The social institution includes. Social institution: signs

D.P. Le Havre
doctor of sociological sciences

The concept of "institution" (from the Latin institutum - establishment, institution) was borrowed by sociology from jurisprudence, where it was used to characterize a separate set of legal norms that regulate social and legal relations in a certain subject area. In legal science, such institutions were considered, for example, inheritance, marriage, property, etc. In sociology, the concept of "institution" retained this semantic coloring, but acquired a broader interpretation in terms of designating some special type of stable regulation of social relations and various organizational forms of social regulation of behavior of subjects.

The institutional aspect of the functioning of society is a traditional area of ​​interest for sociological science. He was in the field of view of thinkers, whose names are associated with its formation (O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, M. Weber, etc.).

O. Comte's institutional approach to the study of social phenomena stemmed from the philosophy of the positive method, when one of the objects of the sociologist's analysis was the mechanism for ensuring solidarity and consent in society. “For a new philosophy, order is always a condition for progress, and vice versa, progress is a necessary goal of order” (Comte O. A course in positive philosophy. SPb., 1899. S. 44). O. Comte considered the main social institutions (family, state, religion) from the standpoint of their inclusion in the processes of social integration and the functions performed at the same time. Contrasting the functional characteristics and nature of ties between family association and political organization, he acted as a theoretical predecessor of the concepts of dichotomization of the social structure of F. Tennis and E. Durkheim (“mechanical” and “organic” types of solidarity). The social statics of O. Comte was based on the position that the institutions, beliefs and moral values ​​of society are functionally interconnected, and the explanation of any social phenomenon in this integrity implies finding and describing the patterns of its interaction with other phenomena. O. Comte's method, his appeal to the analysis of the most important social institutions, their functions, and the structure of society had a significant impact on the further development of sociological thought.

The institutional approach to the study of social phenomena was continued in the works of G. Spencer. Strictly speaking, it was he who first used the concept of "social institution" in sociological science. G. Spencer considered the struggle for existence with neighboring societies (war) and with the natural environment to be the determining factors in the development of the institutions of society. The task of the survival of the social organism in its conditions. According to Spencer, evolution and complication of structures give rise to the need to form a special kind of regulatory institution: “In the state, as in a living body, a regulatory system inevitably arises ... When a stronger community is formed, higher centers of regulation and subordinate centers appear” (Spencer H. First principles. N. Y., 1898. P. 46).

Accordingly, the social organism consists of three main systems: regulatory, producing means of life and distribution. G. Spencer distinguished such types of social institutions as institutions of kinship (marriage, family), economic (distributive), regulatory (religion, political organizations). At the same time, much of his reasoning about institutions is expressed in functional terms: “In order to understand how an organization arose and develops, one must understand the need that manifests itself in the beginning and in the future” (Spencer H. The principles of ethics. N.Y., 1904. Vol. 1. P. 3). Thus, every social institution takes shape as a stable structure of social actions that performs certain functions.

The consideration of social institutions in a functional way was continued by E. Durkheim, who adhered to the idea of ​​the positivity of public institutions, which are the most important means of human self-realization (see: Durkheim E. Les formes elementaires de la vie religieuse. Le systeme totemique en Australie. P., 1960) .

E. Durkheim called for the creation of special institutions to maintain solidarity in the conditions of the division of labor - professional corporations. He argued that corporations, unjustifiably considered anachronistic, are in fact useful and modern. Corporations E. Durkheim calls institutions of the type of professional organizations, including employers and workers, standing close enough to each other to be for everyone a school of discipline and a beginning with prestige and power (see: Durkheim E. O division of social labor. Odessa, 1900).

K. Marx paid notable attention to the consideration of a number of social institutions, who analyzed the institution of majorat, the division of labor, the institutions of the tribal system, private property, etc. He understood institutions as historically formed, conditioned by social, primarily industrial, relations, forms of organization and regulation of social activity.

M. Weber believed that social institutions (state, religion, law, etc.) should “be studied by sociology in the form in which they become significant for individual individuals, in which the latter actually focus on them in their actions” (History sociology in Western Europe and the USA, Moscow, 1993, p. 180). Thus, discussing the question of the rationality of the society of industrial capitalism, he considered it (rationality) at the institutional level as a product of the separation of the individual from the means of production. An organic institutional element of such social system the capitalist enterprise, considered by M. Weber as a guarantor of the individual's economic opportunities and thus turning into a structural component of a rationally organized society, acts. A classic example is M. Weber's analysis of the institution of bureaucracy as a type of legal domination, conditioned primarily by purposeful rational considerations. At the same time, the bureaucratic mechanism of management appears as a modern type of administration, acting as the social equivalent of industrial forms of labor and "as related to previous forms of administration, as machine production is to home-tire" (Weber M. Essays on sociology. N. Y., 1964. p. 214).

The representative of psychological evolutionism is an American sociologist of the early 20th century. L. Ward considered social institutions as a product of mental rather than any other forces. “Social forces,” he wrote, “are the same psychic forces operating in the collective state of man” (Ward L.F. The physical factors of civilization. Boston, 1893. P. 123).

In the school of structural-functional analysis, the concept of "social institution" plays one of the leading roles, T. Parsons builds a conceptual model of society, understanding it as a system of social relations and social institutions. Moreover, the latter are interpreted as specially organized "nodes", "bundles" of social relations. In the general theory of action, social institutions act both as special value-normative complexes that regulate the behavior of individuals, and as stable configurations that form the status-role structure of society. The institutional structure of society is given the most important role, since it is it that is designed to ensure social order in society, its stability and integration (see: Parsons T. Essays on sociological theory. N. Y., 1964. P. 231-232). It should be emphasized that the normative-role representation of social institutions, which exists in structural-functional analysis, is the most common not only in Western, but also in Russian sociological literature.

In institutionalism (institutional sociology), the social behavior of people is studied in close connection with the existing system of social normative acts and institutions, the need for which is equated with a natural historical pattern. The representatives of this direction include S. Lipset, J. Landberg, P. Blau, C. Mills and others. Social institutions, from the point of view of institutional sociology, suggest “a consciously regulated and organized form of activity of a mass of people, the reproduction of repeating and most stable patterns of behavior, habits, traditions passed down from generation to generation. “Each social institution that is part of a certain social structure is organized to fulfill certain socially significant goals and functions (see; Osipov G. V., Kravchenko A. I. Institutional Sociology//Modern Western Sociology. Dictionary. M., 1990. S. 118).

Structural-functionalist and institutionalist interpretations of the concept of "social institution" do not exhaust the approaches to its definition presented in modern sociology. There are also concepts based on the methodological foundations of a phenomenological or behavioral plan. So, for example, W. Hamilton writes: “Institutions are a verbal symbol for the best description of a group of social customs. They signify a permanent way of thinking or acting which has become a habit for a group or a custom for a people. The world of customs and habits to which we adapt our lives is an interweaving and continuous fabric of social institutions. (Hamilton W. lnstitution//Encyclopedia of social sciences. Vol. VIII. P. 84).

The psychological tradition in line with behaviorism was continued by J. Homans. He gives the following definition of social institutions: “Social institutions are relatively stable models of social behavior, the maintenance of which is aimed at the actions of many people” (Homans G.S. The sociological relevance of behaviorism//Behavioral sociology. Ed. R. Burgess, D. Bushell. N. Y., 1969, p. 6). In essence, J. Homans builds his sociological interpretation of the concept of "institution" based on the psychological foundation.

Thus, in sociological theory there is a significant array of interpretations and definitions of the concept of "social institution". They differ in their understanding of both the nature and functions of institutions. From the author's point of view, the search for an answer to the question of which of the definitions is correct and which is erroneous is methodologically unpromising. Sociology is a multi-paradigm science. Within the framework of each of the paradigms, it is possible to build its own consistent conceptual apparatus that obeys the internal logic. And it is up to the researcher working within the framework of the theory of the middle level to decide on the choice of the paradigm within which he intends to seek answers to the questions posed. The author adheres to the approaches and logic that lie in line with system-structural constructions, this also determines the concept of a social institution that he takes as a basis,

An analysis of foreign and domestic scientific literature shows that within the framework of the chosen paradigm in the understanding of a social institution, there is a wide range of versions and approaches. Thus, a large number of authors consider it possible to give the concept of "social institution" an unambiguous definition based on one keyword(expression). L. Sedov, for example, defines a social institution as “a stable complex of formal and informal rules, principles, guidelines, regulating various spheres of human activity and organizing them into a system of roles and statuses that form a social system” (cited in Modern Western Sociology, p. 117). N. Korzhevskaya writes: “A social institution is community of people performing certain roles based on their objective position (status) and organized through social norms and goals (Korzhevskaya N. Social institution as a social phenomenon (sociological aspect). Sverdlovsk, 1983, p. 11). J. Shchepansky gives the following integral definition: “Social institutions are institutional systems*, in which certain individuals, elected by group members, are empowered to perform public and impersonal functions in order to satisfy essential individual and social needs and to regulate the behavior of other members of the groups" (Schepansky Ya. Elementary concepts of sociology. M., 1969. S. 96-97).

There are other attempts to give an unambiguous definition, based, for example, on norms and values, roles and statuses, customs and traditions, etc. From our point of view, approaches of this kind are not fruitful, since they narrow the understanding of such a complex phenomenon as social institution, fixing attention only on one aspect, which seems to this or that author to be its most important side.

Under the social institution, these scientists understand a complex, covering, on the one hand, a set of normative-value determined roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs, and on the other hand, a social education created to use society's resources in the form of interaction to meet this need ( cm.: Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. S. 79-81; Komarov M.S. On the concept of a social institution// Introduction to sociology. M., 1994. S. 194).

Social institutions are specific formations that ensure the relative stability of ties and relations within the framework of the social organization of society, some historically determined forms of organization and regulation public life. Institutions arise in the course of the development of human society, the differentiation of activities, the division of labor, the formation of specific types of social relations. Their occurrence is due to the objective needs of society in the regulation of socially significant areas of activity and social relations. In the nascent institution, a certain type of social relations is essentially objectified.

Common features of a social institution include:

Identification of a certain circle of subjects entering into relationships that acquire a stable character in the process of activity;

A certain (more or less formalized) organization:

The presence of specific social norms and regulations that regulate the behavior of people within the framework of a social institution;

The presence of socially significant functions of the institution, integrating it into the social system and ensuring its participation in the process of integration of the latter.

