging opportunities to enter a foreign market pose the task of adapting the entire marketing mix to the conditions and characteristics of the economic environment in the partner country. At the same time, standard and simple techniques and solutions are needed to ensure a clear and controlled implementation of the accepted options.

On the other hand, the seller, and even more so the manufacturer, has the task of finding and implementing the best organizational form of its foreign economic activity, taking into account, along with the conditions and factors inherent in the domestic market, the features of the international economic relations noted above. In addition, the risk factor associated with the degree of economic, social and political instability in the partner country cannot be ignored. The significance of the risk factor increases even more with deep forms of international economic relations (creation and operation of foreign and joint ventures, investment projects, industrial and scientific and technical specialization and cooperation, etc.)

Finally, another significant aspect of the MEO mechanism is the information environment. Even in trade and economic transactions, participants need reliable and comparable information to justify and make a decision, to ensure reliable control over its implementation and results. This is all the more necessary when establishing long-term industrial and scientific and technical ties, organizing joint activities, implementing investment projects, and choosing partner firms.

The latter involves the use of information with a certain set of data, with their methodological unity and homogeneity, by enterprises and firms entering the IER. International unification of accounting and reporting will solve this practical problem. An important role will also be played by the unification of macroeconomic indicators, national and international statistics.

Summary

International economic relations - the sphere of market relations between countries, due to the international division of labor and the economic isolation of partners. The peculiarities of international economic relations are related to their specificity as international ones and stem from the particularly large size of the economic space, the limited mobility of production factors and certain types of resources, and the actions of special economic instruments. The objects of the IEO are goods and services, as well as resources involved in international exchange, and the subjects are private firms and individual entrepreneurs; state structures; management bodies of different levels, enterprises and institutions; international organizations, institutions and corporations. The MEO mechanism is dictated by the market nature of relations and does not fundamentally differ from the one operating within countries. It involves a marketing approach. The features of this mechanism are determined by the specifics of the International Economic Relations (international nature of relations, territorial remoteness, the use of special monetary and financial instruments).

Basic concepts

MEO is a system of economic relations between the economies of different countries, based on the international division of labor.

IEO OBJECTS - goods, services and material, monetary and labor resources that are the subject of international exchange.

IEO SUBJECTS are economically isolated parties that carry out international exchange.

MEO MECHANISM - a system of economic instruments, organizational measures and institutions that ensure the implementation of the MEO.

Literature

Brief foreign economic dictionary-reference book. M., MO., 1996, p. 102.
Foreign Economic Bulletin., 1996, N 1.
Market rules., M., MO., 1993.

Chapter 3. External factors of economic growth. Role, system of indicators and assessments

Place and role of international economic relations in the development of the national economy.
Indicators characterizing the role of the external economic factor.
Economic interdependence. National and international economic security

1. Place and role of international economic relations in the development of the national economy

Now, perhaps, no one will argue that any country can develop normally without foreign economic relations. As you know, the main problem of human society is the possible complete satisfaction of the needs of people with limited resources. Meanwhile, the unlimited growth of needs in the course of the historical process is an indisputable fact and the most general law. In most countries, it is impossible, in terms of conditions, resources, from the standpoint of economic feasibility, to do everything and a lot. And at the same time, the range of requests of the population is growing rapidly, and the number of material and spiritual goods and various services that we need is also increasing.

Any normal satisfaction of them is practically impossible without a constant, wide exchange between regions, countries, without the IER. And it is no longer possible today to produce and create many goods and services without an international pooling of efforts, funds and resources due to the often enormous costs and the need to use a wide variety of resources. There is no doubt that in a small country with limited natural resources (and some often do not exist at all), human and financial resources, relying only on them, it is unbelievable to satisfy even the necessary modern needs of the population.

To prove this, no reference is needed to the great Smith, Ricardo, and, if you like, Marx, whose theoretical views on the problem were discussed in Chapter 1. The fact is self-evident. The economic meaning of the exchange between peoples, international economic relations and foreign trade, in particular, science has explained convincingly. The international division of labor, resulting from it, the IEO, allow each country to reduce production costs and save resources. Well, why, we say, following the scientists, in the same Russia has its own production of bananas? Although it is possible to create plantations with an artificial climate, etc. Is it necessary to grow beets in Brazil? Such a question now for anyone is a misunderstanding. But not so long ago, in our country, and then in China, the slogan of "reliance on one's own strength" was proclaimed. It is better to do what we can do cheaper and better, having everything we need, using favorable conditions. Life gave an unequivocal answer - it is necessary to use the advantages and benefits of international exchange, only in this way can the satisfaction of a variety of needs be ensured, steadily expanding the range of goods and services offered to the population. And this applies to both small and large countries. Hence the role and place of the IEO in the development of the economies of individual countries.

