It is a manifestation of the social stratification of society. Social stratification definition

social stratification(from Latin stratum - layer and facio - I do) - one of the basic concepts of sociology, denoting a system of signs and criteria of social stratification, position in society; the social structure of society; branch of sociology. The term "stratification" entered sociology from geology, where it refers to the location of the layers of the earth. But people initially likened the social distances and partitions existing between them to layers of the earth, floors of located buildings, objects, tiers of plants, etc.

Stratification is the division of society into special layers (strata) by combining various social positions with approximately the same social status, reflecting the prevailing idea of ​​social inequality in it, built horizontally (social hierarchy), along its axis according to one or more stratification criteria (indicators social status). The division of society into strata is carried out on the basis of the inequality of social distances between them - the main property of stratification. Social strata line up vertically and in strict sequence according to indicators of wealth, power, education, leisure, and consumption.

In social stratification, a certain social distance is established between people (social positions) and a hierarchy is built from social strata. Thus, the unequal access of members of society to certain socially significant scarce resources is fixed by establishing social filters on the boundaries separating social strata. For example, the allocation of social strata can be carried out according to the levels of income, education, power, consumption, the nature of work, spending free time. The social strata identified in society are evaluated in it according to the criterion of social prestige, which expresses the social attractiveness of certain positions.

The simplest stratification model is a dichotomous one - the division of society into elites and masses. In some of the earliest, archaic social systems, the structuring of society into clans is carried out simultaneously with the implementation of social inequality between them and within them. This is how the "initiates" appear, i.e. those who are initiated into certain social practices (priests, elders, leaders) and the uninitiated are "profane" (profane - from Latin pro fano - deprived of holiness, uninitiated; profane - all other members of society, ordinary members of the community, fellow tribesmen). Within them, society can further stratify if necessary.

As society becomes more complex (structuring), a parallel process occurs - the embedding of social positions into a certain social hierarchy. This is how castes, estates, classes, etc. appear.

Modern ideas about the stratification model that has developed in society are quite complex - multi-layered (polychotomous), multidimensional (carried out along several axes) and variable (sometimes allow the existence of many stratification models): qualifications, quotas, attestation, status determination, ranks, benefits, privileges, other preferences.

32.THE CLASS STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY

There is a special kind of stratification of modern society, which is called class stratification .

public classes , according to Lenin's definition "... large groups of people, differing in their place in a historically defined system social production, according to their relation (for the most part fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role in public organization labor, and, consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have. Classes are such groups of people, of which one can appropriate the labor of another, thanks to the difference in their place in a certain way of social economy.

For the first time, the expanded concept of social class was formulated by K. Marx through the use of the concept class-forming feature . According to Marx, such a sign is the attitude of people to property. Some classes in society own property, can dispose of property, while other classes are deprived of this property. Such a division can lead to interclass conflicts, which are primarily aimed at the redistribution, redistribution of property. The presence of this sign of the class division of society continues to be used by many modern scientists.

Unlike Marx, the German sociologist Max Weber identifies several signs of the class division of society. In particular, he considers prestige as one of the most important features of social class. In addition to prestige, Weber considers such signs wealth and power, as well as attitudes towards property . In this regard, Weber singles out a much larger number of classes in society than Marx. Each of the social classes has its own subculture, which includes specific behaviors, an accepted value system and a set of social norms. Despite the influence of the dominant culture, each of the social classes cultivates its own values, behaviors and ideals. These subcultures have fairly clear boundaries, within which individuals feel their own: belonging to a social class, identify themselves with it.

Currently, there are quite a few models of the class structure of society. However, the most common model is W. Watson model . According to this model, modern society is divided into six main classes. The upper and middle classes of society are especially clearly distinguished.

The experience of using this model has shown that it has limitations in relation to pre-market Russia. However, with the development of market relations, the class structure of Russian society is increasingly reminiscent of the class structures of Western countries. That is why Watson's model of class structure can be of great importance in the analysis of social processes taking place in modern Russia.

social stratification

social role

social role- a model of behavior focused on this status. It can be defined differently - as a template type of behavior aimed at fulfilling the rights and obligations assigned to a specific status.

From a banker, others expect one kind of behavior, and from an unemployed person, a completely different one. Social norms - the prescribed rules of behavior - characterize the role, not the status. The role is also called dynamic side of the status. The words ʼʼdynamicʼʼ, ʼʼbehaviorʼʼ, ʼʼnormʼʼ indicate that we are not dealing with social relations, but with social interaction. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, we must learn:

social roles and social norms refer to social interaction;

Social statuses, rights and obligations, functional relationship of statuses are related to social relations;

· social interaction describes the dynamics of society, social relations - its statics.