These signs are not normatively fixed. They rather follow from the generalization of analytical materials about the various institutions of modern society. In some of them (formal - the army, the court, etc.), signs can be fixed clearly and in full, in others (informal or just emerging) - less clearly. But in general, they are a convenient tool for analyzing the processes of institutionalization of social formations.

The sociological approach focuses on the social functions of the institution and its normative structure. M. Komarov writes that the implementation of socially significant functions by the institution “is ensured by the presence within the social institution of an integral system of standardized patterns of behavior, i.e., a value-normative structure” (Komarov M.S. O the concept of a social institution//Introduction to sociology. S. 195).

The most important functions that social institutions perform in society include:

Regulation of the activities of members of society within the framework of social relations;

Creating opportunities to meet the needs of members of society;

Ensuring social integration, sustainability of public life; - socialization of individuals.

The structure of social institutions most often includes a certain set of constituent elements that appear in a more or less formalized form, depending on the type of institution. J. Shchepansky identifies the following structural elements of a social institution: - the purpose and scope of the institution; - functions provided to achieve the goal; - normatively determined social roles and statuses presented in the structure of the institute;

Means and institutions for achieving the goal and realizing functions (material, symbolic and ideal), including appropriate sanctions (see: Shchepansky Ya. Decree. op. S. 98).

Various criteria for classifying social institutions are possible. Of these, we consider it appropriate to focus on two: subject (substantive) and formalized. Based on the subject criterion, i.e., the nature of the substantive tasks performed by institutions, the following are distinguished: political institutions (state, parties, army); economic institutions (division of labor, property, taxes, etc.): institutions of kinship, marriage and family; institutions operating in the spiritual sphere (education, culture, mass communications, etc.), etc.

Based on the second criterion, i.e. the nature of the organization, institutions are divided into formal and informal. The activities of the former are based on strict, normative and, possibly, legally fixed prescriptions, rules, and instructions. This is the state, the army, the court, etc. In informal institutions, such regulation social roles, functions, means and methods of activity and sanctions for non-normative behavior are absent. It is replaced by informal regulation through traditions, customs, social norms, etc. From this, the informal institution does not cease to be an institution and perform the corresponding regulatory functions.

Thus, when considering a social institution, its features, functions, structure, the author relied on an integrated approach, the use of which has a developed tradition within the framework of the system-structural paradigm in sociology. It is a complex, but at the same time sociologically operational and methodologically rigorous interpretation of the concept of "social institution" that allows, from the point of view of the author, to analyze the institutional aspects of the existence of social education.

Let us consider the possible logic of substantiation of the institutional approach to any social phenomenon.

According to the theory of J. Homans, in sociology there are four types of explanation and justification of social institutions. The first is the psychological type, proceeding from the fact that any social institution is a psychological formation in its genesis, a stable product of the exchange of activities. The second type is historical, considering institutions as the final product of the historical development of a certain field of activity. The third type is structural, proving that "each institution exists as a consequence of its relationship with other institutions in the social system." The fourth is functional, based on the position that institutions exist because they perform certain functions in society, contributing to its integration and the achievement of homeostasis. The last two types of explanations for the existence of institutions, which are mainly used in structural-functional analysis, are declared by Homans to be unconvincing and even erroneous (see: Homans G.S. The sociological relevance of behaviorism//Behavioral sociology. P. 6).

Without rejecting the psychological explanations of J. Homans, I do not share his pessimism regarding the last two types of argumentation. On the contrary, I consider these approaches to be convincing, working for modern societies, and I intend to use both functional, structural, and historical types of substantiation of the existence of social institutions when studying the chosen social phenomenon.

If it is proved that the functions of any phenomenon under study are socially significant, that their structure and nomenclature are close to the structure and nomenclature of functions that social institutions perform in society, this will be an important step in substantiating its institutional nature. Such a conclusion is based on the inclusion of a functional feature among the most important features of a social institution and on the understanding that it is social institutions that form the main element of the structural mechanism by which society regulates social homeostasis and, if necessary, implements social changes.

The next step in substantiating the institutional interpretation of the hypothetical object we have chosen is b: "analysis of the ways of its inclusion in various spheres of social life, interaction with other social institutions, proof that it is an integral element of any one sphere of society (economic, political, cultural, etc.), or a combination of them, and ensures its (their) functioning. This logical operation is advisable to do for the reason that the institutional approach to the analysis of social system, but at the same time, the specificity of the main mechanisms of its functioning depends on the internal patterns of development of the corresponding type of activity.Therefore, consideration of an institution is impossible without correlating its activities with the activities of other institutions, as well as systems of a more general order.

The third stage, following the functional and structural justification, is the most important. It is at this stage that the essence of the institution under study is determined. An appropriate definition is formulated here, based on an analysis of the main institutional features. affects the legitimacy of its institutional representation. Then its specificity, type and place in the system of institutions of society are singled out, the conditions for the emergence of institutionalization are analyzed.

At the fourth and final stage, the structure of the institution is revealed, the characteristics of its main elements are given, and the patterns of its functioning are indicated.

social institution or public institution- a form of organization of joint life activity of people, historically established or created by purposeful efforts, the existence of which is dictated by the need to meet the social, economic, political, cultural or other needs of society as a whole or part of it. Institutions are characterized by their ability to influence people's behavior through established rules.

There are at least two generally accepted paradigms (principled ways) of considering social structure: 1) the theory of social institutions and 2) the theory of social inequality.

E. Durkheim figuratively defined social institutions as “reproduction factories” of social relations and connections, i.e. institutions generally mean certain types of relationships between people that are constantly in demand by society and therefore are reborn again and again. Examples of the reproduction of such indestructible ties are the church, the state, property, family, etc.

Social institutions determine society as a whole, they are depersonalized, impersonal. When the social structure of a society is conceived as an institutional structure, the researcher cannot but stand on evolutionary methodological positions, since it is believed that each institution performs a socially significant function that cannot be thrown out of an integral interconnected system (like a word from a song).

Types of social institutions

• The need for the reproduction of the genus (the institution of family and marriage).
• The need for security and order (the state).
• The need to obtain means of subsistence (production).
• The need for the transfer of knowledge, the socialization of the younger generation (institutions of public education).
• Needs in Solving Spiritual Problems (Institute of Religion).

Spheres of life of society

There are a number of spheres of the life of society, in each of which specific social institutions are formed and social relations:

• − Economic- relations in the production process (production, distribution, exchange, consumption of material goods). Institutions related to the economic sphere: private property, material production, market, etc.
• − Social- relations between different social and age groups; activities to ensure social guarantee. Institutes related to social sphere: upbringing, family, health care, social security, leisure, etc.
• − Political- relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties, as well as between states. Institutions related to the political sphere: state, law, parliament, government, judiciary, political parties, army, etc.
• − Spiritual- relations that arise in the process of the formation of spiritual values, their preservation, distribution, consumption, as well as transmission to the next generations. Institutions related to the spiritual sphere: religion, education, science, art, etc.
• − Kinship institution (marriage and family)- associated with the regulation of childbearing, relations between spouses and children, the socialization of young people.

If we turn to the revealed differences in the interpretations of the nature of society, it turns out that in the "system of relations" the social structure should be represented precisely by relations, and by no means by "groups of people." With all the logical triviality - a rather unexpected conclusion! And it is consistently confirmed in the process of constructing the corresponding theories. In some of them, social institutions are considered the product of inequality relations, in others, the development of inequality relations due to the work of social institutions is analyzed. Supporters of economic determinism believe that property (as a system of specific relations) gives rise to power, while cratologists and redistribution theorists, on the contrary, derive property relations from the nature of power institutions. But in principle, all these at first glance alternative approaches are based on the fact that the hierarchy of social groups is a consequence of the institutionalization of a certain structure of social relations.

For example, K. Marx considered production relations to be primary and generative structures of the corresponding social, political and spiritual relations. Since it is believed that the subjects reproducing a certain type of relationship are functionally “fixed” in a stable social disposition, they form a hierarchy according to the significance of the relationship. That is why Marx saw the focus of the structural conflict in the (exploitative, non-equivalent) nature of economic ties. And the institution of property in his concept predetermined the nature and prospects for the development of the institution of power. The Marxist approach (in a significantly modified form) is still popular, because it reflects the general logic of the social evolution of societies of the “economic era”, and also focuses on the development trends of industrial civilization.

Social institutions in public life perform the following functions or tasks:

• provide an opportunity to satisfy individuals, social communities and groups their various needs;
• regulate the action of individuals within the framework of social relations, stimulating desirable and repressing undesirable behavior;
• determine and maintain the general social order by the system of their social regulators and carry out the reproduction of impersonal social functions (that is, such functions that are always performed in the same way, regardless of the personal traits and interests of mankind);
• produce the integration of aspirations, actions and relationships of individuals and ensure the internal cohesion of the community.

The totality of these social functions adds up to the general social functions of social institutions as certain types social system. These features are very versatile. Sociologists of different directions tried to somehow classify them, to present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called. "institutional school". Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg and others) identified four main functions of social institutions:

• Reproduction of members of society. The main institution that performs this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved in it.
• Socialization is the transfer to individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - the institutions of the family, education, religion, etc.
• Production and distribution. Provided by the economic and social institutions of management and control - the authorities.
• The functions of management and control are carried out through a system of social norms and prescriptions that implement the corresponding types of behavior: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions control the individual's behavior through a system of sanctions.

In addition to solving its specific tasks, each social institution performs universal functions inherent in all of them.