Over the decade (1986-1995) the value of international trade increased by about 1.6 times. In terms of pace, this (annual growth of 8-10% in 1994-1996) significantly exceeded the growth in world production. According to the WTO in 1995, the world export of commercial services was estimated at 1170 billion dollars, and goods - at 4890 billion dollars.

Among the exported goods, the first place (11%) belongs to computers, leaving behind agricultural products, cars and chemicals /1/. Increased even faster in last years international movement of capital. In 1995 alone, foreign direct investment increased by almost 40%, reaching $315 billion /2/. These data testify to the scale of international exchange.

In our time, any, even the largest and richest country, international exchange, foreign trade, everything that we refer to the IEO, are vital to ensure a modest, and even more normal, everyday human existence. A better life, as we in Russia have now experienced in practice, is simply impossible without it. Of course, we are not talking about sneakers and diapers, although they are not superfluous. Use favorable conditions, more fully include all factors and resources in order to do more, more diverse, better and more reliable for a person.

To develop and enrich the needs of everyone and at the same time not to squander the natural, material, spiritual and intellectual wealth, not to "reinvent the wheel" - this is the meaning, significance and prospects of the IER, foreign trade, their objective role in the development, provision of material and spiritual wealth of an individual, country, world community.

The aforementioned "theories" and practical attempts to "rely on one's own strength": to do everything ourselves, not to depend on anyone - the bright future of communism can be brought closer by growing corn in the North, and bananas in the Moscow region! Wouldn't it be better, more reliable, more logical and cheaper to harvest high-quality wheat in Russia, exchange it through foreign trade for Latin American bananas and coffee? Less expenses and more handy, and more variety of goods. This is how one can schematically explain the essence and significance of foreign trade, international economic relations in the modern world. This is the logical economic and practical basis of world economic relations, international economic relations in the present and future.

2. Indicators characterizing the role of the external economic factor

As proven by the International Economic Relations, foreign trade is necessary for any country. But how to more or less accurately assess their significance for the national economy, how to quantify the role of the external factor in the national economy? In statistics, including international statistics, this is done using a relative indicator of comparing the volume of a country's foreign trade with its domestic production: the volume of foreign trade / the volume of domestic production.

Comparison of the relevant data in comparable value terms (single currency) makes it possible to judge the significance of the external economic factor for the national economy, its dynamics over a certain period. It is clear that for small countries (there are fewer resources, the variety of natural conditions is limited), this indicator is higher - much is imported from abroad in exchange for export, for large countries it is lower - their own production is more diverse and significant. So, in the early 90s. in Belgium, for example, the indicated value reached 190%, Switzerland and Hungary - 160%, Bulgaria - 110%, etc. In developed medium-sized countries of Europe: Germany, France, Great Britain - 50-70%; large countries of the world: the USA, India, Brazil, Canada, China - 20-30%, etc. In the former USSR in the 50-60s. this figure was 4-6%, in 1985-1987. it reached 14%. IN Lately in Russia it is close to 22-25%, and according to data for 1996. exceeded 30% (although this is due to a significant drop in domestic production in 1991-1996).

Today, the calculation of this indicator is simple - the volume of foreign trade (in dollars) for the corresponding period refers to the value of GDP, also converted from domestic prices into dollars. All these data are available in official statistics published, in particular, in Russia by Goskomstat. Characteristic modern economic development - an increase in the role of the external economic factor for all countries: over the past 30 years, this figure for most countries has almost doubled.

According to experts, in the first decade of the next century, the ratio of foreign trade turnover to domestic production of large countries, including Russia, will reach 35-40%. But this means that every fifth or sixth product purchased by the population, enterprises and firms of the country will be imported. At the same time, it should be noted that this indicator does not give an idea of the impact of the entire set of international economic relations on the national economy, because it takes into account only foreign trade. It is no coincidence that experts from international economic organizations and other specialists are now working to supplement it. In particular, it is intended to supplement the numerator of this indicator with the amount of foreign investment and the volume of national production carried out using foreign licenses and know-how.