The subjects expect from the king the behavior prescribed by custom or document. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, there is an intermediate link between status and role - expectations people (expectations).

Expectations can somehow be fixed, and then they become social norms. If, of course, they are considered as mandatory requirements(prescriptions). And they may not be fixed, but this does not stop them from being expectations.

social stratification - central theme sociology. It describes social inequality in society, the division of social strata by income level and lifestyle, by the presence or absence of privileges. In primitive society, inequality was insignificant, in connection with this, stratification was almost absent there. In complex societies, inequality is very strong, it divided people by income, level of education, power. Castes arose, then estates, and later classes. In some societies, the transition from one social stratum (stratum) to another is prohibited; there are societies where such a transition is limited, and there are societies where it is completely allowed. Freedom of social movement (mobility) determines whether a society is closed or open.

The term ʼʼstratificationʼʼ comes from geology, where it refers to the vertical arrangement of the Earth's layers. Sociology has likened the structure of society to the structure of the Earth and placed the social strata (strata) also vertically. The basis is the income ladder: the poor are at the bottom, the wealthy are in the middle, and the rich are at the top.

Each stratum includes only those people who have approximately the same income, power, education and prestige. The inequality of distances between statuses is the main property of stratification. She has four measuring rulers, or coordinate axes. All of them are located vertically and next to each other:

· power;

· education;

prestige.

Income - the amount of cash receipts of an individual or family for a certain period of time (month, year). Income is the amount of money received in the form of wages, pensions, allowances, alimony, fees, deductions from profits. Income measured in rubles or dollars that an individual receives (individual income) or family (family income) within a certain period of time, say, one month or a year.

On the coordinate axis, we plot equal intervals, for example, up to $5,000, from $5,001 to $10,000, from $10,001 to $15,000, and so on up to $75,000 and beyond.

Incomes are most often spent on maintaining life, but if they are very high, they accumulate and turn into wealth.

Wealth - accumulated income, i.e., the amount of cash or embodied money. In the second case, they are called movable (car, yacht͵ securities etc.) and immovable (house, works of art, treasures) property. Usually wealth is inherited. Inheritance can be received by both working and non-working, and only working people can receive income. In addition to them, pensioners and the unemployed have income, but the poor do not. The rich may or may not work. In both cases, they are owners because they have wealth. The main wealth of the upper class is not income, but accumulated property. The salary share is small. For the middle and lower classes, income is the main source of subsistence, since the first, if there is wealth, is insignificant, and the second does not have it at all. Wealth allows you not to work, and its absence forces you to work for the sake of wages.

Wealth and income are unevenly distributed and mean economic inequality. Sociologists interpret it as an indicator that different groups of the population have unequal life chances. Οʜᴎ buy different quantities and different quality food, clothing, housing, etc. People with more money, eat better, live in more comfortable houses, prefer a personal car to public transport, can afford expensive vacations, etc. But in addition to obvious economic advantages, the wealthy have hidden privileges. The poor have shorter lives (even if they enjoy all the benefits of medicine), less educated children (even if they go to the same public schools), etc.

Education measured by the number of years of education in a public or private school or university. Let's say Primary School means 4 years, incomplete secondary - 9 years, complete secondary - 11, college - 4 years, university - 5 years, graduate school - 3 years, doctoral studies - 3 years. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, a professor has over 20 years of formal education behind him, while a plumber may not have even eight.

Power measured by the number of people affected by the decision you make (power - the ability to impose one's will or decisions on other people, regardless of their desire). The decisions of the President of Russia apply to 148 million people (whether they are implemented is another question, although it also concerns the issue of power), and the decisions of the foreman - to 7-10 people.

essence authorities - in the ability to impose one's will against the wishes of other people. In a complex society, power institutionalized, i.e. protected by laws and tradition, surrounded by privileges and wide access to social benefits, allows you to make decisions that are vital for society, incl. laws, as a rule, advantageous to the upper class. In all societies, people who have some type of power - political, economic or religious - constitute an institutionalized elite. It determines the domestic and foreign policy of the state, directing it in a direction that is beneficial to itself, which other classes are deprived of.

Three scales of stratification - income, education and power - have completely objective units of measurement: dollars, years, people. Prestige is outside this range, as it is a subjective indicator.