To the number functions common to all social institutions can include the following:

1. The function of fixing and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.
2. Regulatory function. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.
3. Integrative function. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of the members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.
4. Broadcasting function. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.
5. Communication functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. At the Institute of Funds mass media is the main function. Scientific institutions actively perceive information. The communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

Functional qualities

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities:

• Political institutions - the state, parties, trade unions and other kinds of public organizations pursuing political goals, aimed at establishing and maintaining a certain form of political power. Their totality constitutes the political system of a given society. Political institutions ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, stabilize the social class structures that dominate in society.
• Sociocultural and educational institutions aim at the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of individuals in a particular subculture, as well as the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable sociocultural standards of behavior and, finally, the protection of certain values ​​and norms.
• Normative-orienting - mechanisms of moral and ethical orientation and regulation of the behavior of individuals. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, ethical basis. These institutions assert imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in the community.
• Normative-sanctioning - social and social regulation of behavior on the basis of norms, rules and regulations, enshrined in legal and administrative acts. The binding nature of the norms is ensured by the coercive power of the state and the system of appropriate sanctions.
• Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on the more or less long-term adoption of conventional (by agreement) norms, their official and unofficial consolidation. These norms regulate everyday contacts, various acts of group and intergroup behavior. They determine the order and method of mutual behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc., the rules of meetings, sessions, and the activities of associations.

Thus social institutions are social mechanisms, stable value-normative complexes that regulate different areas social life (marriage, family, property, religion), which are little susceptible to changes in the personal characteristics of people. But they are set in motion by people who carry out their activities, "play" by their rules. Thus, the concept of "the institution of a monogamous family" does not mean a separate family, but a set of norms that is realized in an innumerable set of families of a certain type.

In the works of M. Weber and T. Parsons, the theoretical perspective of the "relationship society" is even more "technologically" written. Structuring the system of public relations creates a matrix of social disposition, in which each cell - the social position of the subject - is colored by the characteristic of "status" and "prestige", i.e. social values ​​and meanings attributed to the "figures" of the carriers of relations, regardless of their specific (functional) qualities. “... An important set of integrative institutions are standards social stratification. We are talking here about the normatively legalized ordering of the units of society in accordance with the criteria of relative prestige, which in turn is the main basis of influence.

However, all of the above does not explain in the most satisfactory way the process of “objective” reproduction of the connections that specific people establish and maintain with each other in the course of their (including private) life. Isn't it true: "as long as no one is watching", we would all try to evade the prescriptions of social institutions and give free rein to our individual manifestations, if something else did not keep us together, within the boundaries of predictable behavior. We may reject the claims of others and stop following the usual rules, but we are unlikely to constantly ignore our own needs and not look after our own interests.

Practice shows that most people are interested in maintaining the stability of their own world. Each person socializes (acquires the basic skills of a hostel) under the influence of the social everyday life surrounding him. In the first period of his life, he perceives the rules of behavior, values ​​and norms uncritically - simply because there is no sufficient knowledge base for comparison and experiment. We carry out a lot of "social suggestions" to the end own life and it doesn't even occur to us to question them. By accumulating the experience of "relationships", most people are convinced that getting what they want from others is easiest if you live up to their expectations. For many, this inoculation of social compromise lasts a lifetime, and therefore people maintain the standards of social relations "reflexively" - out of habit not to disturb the harmony of the natural world for them.

In addition, people quite often find themselves in situations that make them feel their own vulnerability. The desire to obtain reliable, fairly universal protection is manifested, among other things, as a need for a corporation (family, when between you and the danger "mother and older brother", comradely, when "your guys" help out, professional, ethnic, civil, etc.) . Solidarity as an informal basis of social organization (community) is a form of self-defense through the protection of others - as themselves. It is the status of belonging to a community that modifies personal attitudes and social reactions: concern for the interests of “one’s own” often shows us that a person’s social body (his connections, social needs and values) is much more voluminous than functional.

The best defense is an attack. A social position is constructed by fixing certain relationships, i.e. requires appropriate forms of activity. And activity is always a risk. We take risks all the time, equipping busy “social nests” in our own way, and therefore we carry with us a whole baggage of “tags” that help us out when we make a mistake. Diplomas, titles, credit cards, a college (university) tie or badge, special words and expressions, clothing style, demeanor, and much more level out our private (deviating from general expectations) manifestations and allow us to appear before others within the framework of standard typing. Therefore, people communicate with each other as with representatives of certain corporations, regarding which there are widespread (“generally accepted”) ideas (opinions, stereotypes), and moreover, they strive to present themselves as a social mask (“I am from Ivan Ivanovich”, “we have such not accepted”, “I’ll tell you like a professional...”, etc.).

Getting into certain "nests" - special systems of relations, a person more often changes functional than corporate masks and often brilliantly plays a dozen roles in one day, participating in different mise-en-scenes: in the family, at work, in transport, at the doctor's, in the store. However, certain circumstances can make him feel and even show solidarity with people who play similar roles (for those who remember how we lived ten years ago, one can cite the solidarity of the Soviet queue as an example).

Since solidarity arises on different occasions, capturing different levels life values different people, an unambiguous answer to the question "Who am I with?" impossible without specifying “For what reason?” And the value of preserving tribal traditions requires uniting with some people, developing a professional culture with others, religion with others, and implementing political goals with others. At the same time, the areas of connections that have arisen move, overlap each other and diverge like a rose, often leaving only yourself in the sphere of complete intersection ... Society as "I myself", apparently, is the lower limit of the semantic threshold of possible definitions. The upper conceptual boundary is defined by solidarities that unite the largest possible number of people: these are nations and peoples, religious denominations, “survival parties” with non-fixed membership (environmental, anti-war, youth), etc.

"Society as a set of relations" in its completed interpretation allows you to decide whole line theoretical problems, since it recognizes the homogeneity of its own boundaries (after all, people are at least partly spiritual beings and act not only as a subject, but also as an object of relations, broadcasting and perceiving them general character), as well as its more complex spatial configuration. It makes it possible to explain the outward expansion (of empires, civilizations), the processes of social (sociocultural) exchange within and between societies, i.e. principled openness public systems along with the ability to implement operational closeness, interrupt relations in a certain range of exchange channels or in certain segments of society.

The structure of social relations is thus created at the “macro level” of social interactions, in the process of institutionalization (self-reproduction) of society, and is fixed at the “micro level” of interpersonal contacts, in which people appear to each other in social “masks” that facilitate their identification procedure ( definition, recognition) and productive information exchange. The more massive and organized a society becomes, the more “representative” social contacts spread and the more often a person acts either as a bearer of certain functions (due to institutional prescriptions) or as a messenger of certain status groups (“solidarities”).

Society is a complex social formation, and the forces operating within it are so interconnected that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of each individual action. In this regard, institutions have overt functions that are easily recognized as part of the recognized purposes of the institution, and latent functions that are carried out inadvertently and may not be recognized or, if recognized, are considered a by-product.

People with significant and high institutional roles often do not realize enough latent effects that can affect their activities and the activities of people associated with them. As a positive example of the use of latent functions in American textbooks, the activities of Henry Ford, the founder of the campaign that bears his name, are most often cited. He sincerely hated labor unions, big cities, large loans and installment purchases, but as he advanced in society, he stimulated their development more than anyone else, realizing that the latent, hidden, side functions of these institutions work for him, for him. business. However, the latent functions of institutions can both support recognized goals and turn them into irrelevant ones. They can even lead to significant damage to the norms of the institution.

How does a social institution function? What is its role in the processes taking place in society? Let's consider these questions.

Explicit functions of social institutions. If considered in the general view activity of any social institution, then we can assume that its main function is to satisfy social needs, for which it was created and exists. However, in order to perform this function, each institution performs functions in relation to its participants that ensure the joint activities of people striving to meet needs. These are primarily the following functions.
1. The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes, standardizes the behavior of its members and makes this behavior predictable. Appropriate social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the social structure of society. Indeed, the code of the institution of the family, for example, implies that members of society should be divided into sufficiently stable small groups - families. With the help of social control, the institution of the family seeks to ensure the stability of each individual family, and limits the possibility of its disintegration. The destruction of the family institution is, first of all, the appearance of chaos and uncertainty, the collapse of many groups, the violation of traditions, the impossibility of ensuring a normal sexual life and high-quality education of the younger generation.
2. Regulatory function is that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior. The whole cultural life of a person proceeds with his participation in various institutions. Whatever type of activity an individual engages in, he always encounters an institution that regulates his behavior in this area. Even if some kind of activity is not ordered and regulated, people immediately begin to institutionalize it. Thus, with the help of institutions, a person exhibits predictable and standardized behavior in social life. He fulfills the role requirements-expectations and knows what to expect from the people around him. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities.
3. Integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and systems of roles. The integration of people in the institute is accompanied by the streamlining of the system of interactions, an increase in the volume and frequency of contacts. All this leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure, especially social organizations.
Any integration in an institution consists of three main elements or necessary requirements: 1) consolidation or combination of efforts; 2) mobilization, when each member of the group invests its resources in achieving goals; 3) the conformity of the personal goals of individuals with the goals of others or the goals of the group. Integrative processes carried out with the help of institutions are necessary for the coordinated activities of people, the exercise of power, and the creation of complex organizations. Integration is one of the conditions for the survival of organizations, as well as one of the ways to correlate the goals of its participants.
4. Broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not possible to transfer social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people. This can happen both by expanding the social boundaries of the institution and by changing generations. In this regard, each institution provides a mechanism that allows individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles. For example, a family, raising a child, seeks to orient him to the values ​​of family life that his parents adhere to. Government agencies seek to influence citizens in order to instill in them the norms of obedience and loyalty, and the church tries to accustom as many members of society to the faith as possible.
5. Communicative function. Information produced in an institution should be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions. Moreover, the nature of the institute's communicative links has its own specifics - these are formal links carried out in a system of institutionalized roles. As the researchers note, the communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some are specially designed to transmit information (mass media), others have very limited opportunities for this; some actively perceive information (scientific institutions), others passively (publishing houses).

The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. When an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is bound to face disorganization and change: these explicit, necessary functions can be appropriated by other institutions.

latent functions. Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there are other results that are outside the immediate goals of a person, not planned in advance. These results can be of great importance to society. Thus, the church seeks to consolidate its influence to the greatest extent through ideology, the introduction of faith, and often achieves success in this. However, regardless of the goals of the church, there are people who, for the sake of religion, leave production activities. Fanatics begin to persecute non-believers, and there may be the possibility of major social conflicts on religious grounds. The family seeks to socialize the child to the accepted norms of family life, but it often happens that family education leads to a conflict between the individual and the cultural group and serves to protect the interests of certain social strata.

The existence of the latent functions of institutions is most prominently shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car. Obviously, these things are not acquired for the sake of satisfying obvious urgent needs. T. Veblen concludes from this that the production of consumer goods performs a hidden, latent function - it satisfies the needs of people to increase their own prestige. Such an understanding of the actions of the institute for the production of consumer goods radically changes the opinion about its activities, tasks and conditions of functioning.