It is clear that in this way the assessment of the role of the external factor will be refined and somewhat, and in some places even significantly, increased. The development of foreign trade, its importance for the economy as a whole, individual industries and regions are also assessed using a number of other indicators adopted in international statistics and research. This is, in particular, the value of foreign trade turnover (and exports and imports separately) per capita.

On average in the world in 1996 it was close to 400 dollars, in the USA - 4800, Germany - 11000, Japan - 10200, France - 8700, England - 7200, etc. In Russia in the same year, the volume of foreign trade per inhabitant was 1,004 dollars, of which 598 dollars for exports, and 406 dollars for imports. Russian figures are much lower than in the countries mentioned above.

The advantage of this indicator is that it can be calculated for individual regions of the country, sectors of the economy, and even for specific enterprises and types of products. This makes it possible to take into account and compare the participation of regions, firms, industries in foreign economic relations, to identify reserves and prospects. The latter also applies to foreign trade activities, say, of subjects Russian Federation- territories, regions, republics. For example, in such an industrially developed region as the Sverdlovsk region, including Yekaterinburg, the corresponding figure, calculated according to tentative statistics for 1995, was about $710 (including $395 for exports and $315 for imports), i.e. e. was about 30% lower than the average for Russia.

It is customary to talk about this: there are large reserves. Although it should be borne in mind that these are quantitative indicators, behind which it is necessary to see the qualitative side: is it possible to achieve significantly more with a given structure of foreign trade (the share of goods and main commodity groups in foreign trade turnover), when, in particular, raw materials and energy carriers dominate in exports ? Of course, the latter is also connected with the structure of the country's economy as a whole and its individual regions. The answer to this question is unequivocally negative: the possibilities for sustainable, long-term growth in the volume of Russian foreign trade are quite clearly limited by the irreproducibility of natural raw materials and energy resources, which account for 4/5 of Russia's exports. This, in turn, limits the amount of foreign currency that can be used for import purchases.

The situation is the same in many other countries where products of natural origin predominate in exports. Achieving large volumes of foreign trade turnover, expanding its range is not a one-time event, but the result of a consistent long-term economic strategy that requires large investments. But the focus on large-scale international exchange is win-win, because it allows you to expand the set and increase the amount of various consumer goods provided to the population and used in the national economy.

At the same time, opportunities are being created for tangible savings of resources (material, labor, investment, financial, intellectual). In the conditions of a market economy, the expanded commodity and geographical diversification of foreign economic relations also contains a positive incentive for increased competition, and hence the impact on the economic and quality indicators of goods and services, the formation of a full-fledged consumer demand. A similar indicator is applicable to assessing the role of international capital flows for countries as a whole, individual regions and industries.

The average per capita indicator of the movement of direct investment in 1996 was . about $135 with approximately the same distribution for inflows (66.7) and outflows (68.3), which were slightly larger. At the same time, the five largest industrial countries (USA, Germany, Japan, Great Britain and France) accounted for more than 2/3 of the total increase in the inflow of foreign direct investment, or almost $400 per capita in these countries, while in Russia it was less than $10 per person. It is not difficult to conclude that in the first case, the majority of direct investments from abroad were in the manufacturing industries, modern production in radio electronics, communications, and computer technology.

And in Russia, the overwhelming share of foreign direct investment in industry was in the fuel and energy complex /2/. Thus, here, too, in order to assess the quality and effectiveness of the IER, in addition to general quantitative data, information is needed on the geographical and sectoral structure of investments from outside.

The combination of internal and external factors of economic growth, the role of foreign trade for individual industries on the scale of the national economy, regions, enterprises and firms from firms, as well as in the context of commodity groups, types of goods and services are reflected in the indicators of export and import quotas /3/. Export quota (Eq) - the ratio of exports and domestic production (in kind or comparable value). A sufficiently high export quota is a favorable indicator of the saturation of the national economy with relevant products, the competitiveness of domestic goods in the international market. Especially if this applies to finished products, products of a high degree of processing, high-tech services.