Prestige - respect, which in public opinion is enjoyed by this or that profession, position, occupation. The profession of a lawyer is more prestigious than the profession of a steelworker or a plumber. Office of the President commercial bank more prestigious than the post of cashier. All professions, occupations and positions that exist in a given society can be placed from top to bottom on the ladder of professional prestige. As a rule, professional prestige is determined by us intuitively, approximately. But in some countries, primarily in the United States, sociologists measure it with the help of special methods. Οʜᴎ study public opinion, compare various professions, analyze the statistics and eventually get an accurate scale of prestige.

Historical types of stratification

Income, power, prestige and education determine the total socio-economic status, that is, the position and place of a person in society. In this case status acts as a generalizing indicator of stratification. Earlier we noted its key role in the social structure. Now it turned out that he plays a crucial role in sociology as a whole.

The assigned status characterizes a rigidly fixed system of stratification, i.e. closed society, in which the transition from one stratum to another is practically prohibited. Such systems include slavery, caste and estate system. The achieved status characterizes a mobile system of stratification, or open Society, where people are allowed to move freely up and down the social ladder. Such a system includes classes (capitalist society). These are historical types of stratification.

a closed society is a society where the movement of individuals or information from one country to another is excluded or substantially restricted. Slavery - historically the first system of social stratification. Slavery arose in ancient times in Egypt, Babylon, China, Greece, Rome and has survived in a number of regions almost to the present day. Like slavery, the caste system characterizes a closed society and rigid stratification. Castoy called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes solely to birth. He cannot move from one caste to another during his lifetime. To do this, he needs to be born again. estate - social group, which has fixed custom or legal law and inherited rights and obligations. It is important to note that the estate system, which includes several strata, is characterized by a hierarchy, expressed in the inequality of their position and privileges. class society the case is different: none legal documents do not regulate the place of the individual in the social structure. Every person is free to move, with ability, education or income, from one class to another.

Social stratification - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Social stratification" 2017, 2018.

The concept of social stratification. social stratification- a historically specific, hierarchically organized structure of social inequality, presented in the form of a division of society into strata (lat. - stratum - layer), differing from each other in that their representatives have an unequal amount of material wealth, power, rights and obligations, privileges, prestige. Thus, social stratification can be represented as a hierarchically structured social inequality in society.

The fundamental importance of the principle of social inequality is generally recognized in sociological science, but explanatory models of the nature and role of social inequality differ significantly. Thus, the conflictological (Marxist and neo-Marxist) direction believes that inequality gives rise to various forms alienation in society. Functionalists, on the other hand, argue that the existence of inequality is effective method alignment of the starting positions of individuals due to competition and stimulation of social activity, universal equality deprives people of incentives to advance, the desire to make maximum efforts and abilities to fulfill their duties.

Inequality is fixed in any society with the help of social institutions. At the same time, a system of norms is being created, according to which people should be included in relations of inequality, accept these relations, and not oppose them.

Systems of social stratification. Social stratification is a constant characteristic of any organized society. The processes of social stratification play an important regulatory and organizing role, helping society at each new historical stage to adapt to changing conditions, developing those forms of interaction that allow it to respond to new requirements. The stratified nature of human interaction makes it possible to maintain society in an orderly state and thereby preserve its integrity and boundaries.

In sociological science, four historically existing systems of stratification are most often described: slave, caste, estate and class. The well-known English sociologist Anthony Giddens paid special attention to the development of this classification.

Slave stratification system based on slavery - a form of inequality in which some people, deprived of freedom and any rights, are the property of others who are legally privileged. Slavery appeared and spread in agrarian societies: from ancient times it lasted until the nineteenth century. With a primitive technique that required a significant amount of human labor, the use of slave power was economically justified.

Caste stratification system characterized by the fact that the social position of a person is rigidly determined from birth, does not change throughout life and is inherited. There are practically no marriages between individuals belonging to different castes. Caste (from port. casta - “race”, or “pure breed”) is a closed endogamous group of people who are assigned a strictly defined place in the social hierarchy, depending on the functions in the division of labor system. The purity of caste affiliation is maintained by traditional rituals, customs, rules, according to which communication with representatives of the lower castes defiles the higher caste.