Thus, it is obvious that only by studying the latent functions of institutions can we determine the true picture of social life. For example, very often sociologists are faced with a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance, when an institution continues to successfully exist, even if it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also prevents their implementation. Such an institution obviously has hidden functions by which it satisfies the needs of certain social groups. A similar phenomenon can be observed especially often among political institutions, in which latent functions are developed to the greatest extent.

Latent functions, therefore, are the subject that should primarily interest the student of social structures. The difficulty in recognizing them is compensated by the creation of a reliable picture of social connections and features of social objects, as well as the ability to control their development and control the social processes that take place in them.

Relationships between institutions. There is no social institution that would operate in a vacuum, in isolation from other social institutions. The operation of any social institution cannot be understood until all its interrelations and relationships are explained from the standpoint of the common culture and subcultures of groups. Religion, government, education, production and consumption, trade, family - all these institutions are in multiple interaction. Thus, the conditions of production must take into account the formation of new families in order to meet their needs for new apartments, household items, childcare facilities, etc. At the same time, the education system largely depends on the activities of government institutions that maintain the prestige and possible prospects for the development of educational institutions. Religion can also affect the development of education or government agencies. The teacher, the father of the family, the priest or the functionary of a voluntary organization are all affected by the government, since the actions of the latter (for example, issuing regulations) can lead to both success and failure in achieving vital goals.

An analysis of the numerous interconnections of institutions can explain why institutions are rarely able to fully control the behavior of their members, to combine their actions and attitudes with institutional ideas and norms. For example, schools may apply standard curricula to all students, but student response to them depends on many factors beyond the teacher's control. Children whose families encourage and carry out interesting conversations and who join the reading of books that develop them acquire intellectual interests more easily and to a greater extent than those children whose families prefer watching TV and reading entertainment literature. Churches preach high ethical ideals, but parishioners often feel the need to neglect them under the influence of business ideas, political allegiances, or the desire to leave the family. Patriotism glorifies self-sacrifice for the good of the state, but it is often inconsistent with the many individual desires of those raised in families, business institutions, or some political institutions.

The need to harmonize the system of roles assigned to individuals can often be satisfied by agreement between individual institutions. Industry and commerce in any civilized country depend on the support of the government, which regulates taxes and establishes exchanges between individual institutions of industry and commerce. In turn, the government depends on industry and trade, which economically support regulations and other government actions.

In addition, given the importance of some social institutions in public life, other institutions are trying to seize control over their activities. Since, for example, education plays a very significant role in society, attempts to fight for influence on the institution of education are observed among political organizations, production organizations, churches, etc. Politicians, for example, contribute to the development of the school, confident that by doing so they support attitudes towards patriotism and national identity. Church institutions are trying, with the help of the education system, to instill in students loyalty to church doctrines and a deep faith in God. Industrial organizations are trying to orient students from childhood to the development of industrial professions, and the military - to raise people who can successfully serve in the army.

The same can be said about the influence of other institutions on the institution of the family. The state is trying to regulate the number of marriages and divorces, as well as the birth rate. In addition, it establishes minimum standards for the care of children. Schools are looking for cooperation with the family by creating teachers' councils with the participation of parents and parents' committees. Churches create ideals for family life and try to hold family ceremonies within a religious framework.

Many institutional roles begin to conflict because the person who performs them belongs to several institutions. An example is the well-known conflict between career and family orientations. In this case, we are dealing with clashes of norms and rules of several institutions. Sociological research shows that each institution seeks to the greatest extent to "disconnect" the individuals included in it from playing roles in other institutions. Enterprises try to include the activities of the wives of their employees in their sphere of influence (a system of benefits, orders, family vacations, etc.). Army institutional rules can also be bad for family life. And here they find ways to include wives in army life, so that the husband and wife are related to uniform institutional norms. Most definitely, the problem of fulfillment by a person of the exclusively role of this institution is solved in some institutions of the Christian church, where the clergy are released from family responsibilities by taking a vow of celibacy.

The appearance of institutions is constantly adapting to changes in society. Changes in one institution tend to lead to changes in others. After changing family customs, traditions and rules of conduct, a new system social security of such changes involving many institutions. When peasants come from the countryside to the city and create their own subculture there, the actions of political institutions must change, legal organizations etc. We are accustomed to the fact that any change in the political organization affects all aspects of our daily lives. There are no institutions that would be transformed without change into other institutions or would exist separately from them.

institutional autonomy. The fact that institutions are interdependent in their activities does not mean that they are ready to give up internal ideological and structural control. One of their main goals is to exclude the influence of the leaders of other institutions and to keep their institutional norms, rules, codes and ideologies intact. All major institutions develop patterns of behavior that help maintain a certain degree of independence and resist the dominance of people grouped in other institutions. Enterprises and businesses strive for independence from the state; educational institutions also try to achieve the greatest independence and prevent the penetration of the norms and rules of foreign institutions. Even the institution of courtship achieves independence in relation to the institution of the family, which leads to some mystery and secrecy in its rituals. Each institution tries to carefully sort the attitudes and rules brought in from other institutions in order to select those attitudes and rules that can least affect the independence of this institution. Social order is a successful combination of the interaction of institutions and their respect for independence in relation to each other. This combination avoids serious and destructive institutional conflicts.

The dual function of intellectuals in relation to institutions. In all complex societies, institutions require constant ideological and organizational support and strengthening the ideology, the system of norms and rules on which the institution relies. This is carried out by two role groups of members of the institution: 1) bureaucrats who monitor institutional behavior; 2) intellectuals who explain and comment on the ideology, norms and rules of behavior of social institutions. In our case, intellectuals are those who, regardless of education or occupation, devote themselves to the serious analysis of ideas. The importance of ideology lies in maintaining loyalty to institutional norms, through which the heterogeneous attitudes of those people who are able to manipulate ideas are developed. Intellectuals Are Called to Satisfy Urgent Needs for Explanation social development and to do so in terms consistent with institutional norms.

For example, intellectuals associated with the political communist institutions set themselves the task of showing that modern history really develops in accordance with the predictions of K. Marx and V. Lenin. At the same time, intellectuals who study US political institutions argue that real history is built on the development of the ideas of free enterprise and democracy. At the same time, the leaders of the institutions understand that intellectuals cannot be fully trusted, since in studying the basic foundations of the ideology they support, they also analyze its imperfections. In this regard, intellectuals can begin to develop a competitive ideology that is more suited to the needs of the times. Such intellectuals become revolutionary and attack traditional institutions. That is why in the course of the formation of totalitarian institutions, first of all, they seek to protect ideology from the actions of intellectuals.

The 1966 campaign in China, which destroyed the influence of the intellectuals, confirmed Mao Zedong's fear that the intellectuals would refuse to support the revolutionary regime. Something similar happened in our country in the prewar years. If we turn to history, we will undoubtedly see that any power based on faith in the ability of leaders (charismatic power), as well as power that uses violence, non-democratic methods, seeks to protect the actions of the institution of power from the participation of intellectuals or completely subordinate them to its influence. . Exceptions only emphasize this rule.

So, it is often difficult to use the activities of intellectuals, because if today they can support institutional norms, then tomorrow they become their critics. Nevertheless, there are no institutions in the modern world that have escaped the constant influence of intellectual criticism, and there are no features of institutions that can continue to exist for a long time without intellectual protection. It becomes clear why some totalitarian political regimes are torn between a certain freedom and the repression of intellectuals. The intellectual most capable of defending fundamental institutions is the person who does so out of a desire for truth, regardless of obligations to institutions. Such a person is both useful and dangerous for the well-being of the institution - useful because he skillfully achieves the protection of institutional values, respect for the institution, and dangerous because, in search of truth, he is able to become an opponent of this institution. This dual role forces fundamental institutions to deal with the problem of ensuring discipline in society and the problem of conflict and loyalty for intellectuals.

Social institutions

The concepts of "social institution" and "social organization".

Types and functions of social institutions.

The family as a social institution.

Education as a social institution.

The concepts of "social institution" and "social organization"

Society as a social system has the property of dynamics. Only constant variability can guarantee him self-preservation in a constantly changing external environment. The development of society is accompanied by a complication of its internal structure, qualitative and quantitative change its element, as well as their connections and relationships.

At the same time, the change of society cannot be absolutely continuous. Moreover, as the history of mankind testifies, the priority characteristic of specific social systems is their relative immutability. It is this circumstance that makes it possible for successive generations of people to adapt to this particular social environment and determines the continuity of the development of the material, intellectual and spiritual culture of society.

Given the need to preserve those basic social ties and relationships that are guaranteed to ensure its stability, society takes measures to secure them fairly rigidly, excluding accidental spontaneous change. To do this, society fixes the most important types of social relations in the form of normative prescriptions, the implementation of which is mandatory for all members. At the same time, a system of sanctions is being developed and, as a rule, legitimized to ensure the unconditional execution of these instructions.

Social institutions are historically established sustainable forms organization and regulation of the joint life of people. This is a legally fixed system of social ties and relations. The process and result of their consolidation is denoted by the term "institutionalization". So, for example, we can talk about the institutionalization of marriage, the institutionalization of education systems, etc.

Marriage, the family, moral standards, education, private property, the market, the state, the army, the courts, and other similar forms in society are all clear examples of institutions already established in it. With their help, communications and relations between people are streamlined and standardized, their activities and behavior in society are regulated. This ensures a certain organization and stability of public life.

Structure of social institutions often represents a very complex system, since each institution covers a number of sociocultural elements. These elements can be grouped into five main groups. Consider them on the example of such an institution as the family:

1) spiritual and ideological elements, i.e. such feelings, ideals and values ​​as, say, love, mutual fidelity, the desire to create your own cozy family world, the desire to raise worthy children, etc.;

2) material elements- house, apartment, furniture, cottage, car, etc.;

3) behavioral elements- sincerity, mutual respect, tolerance, willingness to compromise, trust, mutual assistance, etc.;

4) cultural and symbolic elements- marriage ritual, wedding rings, wedding anniversary celebrations, etc.;

5) organizational and documentary elements- civil registration system (ZAGS), marriage and birth certificates, alimony, social security system, etc.