In developed industrial countries, the export quota for products of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, radio electronics, automotive, aerospace and other manufacturing industries reaches an average of 25-40%. The export quota for some industries and goods in Russia is very high: for crude oil - 25-30%, for natural gas - 18-20, for timber - 10-15%. But in this case, these indicators speak more about the shortcomings of our economy - after all, these are non-reproducible resources, moreover, raw materials and fuel of the lowest degree of processing. Focusing on close entry into the world economy with such a structure of exports is hardly promising.

The task is to consistently increase the export quota of manufacturing industries using modern technology. Enterprises producing armaments and aerospace equipment have such opportunities. The inclusion in international exchange, the role of the latter in meeting the diverse needs of the population, market saturation is evidenced by the statistical indicator - the import quota (Iq), i.e. the ratio of imports and domestic resources (the sum of domestic production and imports) in natural or comparable value terms: Ikv \u003d I / Vn.pr + I.

In any country, there are many such goods that are completely imported (in Russia, for example, coffee, pineapples, bananas, etc.) and even more of those that supplement domestic production, some of them very significantly. Today, in almost all countries, the population practically feels the importance of imports - many of the goods they purchase are imported from other countries. For example, in Belgium, every four out of five cans of beer sold in a store are imported.

And in Russia today, the situation is similar, primarily in consumer goods, food and industrial, but to a large extent in machinery and equipment. For these two commodity groups accounts for the vast majority (almost 4/5) of the country's imports, which in 1995 amounted to almost 11.5% in relation to GDP. With regard to Russia, it can be stated that this indicator indicates obvious positive aspects that are also characteristic of other countries: the expansion of the range, the increase in the number of goods and services offered, the greater choice of consumers, the stimulating effect of competition.

But there are also negatives - a reduction in domestic production due to its initial lack of competitiveness, the impact of an immoderate increase in imports on price dynamics. Finally, at a certain stage, there is a significant and unjustified dependence of certain sectors of the market, the economy as a whole, on imports, a sharp reduction and termination of which, under exceptional circumstances, can lead to catastrophic consequences. For large countries, this situation is hardly acceptable.

It is impossible not to take into account the known limits of the growth of imports, determined by foreign exchange earnings from exports, and the impossibility of an unlimited growth of external debt. For Russia, this would also mean, given the current structure of foreign trade, a disproportionate increase in the export of resource goods. This aspect should be taken into account in the foreign trade policy of similar countries. Like foreign trade, indicators of quotas for the inflow and outflow of foreign investment are calculated: in general, by industry and region; types - direct, portfolio; forms - public, private, international. This makes it possible to assess their role and place in comparison with domestic investment.

Finally, most of the indicators considered can be used to study and evaluate international labor migration as total, specific, share. Their differentiation is substantiated: for the whole country, regions, industries, taking into account professions, ages, and qualifications of the migrating labor force.

Special attention should be paid to the indicators of the share of imported products in the domestic trade turnover, in particular, for consumer goods. Accounting for it is of great economic and social importance, and should be taken into account from the standpoint of ensuring independence and preventing external economic and political pressure. So, according to press estimates, in 1994-1995. imports accounted for about 1/3 of the turnover of consumer goods in Russia, and in large cities this share reached 50-60%. For such a country, the indicated value of this indicator is unfavorable. It reflects a sharp decline in domestic production, unreasonable flooding of the market with not always good-quality goods from unreliable suppliers, and can be extremely dangerous in the future. Systematic accounting of these indicators, and first of all, on foreign trade, foreign investment in general for the main industries, regions and product groups allows us to focus on a better balance of foreign economic exchange, ensuring its greater benefits, improving the socio-economic climate, foreign economic activity and economic development in general. . This will create better conditions for the country's active participation in world economic relations in the future. This, of course, cannot but affect the entire system of international economic relations as a whole.

3. Economic interdependence. National and international economic security

The development and deepening of the international division of labor, the scope and role of international economic relations put the problems of interdependence of countries on a practical footing. Today it is extremely difficult, if impossible, to name a country in the world with complete economic independence. In fact, this is due to economic and political isolation. A more or less remote example of this kind was Albania. But this did not bring and could not bring anything good to its inhabitants, but only significantly reduced the possibilities of consumption, the standard of living, limited resource conditions and sources of development.