For almost three millennia, until 1949, the caste system existed in India. Even now there are thousands of castes, but they are all grouped into four main castes, or Varnas (Skt. "color"): Brahmins, or the caste of priests, are landowners, clergymen, scientists, village clerks, numbering from 5-10% of the population; kshatriyas - warriors and noble people, vaishyas - merchants, merchants and artisans, who together made up about 7% of Indians; Sudras - simple workers and peasants - about 70% of the population, the remaining 20% ​​are Harijans ("God's children"), or untouchable, outcasts, engaged in humiliating labor, who traditionally were cleaners, scavengers, tanners, swineherds, etc.

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that those who follow the rules of their caste will rise to a higher caste by birth in a future life, while those who violate these rules will lose their social status. Caste interests have become an important factor during election campaigns.

estate stratification system, in which inequality between groups of individuals is enshrined in law, became widespread in feudal society. Estates (estate) - large groups of people, differing in rights and obligations to the state, legally formalized and inherited, which contributed to the relative closeness of this system.

Developed estate systems were feudal Western European societies, where the upper class consisted of aristocracy and gentry (small nobility). In tsarist Russia, some classes were obliged to carry out military service, others - bureaucratic, and others - "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties. Some vestiges of the estate system survive in today's Great Britain, where titles of nobility are still inherited and honored, and where great businessmen, government officials, and others may, as a reward for special merit, be given a peerage or knighthood.

Class stratification system established in a society based on private property, and is associated with differences in economic situation groups of people with disparities in terms of ownership material resources and control over them, while in other systems of stratification, non-economic factors (eg, religion, ethnicity, profession) play a primary role. Classes are social groups of legally free people with equal basic (constitutional) rights. Unlike the previous types, belonging to classes is not regulated by the state, is not established by law and is not inherited.

The main methodological interpretations of the concept of "class". The greatest contribution to the theoretical development of the concept of "class" and social class stratification was made by Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Max Weber (1864-1920).

By linking the existence of classes with certain historical phases in the development of production, Marx created his own concept of the "social class", but without giving it a holistic, detailed definition. For Marx, a social class is a group of people who are in the same relation to the means of production with which they ensure their existence. The main thing in the characterization of a class is whether it is an owner or not.

The most complete definition of classes in accordance with the Marxist methodology was given by V.I. Lenin, according to which classes are characterized by the following indicators:

1. possession of property;

2. place in the system of social division of labor;

3. role in the organization of production;

4. income level.

Essential in the Marxist methodology of class is the recognition of the indicator "possession of property" as a fundamental criterion of class formation and the very nature of the class.

Marxism divided the classes into basic and non-basic. The main classes were named those whose existence directly follows from the economic relations prevailing in a given society, primarily property relations: slaves and slave owners, peasants and feudal lords, proletarians and the bourgeoisie. Non-basic - these are the remnants of the former main classes in the new socio-economic formation or the emerging classes that will replace the main ones and form the basis of class division in the new formation.

In addition to the main and non-basic classes, social strata are the structural element of society. Social strata are intermediate or transitional social groups that do not have a pronounced relation to the means of production and, therefore, do not have all the features of a class (for example, the intelligentsia).

Max Weber, agreeing with Marx's ideas about the relationship of class with objective economic conditions, found in his research that a much larger number of factors influence the formation of a class. According to Weber, the division into classes is determined not only by the presence or absence of control over the means of production, but also by economic differences that are not directly related to property.

Weber believed that qualification certificates, academic degrees, titles, diplomas and the professional training received by specialists put them in a better position in the labor market compared to those who do not have the appropriate diplomas. He proposed a multidimensional approach to stratification, believing that the social structure of a society is determined by three autonomous and interacting factors: property, prestige (meaning respect for an individual or group based on their status) and power.

Weber associated the concept of class only with capitalist society. He argued that property owners are a "positively privileged class". At the other extreme is the "negatively privileged class", which includes those who have neither property nor skills to offer on the market. This is the lumpen proletariat. Between the two poles there is a whole range of so-called middle classes, which consist of both small proprietors and people who are able to offer their skills and abilities on the market (officials, artisans, peasants).

According to Weber, belonging to one or another status group is not necessarily determined by belonging to a certain class: a person who enjoys honor and respect may not be an owner, both the haves and the have-nots can belong to the same status group. Differences in status, Weber argues, tend to lead to differences in lifestyle. The lifestyle is set by the group's common subculture and is measured by status prestige. Separation of groups according to prestige can occur for various reasons (belonging to a certain profession, etc.), but it always acquires a rank character: “higher - lower”, “better - worse”.