No one "invents" social institutions. They grow gradually, as if by themselves, from this or that specific need of people. For example, from the need to protect public order at one time, the institution of the police (militia) arose and established itself. The process of institutionalization consists in streamlining, standardizing, organizational design and legislative regulation of those ties and relations in society that “claim” to be transformed into a social institution.

The peculiarity of social institutions lies in the fact that they, being formed on the basis of social ties, relations and interaction of specific people and specific social communities, are individual and supra-group in nature. A social institution is a relatively independent social entity that has its own internal logic of development. From this point of view, a social institution should be considered as an organized social subsystem, characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of its elements and functions.

The main elements of social institutions are, first of all, systems of values, norms, ideals, as well as patterns of activity and behavior of people in life. different situations. Social institutions coordinate and direct the aspirations of individuals into a single channel, establish ways to meet their needs, contribute to the expansion of social conflicts, and ensure the stability of the existence of specific social communities and society as a whole.

The existence of a social institution is associated, as a rule, with its organizational design. A social institution is a set of persons and institutions that have certain material resources and perform a certain social function. Thus, the institution of education includes managers and employees of state and regional educational authorities, teachers, teachers, students, pupils, service personnel, as well as educational institutions and educational institutions: universities, institutes, colleges, technical schools, colleges, schools and children's gardens.

By itself, the fixation of sociocultural values ​​in the form of social institutions does not yet ensure their effective functioning. In order for them to "work", it is necessary that these values ​​become the property of the inner world of a person and receive recognition from social communities. The assimilation of social and cultural values ​​by members of society is the content of the process of their socialization, in which a huge role is assigned to the institution of education.

In addition to social institutions in society, there are also social organizations, which are one of the forms of ordering connections, relationships and interactions of individuals and social groups. Social organizations have row characteristic features :

they are created to achieve certain goals;

social organization gives a person the opportunity to satisfy his needs and interests within the limits that are established by the norms and values ​​​​accepted in this social organization;

social organization helps to increase the efficiency of the activities of its members, since its emergence and existence is based on the division of labor and on its specialization according to a functional basis.

A characteristic feature of most social organizations is their hierarchical structure, in which the control and controlled subsystems are quite clearly distinguished, which ensures its stability and operational efficiency. As a result of the combination of various elements of social organization into a single whole, a special organizational, or cooperative effect arises. Sociologists call its three main components:

1) the organization unites the efforts of many of its members, i.e. the simultaneity of many efforts of each;

2) the participants of the organization, being included in it, become different: they turn into its specialized elements, each of which performs a very specific function, which significantly increases the effectiveness and effect of their activities;

3) the managing subsystem plans, organizes and harmonizes the activities of the members of the social organization, and this also serves as a source of increasing the effectiveness of its actions.

The most complex and most significant social organization is the state (public-authoritative social organization), in which the central place is occupied by the state apparatus. In a democratic society, along with the state, there is also such a form of social organization as civil society. We are talking about such social institutions and relations as voluntary associations interests, folk art, friendship, the so-called "unregistered marriage", etc. At the center of civil society is a sovereign person who has the right to life, personal freedom and property. Other important values ​​of civil society are: democratic freedoms, political pluralism, the rule of law.

Types and functions of social institutions

Among the huge variety of institutional forms, one can single out the following main groups of social institutions.

Each of these groups, as well as each institution separately, fulfill their own certain functions.

Economic institutions are called upon to ensure the organization and management of the economy for the purpose of its effective development. For example, property relations assign material and other values ​​to a certain owner and enable the latter to receive income from these values. Money is called upon to serve as a universal equivalent in the exchange of goods, and wage- compensation to the employee for his work. Economic institutions provide the entire system of production and distribution of social wealth, while at the same time connecting the purely economic sphere of society's life with its other spheres.

Political institutions establish a certain power and govern society. They are also designed to ensure the protection of the sovereignty of the state and its territorial integrity, state ideological values, taking into account the political interests of various social communities.

Spiritual institutions associated with the development of science, education, art, the maintenance of moral values ​​in society. Sociocultural institutions aim to preserve and enhance the cultural values ​​of society.

As for the institution of the family, it is the primary and key link in the entire social system. From the family people come into society. It brings up the main personality traits of a citizen. The family sets the daily tone of all social life. Societies thrive when there is prosperity and peace in the families of its citizens.

The grouping of social institutions is very conditional, and does not mean that they exist in isolation from each other. All institutions of society are closely interconnected. For example, the state acts not only in “its own” political area, but also in all other areas: economic activity, contributes to the development of spiritual processes, regulates family relations. And the institution of the family (as the main cell of society) is literally at the center of the intersection of the lines of all other institutions (property, wages, the army, education, etc.).

Formed over the centuries, social institutions do not remain unchanged. They develop and improve along with the movement of society forward. At the same time, it is important that the governing bodies of society should not be late with the organizational (and especially with the legislative) formalization of the overdue changes in social institutions. Otherwise, the latter perform their functions worse and hinder social progress.

Each social institution has its own social functions, goals of activity, means and methods to ensure its achievement. The functions of social institutions are diverse. However, all their diversity can be reduced to four major:

1) reproduction of members of society (the main social institution that performs this function is the family);

2) socialization of members of society and, above all, new generations - the transfer to them of the industrial, intellectual and spiritual experience accumulated by society in its historical development, established patterns of behavior and interactions (institute of education);

3) production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, intellectual and spiritual values ​​(State Institute, Institute of Mass Communications, Institute of Art and Culture);

4) management and control over the behavior of members of society and social communities (the institution of social norms and regulations: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, the institution of sanctions for non-compliance or for improper compliance with established norms and rules).

Under the conditions of intensive social processes, the acceleration of the pace of social change, a situation may arise when the changed social needs are not adequately reflected in the structure and functions of the relevant social institutions, resulting in, as they say, their dysfunction. The essence of the dysfunction of a social institution lies in the "degeneration" of the goals of its activity and in the loss social significance the functions they perform. Outwardly, this is manifested in the fall of his social prestige and authority and in the transformation of his activity into a symbolic, “ritual” one, not aimed at achieving socially significant goals.

Correction of the dysfunction of a social institution can be achieved by changing it or creating a new social institution whose goals and functions would correspond to the changed social relations, connections and interactions. If this is not done in an acceptable way and in a proper way, an unsatisfied social need can bring to life the spontaneous emergence of normatively unregulated types of social ties and relations that can be destructive for society as a whole or for its individual areas. For example, the partial dysfunction of some economic institutions is the reason for the existence of the so-called "shadow economy" in our country, resulting in speculation, bribery, theft.

Family as a social institution

The family is the initial structural element of society and its most important social institution. From the point of view of sociologists, family is a group of people based on marriage and consanguinity, connected by common life and mutual responsibility. At the same time, under marriage the union of a man and a woman is understood, giving rise to their rights and obligations in relation to each other, to their parents and to their children.

marriage may be registered and actual (unregistered). Here, apparently, special attention should be paid to the fact that any form of marriage, including unregistered marriage, differs significantly from extramarital (disordered) sexual relations. Their fundamental difference from the marriage union is manifested in the desire to avoid the conception of a child, in the evasion of moral and legal responsibility for the onset of an unwanted pregnancy, in the refusal to support and raise a child in the event of his birth.

Marriage is a historical phenomenon that arose in the era of mankind's transition from savagery to barbarism and developed in the direction from polygamy (polygamy) to monogamy (monogamy). Basic forms polygamous marriage, passing successively to replace each other and preserved up to the present time in a number of "exotic" regions and countries of the world, are group marriage, polyandry ( polyandry) and polygamy ( polygamy).

In a group marriage, there are several men and several women in the marriage relationship. Polyandry is characterized by the presence of several husbands for one woman, and for polygamy - several wives for one husband.

Historically, the last and currently most common form of marriage, the essence of which is the stable marriage of one man and one woman. The first form of the family based on monogamous marriage was the extended family, also called the kinship or patriarchal (traditional). This family was built not only on marital relations, but also on consanguinity. Such a family was characterized by having many children and living in the same house or in the same farmstead for several generations. In this regard, patriarchal families were quite numerous, and therefore well adapted for relatively independent subsistence agriculture.

The transition of society from natural economy to industrial production was accompanied by the destruction of the patriarchal family, which was replaced by the married family. Such a family in sociology is also called nuclear(from lat. - core). A married family consists of a husband, wife and children, the number of which, especially in urban families, is becoming extremely small.

The family as a social institution goes through a number of stages, the main ones are:

1) marriage - formation of a family;

2) the beginning of childbearing - the birth of the first child;

3) the end of childbearing - the birth of the last child;

4) "empty nest" - marriage and separation of the last child from the family;

5) termination of the existence of the family - the death of one of the spouses.

Any family, regardless of what form of marriage underlies it, has been and remains a social institution, designed to perform a system of specific and unique social functions inherent in it. The main ones are: reproductive, educational, economic, status, emotional, protective, as well as the function of social control and regulation. Let's consider in more detail the content of each of them.

The most important thing for any family is its reproductive function, which is based on the instinctive desire of a person (individual) to continue his kind, and society - to ensure the continuity and succession of successive generations.

Considering the content of the reproductive function of the family, it should be borne in mind that in this case we are talking about the reproduction of the biological, intellectual and spiritual essence of a person. A child passing into this world must be physically strong, physiologically and mentally healthy, which would provide him with the opportunity to perceive the material, intellectual and spiritual culture accumulated by previous generations. Obviously, apart from the family, no “social incubator” like the “Baby House” is able to solve this problem.

Fulfilling its reproductive mission, the family is "responsible" not only for the qualitative, but also for the quantitative growth of the population. It is the family that is that kind of birth rate regulator, by influencing which one can avoid or initiate a demographic decline or a population explosion.

One of the most important functions of the family is educational function. For the normal full development of the child, the family is vital. Psychologists note that if a child is deprived of maternal warmth and care from birth to 3 years, then its development slows down significantly. The primary socialization of the younger generation is also carried out in the family.

essence economic function The family consists in the maintenance by its members of a common household and in the economic support of minors who are temporarily unemployed, as well as those who are unable to work due to illness or age of family members. "Outgoing" totalitarian Russia has contributed to the economic function of the family. The wage system was built in such a way that neither a man nor a woman could live separately from each other on wages. And this circumstance served as an additional and very significant incentive for their marriage.