It is no coincidence that the rejection of such a course has become inevitable. And this example only confirms the objective, independent of someone's desires, the need for international exchange, IER, which was shown in the 1st chapter. At big countries the desire for greater (but not complete) independence had (as in its time in the USSR, China and India) more reasonable given the availability of various resources, but even in this case it led to a narrowing of consumption, more dictated by political reasons. In short, full economic independence is a distant and unreliable past or a myth.

At the same time, many, and especially developing countries, oppose their dependence in the case of the export of a single or several primary products, as well as when one country acts as a partner (buyer and supplier). Examples of this kind can be cited in a number of Latin American and African countries, which were often monocultural exporters (citrus fruits, coffee, cane sugar, etc.).

So, according to studies, in 13 countries of Latin America and Africa, one product or one group of products (coffee, cocoa, sugar, cotton, iron ore, metal ores, etc.) accounted for 56 to 90% of all exports in the late 80s gg. /4/. In most cases, the main trading partners of such countries are developed industrial countries, where their products are mainly exported. At the same time, for some countries (for example, 4 countries in Africa and Mexico, from 44 to 86% of the export market fell on one country (USA, Great Britain, Japan, France or Saudi Arabia). There is only one way out - diversification, if possible, of both exports and imports.

A long-term strategy of protectionism is unlikely to be fruitful. A factor in reducing the risk of economic dependence and its consequences in modern conditions is the strengthening of the relationship between the economies of partner countries, when they are not interested in monopoly dominance, and the violation of stable ties means losses for each of the parties.

This fits well into the general thesis about the advantages and benefits of the international division of labor and exchange. At the same time, international economic relations should fully serve the diversification and stable functioning of national economies, providing conditions for mutual stimulation. Thus, we come to a modern interpretation of the principle of national and international economic security. The first refers to the creation and maintenance at the national level of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the sustainable, progressive development of the country's economy, social, environmental, political, cultural, legal and psychological components.

This, of course, presupposes the formation and full use of foreign economic relations, international economic relations to solve this problem. International economic security consists in creating and ensuring the functioning of the system of world economic relations, including the international economic relations, as well as the interaction of national economies and their main blocks that ensure the sustainable economic development of the world community as a whole, its regions and national economies of countries. It can be argued that the achievement of the goals of international and national economic security is possible only on the basis of the further development and deepening of the international division of labor, sustainable and large-scale world economic exchange and interaction of national economies, and the elimination of artificial obstacles along the way.

Summary

External economic factors play a certain role in the development of the national economy of any country. These include various forms of international economic relations. For small countries, their importance is very high, for large ones - less. The role of the external economic factor in the development of all countries is increasing.

To assess the role and place of foreign economic factors in general, in individual industries, regions and industries, a number of economic and statistical indicators are used:

the ratio of foreign trade turnover and domestic production;
the volume of foreign trade and foreign investment per capita;
export and import quotas and investment quotas.

The development of international economic relations leads to an increase in the interdependence of countries, changing the concepts of dependence and independence. The growth of world economic relations, the interaction of national economies, international economic relations determine the principles of national and international security.

Basic concepts

FOREIGN ECONOMIC FACTORS - various types and forms of world economic relations and international economic relations that affect the economic development of the country.

SYSTEM OF INDICATORS OF THE ROLE AND PLACE OF FOREIGN ECONOMIC FACTORS IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - a set of economic and statistical indicators that characterize the dynamics and structure of the country's international economic relations and their role in its economy.

ECONOMIC INTERDEPENDENCE OF COUNTRIES - a strong economic relationship of countries on the basis of international economic relations and the interaction of national economies.

Literature

Foreign Economic Bulletin. 1996, N. 1.
World Investment Report. 1996. U N.. NY Gen. 1996.
Brief Foreign Economic Dictionary-Reference., p. 64, 180.
D.D. Daniele, Lee X. Radeba. International business, p. 140-141.

CONCEPT AND ESSENCE OF MEO

The world economy is a complex system. The whole set of different national economies is held together by the movement of goods, services and factors of production (economic resources). On this basis, international economic relations arise between countries.

International economic relations - a system of economic relations between the national economies of individual countries, the relevant business entities.

The practical expression of IER is found in the exchange between countries representing their enterprises, firms and organizations with products (goods and services), in international trade, scientific, technical, industrial, investment, monetary and credit, information international relations, the movement of labor resources between them. .