Weber's approach made it possible to single out in the social structure not only such large analytical units as "class", but also more specific and flexible - "strata" (from lat. stratum-layer). A stratum includes many people with some common status attribute of their position, who feel connected to each other by this community. Evaluative factors play an important role in the existence of strata: a person's line of behavior in a given situation, his attitudes based on certain criteria that help him rank himself and those around him.

When studying social structure allocate social strata, whose representatives differ among themselves in an unequal amount of power and material wealth, rights and obligations, privileges and prestige.

Thus, Weber's stratification methodology makes it possible to obtain a more voluminous, multidimensional idea of ​​the social structure of modern society, which cannot be adequately described in coordinates by Marx's bipolar class methodology.

Social class stratification by L. Warner. The model of social stratification by the American sociologist Warner (1898-1970) was most widely used in practice.

He considered social stratification as a functional prerequisite for the existence of a modern industrial society, its internal stability and balance, which ensures the self-realization of the individual, his success and achievements in society. Position in class stratification (or status) is described by Warner in terms of education level, occupation, wealth, and income.

Initially, Warner's stratification model was represented by six classes, but later the "middle middle class" was introduced into it and now it has acquired the following form:

Top-top class are "aristocrats by blood", representatives of influential and wealthy dynasties with very significant resources of power, wealth and prestige throughout the state. They are distinguished by a special way of life, high society manners, impeccable taste and behavior.

Lower-upper class includes bankers, prominent politicians, owners of large firms who have reached the highest status in the course of competition or due to various qualities.

upper-middle class are representatives of the bourgeoisie and highly paid professionals: successful businessmen, hired company managers, prominent lawyers, famous doctors, outstanding athletes, the scientific elite. They enjoy high prestige in their fields of activity. Representatives of this class are usually spoken of as the wealth of the nation.

middle-middle class represents the most massive stratum of industrial society. It includes all well-paid employees, medium-paid professionals, people of intelligent professions, including engineers, teachers, scientists, heads of departments at enterprises, teachers, middle managers. Representatives of this class are the main support for the existing government.

lower-middle class are low-ranking employees and skilled workers, whose labor in its content is predominantly mental.

upper-lower class are mainly medium- and low-skilled wage workers engaged in mass production in local factories, living in relative prosperity, who create surplus value in a given society.

lower-lower class are the poor, the unemployed, the homeless, foreign workers and other representatives of marginalized groups. They have only primary or no education, most often they are interrupted by odd jobs. They are usually called the "social bottom", or underclass.

Social mobility and its types. Under social mobility (from lat. mobilis- capable of movement, action) is understood as a change by an individual or group of a place in the social structure of society. The study of social mobility was started by P.A. Sorokin, who under social mobility understood not only the movement of individuals from one social group to another, but also the disappearance of some and the emergence of other social groups.

According to the directions of movement, there are horizontal And vertical mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group or community to another located at the same social level, in one social position, for example, the transition from one family to another, the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic or Muslim religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one profession to another. An example horizontal mobility is a change of residence, moving from a village to a city for permanent residence, or vice versa, moving from one state to another.

Vertical mobility called moving from one layer to another, higher or lower located in the hierarchy social relations. Depending on the direction of movement, one speaks of ascending or descending mobility. Upward mobility implies an improvement in social position, social uplift, for example, promotion, higher education, marriage to a person of a higher class or a more affluent person. Downward mobility- this is a social descent, i.e. moving down the social ladder, for example, being fired, demotion, bankruptcy. According to the nature of stratification, there are downward and upward flows of economic, political, and occupational mobility.

In addition, mobility is group and individual. Group such mobility is called when an individual goes down or up the social ladder together with his social group (estate, class). This is a collective rise or fall in the position of the whole group in the system of relations with other groups. The causes of group mobility are wars, revolutions, military coups, change of political regimes. Individual mobility is the movement of the individual, occurring independently of others.

The intensity of mobility processes is often regarded as one of the main criteria for the degree of democratization of society and the liberalization of the economy.

mobility range, characterizing a particular society depends on how many different statuses exist in it. The more statuses, the more opportunity a person has to move from one status to another.

IN traditional society the number of high-status positions remained approximately constant; therefore, a moderate downward mobility of descendants from high-status families was observed. Feudal society is characterized by a very small number of vacancies for high positions for those who had a low status. Some sociologists believe that, most likely, there was no upward mobility.