From the moment of his birth, a person receives citizenship, nationality, social position in society inherent in the family, becomes an urban or rural resident, etc. Thus, it is carried out status function families. The social statuses inherited by a person at his birth can change over time, however, they largely determine the “starting” capabilities of a person in his final destiny.

Satisfying the inherent human need for family warmth, comfort and intimate communication is the main content emotional function families. It is no secret that in families in which an atmosphere of participation, goodwill, sympathy, empathy has developed, people get sick less, and when they get sick, they endure illness more easily. They also turn out to be more resistant to stress, for which our life is so generous.

One of the most significant is protective function. It manifests itself in the physical, material, mental, intellectual and spiritual protection of its members. In a family, violence, the threat of violence or infringement of interests shown in relation to one of its members, cause a response of opposition, in which the instinct of its self-preservation is manifested. The most acute form of such a reaction is revenge, including blood, associated with violent actions.

One of the forms of the defensive reaction of the family, which contributes to its self-preservation, is a solidary feeling of guilt or shame by the whole family for the illegal, immoral or immoral actions and deeds of one or more of its members. A deep awareness of one's moral responsibility for what happened contributes to the spiritual self-purification and self-improvement of the family, and thereby strengthening its foundations.

The family is the main social institution through which society carries out primary social control over the behavior of people and the regulation of their mutual responsibility and mutual obligations. At the same time, the family is that informal “court instance” that has the right to apply moral sanctions to family members for non-compliance or for improper observance of the norms of social and family life. It seems quite obvious that the family as a social institution implements its functions not in a "soulless space", but in a well-defined political, economic, social, ideological and cultural environment. At the same time, the existence of the family in a totalitarian society, which seeks to penetrate into all pores of civil society and, above all, into the family and family relations, turns out to be the most unnatural.

It is easy to verify the validity of this statement by looking more closely at the process of the post-revolutionary transformation of the Soviet family. The aggressive foreign and repressive domestic policy of the Soviet state, the essentially inhumane economy, the total ideologization of society and, especially, the education system led to the degradation of the family, to its transformation from normal to “Soviet”, with a corresponding deformation of its functions. The state limited its reproductive function to the reproduction of "human material", having appropriated to itself the monopoly right of its subsequent spiritual duping. The beggarly level of wages gave rise to sharp conflicts between parents and children on an economic basis, shaped both these and others a sense of their own inferiority. In a country in which class antagonism, spy mania and total denunciation were planted, there could be no question of any protective function of the family, especially the function of moral satisfaction. And the status role of the family has become completely life-threatening: the fact of belonging to one or another social stratum, to one or another ethnic group was often tantamount to a sentence for a grave crime. The control and regulation of people's social behavior was taken over by the punitive bodies, the party and party organizations, having connected their faithful assistants to this process - the Komsomol, the pioneer organization and even the Octoberists. As a result, the control function of the family degenerated into spying and eavesdropping, followed by denunciation to state and party parties or with a public discussion of compromising material at "comradely" courts, at party and Komsomol meetings of the October "stars"

in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. the patriarchal family prevailed (about 80%), in the 1970s. more than half of Russian families adhered to the principles of equality and mutual respect. The forecasts of N. Smelser and E. Giddens about the post-industrial future of the family are interesting. According to N. Smelzer, there will be no return to the traditional family. The modern family will change, partially losing or changing some functions, although the family's monopoly on the regulation of intimate relationships, childbearing and caring for young children will continue into the future. At the same time, there will be a partial decay of even relatively stable functions. So, the reproduction function will be carried out by unmarried women. Centers for the upbringing of children will be more involved in socialization. Friendship and emotional support can be found not only in the family. E. Giddens notes a steady trend of weakening the regulatory function of the family in relation to sexual life, but believes that marriage and the family will remain strong institutions.

The family as a socio-biological system is analyzed from the standpoint of functionalism and conflict theory. The family, on the one hand, is closely connected with society through its functions, and on the other hand, all family members are interconnected by consanguinity and social relations. It should be noted that the family is also a carrier of contradictions both with society and between its members. Family life is connected with the solution of contradictions between husband, wife and children, relatives, surrounding people regarding the performance of functions, even if it is based on love and respect.

In the family, as in society, there is not only unity, integrity and harmony, but also a struggle of interests. The nature of conflicts can be understood from the standpoint of the exchange theory, which implies that all family members should strive for an equal exchange in their relationship. Tensions and conflicts arise from the fact that someone does not receive the expected "reward". The source of the conflict may be the low wages of one of the family members, drunkenness, violence, sexual dissatisfaction, etc. The strong severity of disturbances in metabolic processes leads to the breakup of the family.

The problems of the modern Russian family as a whole coincide with the global ones. Among them:

an increase in the number of divorces and an increase in single families (mainly with a “single mother”);

a decrease in the number of registered marriages and an increase in the number of civil marriages;

reduction in the birth rate;

an increase in the number of children born out of wedlock;

changes in the distribution of family responsibilities due to the growing involvement of women in labor activity requiring the joint participation of both parents in the upbringing of children and the organization of everyday life;

an increase in the number of dysfunctional families.

The most pressing problem is dysfunctional families arising from socio-economic, psychological, pedagogical or biological (for example, disability) reasons. stand out the following types of dysfunctional families:

Dysfunctional families deform the personality of children, causing anomalies both in the psyche and in behavior, for example, early alcoholization, drug addiction, prostitution, vagrancy and other forms of deviant behavior.

Another urgent family problem is the growing number of divorces. In our country, along with the freedom of marriage, there is also the right of spouses to divorce. According to statistics, currently 2 out of 3 marriages break up. But this figure varies depending on the place of residence and age of people. So in big cities more divorces than countryside. The peak number of divorces falls at the age of 25-30 years and 40-45 years.

As the number of divorces increases, the possibility that they will be compensated by remarriage becomes less and less. Only 10-15% of women with children remarry. As a result, the number of incomplete families is increasing. So what is divorce? Some say - evil, others - getting rid of evil. In order to find out this, it is necessary to analyze a wide range of questions: how does a divorced person live? Is he happy with the divorce? How have housing conditions and health changed? How did your relationship with the children develop? Is he thinking of remarrying? It is very important to find out the fate of a divorced woman and a man, as well as a child from a broken family. It is not for nothing that they say that divorce is like an iceberg in the sea: only a small part of the reasons are visible on the surface, but their main mass is hidden in the depths of the souls of the divorced.

According to statistics, a divorce case is initiated mainly at the request of women, because. a woman in our time has become independent, she works, she can support her family herself and does not want to put up with the shortcomings of her husband. At the same time, a woman does not think that she herself is not perfect and whether she deserves a perfect man. Imagination draws for her such a perfect ideal, which in real life and does not occur.

There are no words that a drunken husband is a misfortune for the family, wife, children. Especially when he beats his wife and children, takes money from the family, does not take care of the upbringing of children, etc. Divorce in these cases is necessary to protect the family from moral and material devastation. In addition to drunkenness, the reasons why wives file for divorce can be cheating on their husbands, male selfishness. Sometimes a man simply forces his wife to file for divorce by his behavior. He treats her disdainfully, does not tolerate her weaknesses, does not help in household chores, etc. Of the reasons why husbands file for divorce, we can highlight the betrayal of his wife or his love for another woman. But the main reason for divorce is the unpreparedness of spouses for family life. Domestic, financial problems pile on young spouses. In the first years of married life, the young people get to know each other more, the shortcomings that they tried to hide before the wedding are revealed, and the spouses adapt to each other.

Young spouses often unnecessarily hastily resort to divorce as a way to resolve any conflicts, including those that can be overcome at first. Such a “light” attitude towards the breakup of a family is formed due to the fact that divorce has already become commonplace. At the time of marriage, there is a clear set for divorce if at least one of the spouses is not satisfied with their life together. The reason for divorce can also be the unwillingness of one of the spouses to have a child. These cases are rare, but they do happen. According to sociological surveys, more than half of men and women would like to remarry. Only a small part preferred loneliness. American sociologists Carter and Glick report that 10 times more unmarried men than married men go to the hospital, the death rate of unmarried men is 3 times more, and unmarried women are 2 times more than married ones. Many men, like many women, easily go through with a divorce, but then experience its consequences very hard. In divorces, in addition to spouses, there are also interested parties - children. They suffer psychological trauma that parents often do not think about.

In addition to the moral disadvantages of divorce, there are also negative material aspects. When the husband leaves the family, the wife and child face financial difficulties. There is also a problem with housing. But the possibility of a family reunion is a real possibility for many couples who have broken up in the heat of the moment. Deep down, each of the spouses wants to have a good family. And for this, those who have entered into marriage need to learn mutual understanding, overcome petty egoism, and improve the culture of family relations. At the state level, in order to prevent divorce, it is necessary to create and expand a system for preparing young people for marriage, as well as a socio-psychological service for helping families and single people.

To support the family, the state forms family policy, which includes a set of practical measures that give families with children certain social guarantees for the purpose of the functioning of the family in the interests of society. In all countries of the world, the family is recognized as the most important social institution in which new generations are born and raised, where their socialization takes place. World practice includes a range of social support measures:

provision of family allowances;

payment of maternity leave for women;

medical care for women during pregnancy and childbirth;

monitoring the health of infants and young children;

granting parental leave;

benefits for single-parent families;

tax incentives, low-interest loans (or subsidies) for the purchase or rental of housing, and some others.

Assistance to families from the state can be different and depends on a number of factors, including the economic well-being of the state. The Russian state provides basically similar forms of assistance to families, but their scale is modern conditions insufficient.

Russian society faces the need to solve a number of priority tasks in the field of family relations, including:

1) overcoming negative trends and stabilizing the financial situation of Russian families; reducing poverty and increasing assistance to disabled family members;

2) strengthening the support of the family by the state as a natural environment for the life support of children; ensuring safe motherhood and protecting the health of children.

To solve these problems, it is necessary to increase spending on social support for families, increase the efficiency of their use, improve legislation to protect the rights and interests of the family, women, children and youth.

the following elements :

1) a network of educational institutions;

2) social communities(teachers and students);

3) educational process.