In general, international economic relations are one of the areas of the market economy with its main characteristics, which include:

the plurality of objects and subjects;

Determining influence of supply and demand;

their relationship with prices with the necessary flexibility and mobility

last;

· competition;

freedom of enterprise.

Along with this, a number of main features of MEO are distinguished:

First, the MEO is based on the division of labor and exchange, only not intranational, but international, assuming that the production and (or) consumption of individual countries are to some extent interconnected.

Secondly, the participants of the IER are economically isolated, which objectively determines the commodity-money nature of relations.

Thirdly, the laws of demand, supply and free pricing operate in the MEO, which are the cornerstones of any market mechanism. Market relations are at the heart of MEO.

Fourthly, the global IER market is characterized by competition between goods and services, sellers and buyers. This competition is tougher due to the large volumes and range of goods and services circulating on the market. It is supplemented by the movement of factors of production (capital, labor) between countries.

Sixth, the exchange of goods and services, the international movement of factors of production is mediated by the movement of money, the settlement system, commodity loans, and currency relations. Along with commodity markets, there is a world financial market, an international monetary and financial system. Country differences in the availability of labor resources, in the opportunities and conditions of employment of the population determine the emergence and formation of the world labor market. The growing role of information support, intellectual property, the widespread introduction of a system of patenting and licensing inventions and discoveries, interstate agreements on copyright protection create the prerequisites for the formation of the global information market.

Eighth, international economic organizations are subject to monopolization. It is possible through the concentration of production and marketing by private business structures (for example, the creation and operation of TNCs) and as a result of international, interstate agreements and alliances that unite the largest countries and firms of suppliers of certain types of products (for example, the International Oil Cartel - IOC, OPEC) .

Finally, international economic organizations are not free from international, regional, state regulation. It manifests itself in interstate economic, trade, credit, currency, customs and payment agreements and unions.

All of the above fundamentally characterizes the content and field of action of modern international economic relations, their features. It should be noted that in addition to this, the following factors also affect the MEO:

A scientific and technological revolution that has a progressive impact on production, distribution, exchange and consumption

The severity of global problems (demographic, food, raw materials, energy, environmental, arms race)

· Unbalanced relations between the Center and the Periphery, an increase in the gap between poor and rich countries, the problem of external debt of a number of countries

Growth of economic interdependence

Growing role of non-state structural formations (non-governmental organizations, TNCs) in solving international issues

· Before moving on to the forms of MER and the characteristics of their evolution, let's consider objects, subjects and the subject of MER.

The subject of the IER is the totality of backbone economic relations at the national, regional and global levels.

The objects of the IEO are, first of all, goods and services circulating in international trade, the volume of which currently exceeds 8 trillion. dollars.

As a special object, one should highlight the multilateral and diverse cooperation of countries and international organizations in the field of ecology and solving other problems of a global nature.

The role of the subjects of the IEO are:

1. National economies and their various state structures : directly governmental and other state bodies of various levels (central, regional, municipal), as well as state enterprises and organizations. Options for state participation are different:

· direct implementation of operations by central ministries and departments, regional and municipal governments, including targeted purchases and sales of products on the foreign market;

· granting powers to individual enterprises, firms, commercial and banking structures, including private ones, to carry out specific operations, to carry out certain foreign economic transactions;

· guarantee of export-import operations.

2. TNCs, private firms, enterprises, individual entrepreneurs (individuals).

3. International organizations.

4. Integration associations of countries.

MEO forms

There are the following forms of MEO:

· international specialization of production and scientific and technical work;

· exchange of scientific and technical results;

international cooperation of production;

· international trade;

information, monetary and financial and credit relations between countries;

· the movement of capital and labor;

· activities of international economic organizations, economic cooperation in solving global problems.

Since the MER is based on the international division of labor, the significance and correlation of the main forms and directions of the MER is determined by the deepening of the MRI and the transition to its higher types.

What is international economic relation. The system of international economic relations of the modern world economy

Main forms of international economic cooperation

1. The essence and foundations of international economic relations

2. Objects and subjects of international economic relations in market conditions

3. Principles and features of the MEO mechanism

Summary

Basic concepts

Literature

Chapter 3. External factors of economic growth. Role, system of indicators and assessments

1. Place and role of international economic relations in the development of the national economy

2. Indicators characterizing the role of the external economic factor

3. Economic interdependence. National and international economic security

Summary

Basic concepts

Literature

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