Allocate the following types of educational institutions(state and non-state):

1) preschool;

2) general education (primary, basic, secondary);

3) professional (primary, secondary and higher);

4) postgraduate professional education;

5) special (correctional) institutions - for children with developmental disabilities;

6) institutions for orphans.

With regard to preschool education, sociology proceeds from the fact that the foundations of a person's upbringing, his industriousness, and many other moral qualities are laid in early childhood. In general, the importance of preschool education is underestimated. It is too often overlooked that this is an extremely important step in a person's life, on which the fundamental foundation of a person's personal qualities is laid. And the point is not in quantitative indicators of "coverage" of children or satisfaction of the desires of parents. Kindergartens, nurseries, factories are not just a means of "looking after" children, here their mental, moral and physical development takes place. With the transition to teaching children from the age of 6, kindergartens faced new problems for themselves - the organization of activities preparatory groups so that children can normally enter the school rhythm of life, have self-service skills.

From the point of view of sociology, the analysis of society's focus on supporting preschool forms of education, on the readiness of parents to resort to their help to prepare children for work and the rational organization of their social and personal life, is of particular importance. To understand the specifics of this form of education, the position and value orientations of those people who work with children - educators, service personnel - as well as their readiness, understanding and desire to fulfill the duties and hopes assigned to them are especially significant.

Unlike pre-school education and upbringing, which does not cover every child, the secondary general education school is aimed at preparing the entire younger generation for life, without exception. In the conditions of the Soviet period, starting from the 1960s, the principle of universality of complete secondary education was implemented in order to provide young people with an equal start when entering an independent working life. There is no such provision in the new Constitution of the Russian Federation. And if in the Soviet school, because of the requirement to give every young person a secondary education, percentage mania, registrations, artificial overestimation of academic performance flourished, then in the Russian school the number of school dropouts is growing, which will eventually affect the intellectual potential of society.

But even in this situation, the sociology of education is still aimed at studying the values general education, on the guidelines of parents and children, on their reaction to the introduction of new forms of education, because graduating from a general education school turns out to be for a young person at the same time the moment of choosing a future life path, profession, occupation. Stopping on one of the options, the graduate of the school thereby prefers one or another type vocational education. But what drives him in choosing the trajectory of his future life path, what influences this choice and how it changes over the course of life is one of critical issues sociology.

A special place is occupied by the study of vocational education - vocational, secondary special and higher. Vocational education is most directly connected with the needs of production, with operational and comparatively quick form inclusion of young people in life. It is directly carried out within the framework of large production organizations or state system education. Emerging in 1940 as a factory apprenticeship (FZU), vocational education has gone through a complex and winding path of development. And despite the various costs (attempts to transfer the entire system to a combination of complete and specialized education in the preparation of necessary professions, poor consideration of regional and national characteristics), vocational training remains the most important channel for obtaining a profession. For the sociology of education, it is important to know the motives of students, the effectiveness of training, its role in improving the skills of real participation in solving economic problems.

However, sociological research still record a relatively low (and for a number of professions, low) prestige of this type of education, because the orientation of school graduates to receive secondary specialized and higher education continues to prevail.

As for secondary specialized and higher education, it is important for sociology to identify the social status of these types of education for young people, assess the possibilities and role in future adult life, the correspondence of subjective aspirations and objective needs of society, the quality and effectiveness of training.

Particularly acute is the question of the professionalism of future specialists, that the quality and level of their modern training meet the realities of today. However, sociological studies show that many problems have accumulated in this regard. The stability of the professional interests of young people continues to be low. According to research by sociologists, up to 60% of university graduates change their profession.

In addition to those already mentioned, Russian education are also worth the following problems:

the problem of optimizing the interaction between the individual and society as a search for a balance between social and normative pressure and the desire of the individual for socio-psychological autonomy, overcoming the inconsistency of the "needs" of the social order and the interests of the individual (student, teacher, parent);

the problem of overcoming the disintegration of the content of school education in the process of creating and implementing a new socio-educational paradigm that can become a starting point in the formation of a holistic picture of the world in a student;

problems of harmonization and integration of pedagogical technologies;

the formation of the development of problem thinking in students through a gradual departure from monologue communication to dialogical communication in the classroom;

the problem of overcoming the irreducibility of learning outcomes in various types of educational institutions through the development and introduction of unified educational standards based on a comprehensive systematic analysis of the educational process.

In this regard, modern Russian education faces following tasks.

In the Russian Federation are implemented two types of educational programs:

1) general education (basic and additional) - aimed at the formation of a general culture of the individual and its adaptation to life in society;

2) professional (basic and additional) - aimed at training specialists of appropriate qualifications.

Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" guarantees:

1) general availability and free of charge of primary general (4 grades), basic general (9 grades), secondary (complete) general (11 grades) and primary vocational education;

2) on a competitive basis, free secondary and higher professional and postgraduate education (postgraduate studies) in state and municipal educational institutions if a person receives education for the first time.

Education performs in society essential functions:

1) humanistic- identification and development of the intellectual, moral and physical potential of the individual;

2) professional and economic- training of qualified specialists;

3) socio-political- acquisition of a certain social status;

4) cultural - the assimilation by the individual of the culture of society, the development of his creative abilities;

5) adaptive - preparing the individual for life and work in society.

The current system of education in Russia still poorly forms high spiritual demands and aesthetic tastes, a strong immunity to lack of spirituality, " popular culture". The role of social science disciplines, literature, art lessons remains insignificant. The study of the historical past, the truthful coverage of the complex and contradictory stages of national history are poorly combined with an independent search for one's own answers to the questions that life puts forward. Global socio-cultural changes in the world, the so-called civilizational shifts, are increasingly revealing the discrepancy between the established education system and emerging social needs on the eve of a new anthropogenic reality. This discrepancy causes in our country from time to time attempts to reform the educational system.

Control questions

Describe the concept of "social institution".

What is the main difference between a social organization and a social institution?

What are the elements of a social institution?

What types of social institutions do you know?

Name the functions of social institutions.

List the functions of the family.

What types of families can you name?

What are the main problems of the modern family?

Describe education as a social institution.

What are the problems facing Russian education at the present time?

History of the term

Basic information

The peculiarities of its word usage are further complicated by the fact that in the English language, traditionally, an institution is understood as any well-established practice of people that has the sign of self-reproducibility. In such a broad, not highly specialized, sense, an institution can be an ordinary human queue or English language as a centuries-old social practice.

Therefore, a social institution is often given a different name - “institution” (from Latin institutio - custom, instruction, instruction, order), understanding by it the totality of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and life, transmitted from generation to generation, changing depending on the circumstances and serving as an instrument of adaptation to them, and under the "institution" - the consolidation of customs and procedures in the form of a law or institution. The term "social institution" has absorbed both "institution" (customs) and the "institution" itself (institutions, laws), as it combines both formal and informal "rules of the game".

A social institution is a mechanism that provides a set of constantly repeating and reproducing social relations and social practices of people (for example: the institution of marriage, the institution of the family). E. Durkheim figuratively called social institutions "factories for the reproduction of social relations." These mechanisms are based on both codified codes of laws and non-thematized rules (non-formalized “hidden” ones that are revealed when they are violated), social norms, values ​​and ideals that are historically inherent in a particular society. According to the authors of the Russian textbook for universities, “these are the strongest, most powerful ropes that decisively determine the viability [of the social system]”

Spheres of life of society

There are 4 spheres of the life of society, each of which includes various social institutions and various social relations arise:

• Economic- relations in the production process (production, distribution, consumption of material goods). Institutions related to the economic sphere: private property, material production, market, etc.
• Social- relations between different social and age groups; activities to ensure social guarantees. Institutions related to the social sphere: education, family, health care, social security, leisure, etc.
• Political- relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties, as well as between states. Institutions related to the political sphere: state, law, parliament, government, judiciary, political parties, army, etc.
• Spiritual- relations that arise in the process of creating and preserving spiritual values, creating the dissemination and consumption of information. Institutions related to the spiritual sphere: education, science, religion, art, media, etc.

institutionalization

The first, most commonly used meaning of the term "social institution" is associated with the characteristics of any kind of ordering, formalization and standardization of social ties and relations. And the process of streamlining, formalization and standardization is called institutionalization. The process of institutionalization, that is, the formation of a social institution, consists of several successive stages:

1. the emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized actions;
2. formation of common goals;
3. the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;
4. the emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;
5. institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, that is, their adoption, practical application;
6. the establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, the differentiation of their application in individual cases;
7. creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception;

So, the end of the process of institutionalization can be considered the creation in accordance with the norms and rules of a clear status-role structure, socially approved by the majority of participants in this social process.

The process of institutionalization thus involves a number of points.

• One of the necessary conditions for the emergence of social institutions is the corresponding social need. Institutions are designed to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet certain social needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race and the upbringing of children, implements relations between the sexes, generations, etc. The institution of higher education provides training work force, enables a person to develop his abilities in order to realize them in subsequent activities and ensure his existence, etc. The emergence of certain social needs, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction, are the first necessary moments of institutionalization.

• A social institution is formed on the basis of social ties, interactions and relationships of specific individuals, social groups and communities. But it, like other social systems, cannot be reduced to the sum of these individuals and their interactions. Social institutions are supra-individual in nature, have their own systemic quality. Consequently, a social institution is an independent public entity that has its own logic of development. From this point of view, social institutions can be considered as organized social systems characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of their elements and a certain variability of their functions.

First of all, we are talking about a system of values, norms, ideals, as well as patterns of activity and behavior of people and other elements of the sociocultural process. This system guarantees similar behavior of people, coordinates and directs their certain aspirations, establishes ways to satisfy their needs, resolves conflicts that arise in the process of everyday life, provides a state of balance and stability within a particular social community and society as a whole.

In itself, the presence of these socio-cultural elements does not yet ensure the functioning of a social institution. In order for it to work, it is necessary that they become the property of the inner world of the individual, be internalized by them in the process of socialization, embodied in the form of social roles and statuses. Internalization by individuals of all socio-cultural elements, the formation on their basis of a system of personality needs, value orientations and waiting is the second essential element institutionalization.

• The third most important element of institutionalization is the organizational design of a social institution. Outwardly, a social institution is a set of organizations, institutions, individuals equipped with certain material resources and performing a certain social function. Thus, the institute of higher education is put into action by the social corps of teachers, service personnel, officials who operate within the framework of such institutions as universities, the ministry or the State Committee for high school etc., which for their activities have certain material values(buildings, finances, etc.).

Thus, social institutions are social mechanisms, stable value-normative complexes that regulate various areas of social life (marriage, family, property, religion), which are not very susceptible to changes in people's personal characteristics. But they are set in motion by people who carry out their activities, "play" by their rules. Thus, the concept of "the institution of a monogamous family" does not mean a separate family, but a set of norms that is realized in an innumerable set of families of a certain type.

Institutionalization, as shown by P. Berger and T. Lukman, is preceded by the process of habitualization, or "accustoming" of everyday actions, leading to the formation of patterns of activity that are later perceived as natural and normal for a given occupation or solving problems typical in these situations. Action patterns, in turn, serve as the basis for the formation of social institutions, which are described in the form of objective social facts and are perceived by the observer as a "social reality" (or social structure). These trends are accompanied by signification procedures (the process of creating, using signs and fixing meanings and meanings in them) and form a system of social meanings, which, forming into semantic connections, are fixed in natural language. Signification serves the purposes of legitimation (recognition as legitimate, socially recognized, legal) of the social order, that is, justification and substantiation of the usual ways to overcome the chaos of destructive forces that threaten to undermine the stable idealizations of everyday life.

With the emergence and existence of social institutions, the formation in each individual of a special set of sociocultural dispositions (habitus), practical schemes of action that have become for the individual his internal "natural" need is connected. Thanks to habitus, individuals are included in the activities of social institutions. Therefore, social institutions are not just mechanisms, but "a kind of" factory of meanings "that set not only patterns of human interactions, but also ways of comprehending, understanding social reality and the people themselves" .

Structure and functions of social institutions

Structure

concept social institution suggests:

• the presence of a need in society and its satisfaction by the mechanism of reproduction of social practices and relations;
• these mechanisms, being supra-individual formations, act in the form of value-normative complexes that regulate social life as a whole or its separate sphere, but for the benefit of the whole;

Their structure includes:

• role models of behavior and statuses (prescriptions for their execution);
• their justification (theoretical, ideological, religious, mythological) in the form of a categorical grid that defines a "natural" vision of the world;
• means of transmitting social experience (material, ideal and symbolic), as well as measures that stimulate one behavior and repress another, tools to maintain institutional order;
• social positions - the institutions themselves represent a social position (“empty” social positions do not exist, so the question of the subjects of social institutions disappears).

In addition, they assume the existence of a certain social position of "professionals" who are able to put this mechanism into action, playing by its rules, including a whole system of their training, reproduction and maintenance.

In order not to denote the same concepts by different terms and to avoid terminological confusion, social institutions should be understood not as collective subjects, not social groups and not organizations, but special social mechanisms that ensure the reproduction of certain social practices and social relations. And collective subjects should still be called "social communities", "social groups" and "social organizations".

Functions

Every social institution has main function, which determines his "face", associated with his main social role in the consolidation and reproduction of certain social practices and relations. If this army, then its role is to ensure the military-political security of the country by participating in hostilities and demonstrating its military power. In addition to it, there are other explicit functions, to some extent characteristic of all social institutions, ensuring the implementation of the main one.

Along with explicit, there are also implicit - latent (hidden) functions. Thus, the Soviet Army at one time carried out a number of hidden state tasks unusual for it - national economic, penitentiary, fraternal assistance to "third countries", pacification and suppression of riots, popular discontent and counter-revolutionary coups both within the country and in the countries of the socialist camp. The explicit functions of institutions are necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. Latent functions are expressed in unforeseen results of the activities of institutions or persons representing them. Thus, the democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 1990s, through the parliament, government and president, sought to improve the lives of the people, create civilized relations in society and inspire citizens with respect for the law. Those were the clear goals and objectives. In fact, the crime rate has increased in the country, and the standard of living of the population has fallen. These are the results of the latent functions of the institutions of power. Explicit functions testify to what people wanted to achieve within the framework of this or that institution, and latent ones indicate what came of it.

The identification of the latent functions of social institutions allows not only to create an objective picture of social life, but also makes it possible to minimize their negative and enhance their positive impact in order to control and manage the processes taking place in it.

Social institutions in public life perform the following functions or tasks:

The totality of these social functions is formed into the general social functions of social institutions as certain types of social system. These features are very versatile. Sociologists of different directions tried to somehow classify them, to present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called. "institutional school". Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg and others) identified four main functions of social institutions:

• Reproduction of members of society. The main institution that performs this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved in it.
• Socialization is the transfer to individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - the institutions of the family, education, religion, etc.
• Production and distribution. Provided by the economic and social institutions of management and control - the authorities.
• The functions of management and control are carried out through a system of social norms and regulations that implement the appropriate types of behavior: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions control the individual's behavior through a system of sanctions.

In addition to solving its specific tasks, each social institution performs universal functions inherent in all of them. The functions common to all social institutions include the following:

1. The function of fixing and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.
2. Regulatory function. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.
3. Integrative function. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of the members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.
4. Broadcasting function. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.
5. Communication functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. This is the main function of the media institute. Scientific institutions actively perceive information. The commutative possibilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

Functional qualities

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities:

• Political institutions - the state, parties, trade unions and other kinds of public organizations pursuing political goals, aimed at establishing and maintaining a certain form of political power. Their totality constitutes the political system of a given society. Political institutions ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, stabilize the social class structures that dominate in society.
• Sociocultural and educational institutions aim at the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of individuals in a particular subculture, as well as the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable sociocultural standards of behavior and, finally, the protection of certain values ​​and norms.
• Normative-orienting - mechanisms of moral and ethical orientation and regulation of the behavior of individuals. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, an ethical basis. These institutions assert imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in the community.
• Normative-sanctioning - social and social regulation of behavior on the basis of norms, rules and regulations, enshrined in legal and administrative acts. The binding nature of the norms is ensured by the coercive power of the state and the system of appropriate sanctions.
• Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on the more or less long-term adoption of conventional (by agreement) norms, their official and unofficial consolidation. These norms regulate everyday contacts, various acts of group and intergroup behavior. They determine the order and method of mutual behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc., the rules of meetings, sessions, and the activities of associations.

Dysfunction of a social institution

Violation of normative interaction with the social environment, which is a society or community, is called a dysfunction of a social institution. As noted earlier, the basis for the formation and functioning of a particular social institution is the satisfaction of a particular social need. Under the conditions of intensive social processes, the acceleration of the pace of social change, a situation may arise when the changed social needs are not adequately reflected in the structure and functions of the relevant social institutions. As a result, dysfunction may occur in their activities. From a substantive point of view, dysfunction is expressed in the ambiguity of the goals of the institution, the uncertainty of functions, in the fall of its social prestige and authority, the degeneration of its individual functions into “symbolic”, ritual activity, that is, activity not aimed at achieving a rational goal.

One of the clear expressions of the dysfunction of a social institution is the personalization of its activities. A social institution, as you know, functions according to its own, objectively operating mechanisms, where each person, on the basis of norms and patterns of behavior, in accordance with his status, plays certain roles. The personalization of a social institution means that it ceases to act in accordance with objective needs and objectively established goals, changing its functions depending on the interests of individuals, their personal qualities and properties.

An unsatisfied social need can bring to life the spontaneous emergence of normatively unregulated activities that seek to make up for the dysfunction of the institution, but at the expense of violating existing norms and rules. In its extreme forms, activity of this kind can be expressed in illegal activities. Thus, the dysfunction of some economic institutions is the reason for the existence of the so-called "shadow economy", resulting in speculation, bribery, theft, etc. The correction of dysfunction can be achieved by changing the social institution itself or by creating a new social institution that satisfies this social need.

Formal and informal social institutions

Social institutions, as well as the social relations they reproduce and regulate, can be formal and informal.

Role in the development of society

According to American researchers Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (English) Russian it is the nature of the social institutions that exist in a given country that determines the success or failure of the development of a given country.

Having considered the examples of many countries of the world, scientists came to the conclusion that the defining and necessary condition for the development of any country is the presence of public institutions, which they called public institutions. Inclusive institutions). Examples of such countries are all developed democratic countries of the world. Conversely, countries where public institutions are closed are doomed to fall behind and decline. Public institutions in such countries, according to researchers, they serve only to enrich the elites that control access to these institutions - this is the so-called. "privileged institutions" extractive institutions). According to the authors, the economic development of society is impossible without anticipatory political development, that is, without the formation public political institutions. .

see also

Literature

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Footnotes and notes

1. Social Institutions // Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
2. Spencer H. First principles. N.Y., 1898. S.46.
3. Marx K. P. V. Annenkov, December 28, 1846 // Marx K., Engels F. Works. Ed. 2nd. T. 27.S. 406.
4. Marx K. To the criticism of the Hegelian philosophy of law // Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2nd. T.9. S. 263.
5. see: Durkheim E. Les forms elementaires de la vie religieuse. Le systeme totemique en Australie.Paris, 1960
6. Veblen T. Theory of an idle class. - M., 1984. S. 200-201.
7. Scott, Richard, 2001, Institutions and Organizations, London: Sage.
8. See ibid.
9. Fundamentals of Sociology: A Course of Lectures / [A. I. Antolov, V. Ya. Nechaev, L. V. Pikovsky et al.]: Ed. ed. \.G.Efendiev. - M, 1993. P.130
10. Acemoglu, Robinson
11. Institutional Matrix Theory: In Search new paradigm. // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. No. 1, 2001.
12. Frolov S. S. Sociology. Textbook. For higher educational institutions. Section III. Social relationships. Chapter 3. Social institutions. Moscow: Nauka, 1994.
13. Gritsanov A. A. Encyclopedia of sociology. Publishing House "Book House", 2003. -.p. 125.
14. See more: Berger P., Lukman T. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on the Sociology of Knowledge. M.: Medium, 1995.
15. Kozhevnikov S. B. Society in the structures of the life world: methodological research tools // Sociological journal. 2008. No. 2. S. 81-82.
16. Bourdieu P. Structure, habitus, practice // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. - Volume I, 1998. - No. 2.
17. Collection "Knowledge in the connections of sociality. 2003" : Internet source / Lektorsky V. A. Foreword -