An industrial society is characterized by a wider range of mobility, since there are many more different statuses in it. The main factor of social mobility is the level of economic development. During periods of economic depression, the number of high-status positions decreases, while low-status positions expand, so downward mobility dominates. It intensifies in those periods when people lose their jobs and at the same time new layers enter the labor market. On the contrary, during periods of active economic development, many new high-status positions appear. The increased demand for workers to occupy them is the main cause of upward mobility.

The main trend in the development of an industrial society is that it simultaneously increases wealth and the number of high-status positions, which in turn leads to an increase in the size of the middle class, whose ranks are replenished by people from lower strata.

Caste and estate societies restrict social mobility by imposing severe restrictions on any change in status. Such societies are called closed.

If most statuses in a society are prescribed, then the range of mobility in it is much lower than in a society based on individual achievement. In a pre-industrial society, upward mobility was not great, since legal laws and traditions practically closed the peasants' access to the estate of landowners.

In an industrial society, which sociologists refer to as a type open societies, first of all, individual merits and achieved status are valued. In such a society, the level of social mobility is quite high. A society with open borders between social groups gives a person a chance to rise, but it also creates in him a fear of social decline. Downward mobility can occur both in the form of pushing individuals from high social statuses to lower ones, and as a result of lowering the social statuses of entire groups.

Channels vertical mobility. The ways and mechanisms by which people climb the social ladder, P.A. Sorokin called channels of vertical circulation, or mobility. Since vertical mobility exists to some extent in any society, there are various “elevators”, “membrane”, “holes” between social groups or strata, using which individuals move up and down. For an individual, the possibility of moving up means not only an increase in the share the social benefits he receives, it contributes to the realization of his personal data, makes him more plastic and versatile.

The functions of social circulation are performed by various institutions.

The most famous channels are family, school, army, church, political, economic and professional organizations.

Family becomes a channel of vertical social mobility in the event that the marriage union is entered into by representatives of different social statuses. So, for example, in many countries there was at one time a law according to which, if a woman married a slave, she herself became a slave. Or, for example, an increase in social status from marriage with a titled partner.

The socioeconomic position of the family also influences career opportunities. Sociological studies conducted in Great Britain have shown that two-thirds of the sons of unskilled and semi-skilled workers were, like their fathers, engaged in manual labor, that less than 30% of specialists and managers came from the working class, i.e. rose, 50% of specialists and managers took the same positions as their parents.

Ascending mobility is observed much more often than downward mobility, and is characteristic mainly of the middle strata of the class structure. People from the lower social classes, as a rule, remained at the same level.

School, being a form of expression of the processes of education and upbringing, it has always served as a powerful and fastest channel of vertical social mobility. This is confirmed by the large competitions for colleges and universities in many countries. In societies where schools are accessible to all its members, the school system is a "social elevator" moving from the bottom of society to the very top. The so-called "long elevator" existed in ancient China. During the era of Confucius, schools were open to everyone. Examinations were held every three years. The best students, regardless of the status of their families, were transferred to higher schools, and then to universities, from where they got to high government positions.

In Western countries, many social spheres and a number of professions are practically closed to a person without an appropriate diploma. The work of graduates of higher educational institutions paid higher. IN last years the desire of young people who received a university diploma to study in graduate school has become widespread. This noticeably changes the ratio of students and graduate students studying in universities. Universities where there are more students than graduate students are called conservative, moderate - have a ratio of 1: 1 and, finally, progressive - those where there are more graduate students than students. For example, at the University of Chicago, there are 7,000 graduate students for every 3,000 students.

Government groups, political organizations and political parties also play the role of "elevator" in vertical mobility. In Western Europe during the Middle Ages, the servants of various rulers, being involved in the state sphere, often became rulers themselves. This is the origin of many medieval dukes, earls, barons and other nobility. As a channel of social mobility, political organizations now play a particularly important role: many functions that used to belong to the church, government and other social organizations are now taken over by political parties. In democratic countries, where the institution of elections plays a decisive role in the formation of the highest authorities, the most the easy way to attract the attention of voters and to be elected is political activity or participation in any political organization.

Army as a channel of social mobility functions not in peacetime, but in wartime. Losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies by people of lower ranks. During the war, soldiers, showing courage and courage, are awarded the next rank. It is known that out of 92 Roman emperors, 36 reached this rank, starting from the lower ranks, out of 65 Byzantine emperors, 12 advanced through an army career. Napoleon and his entourage, marshals, generals and the kings of Europe appointed by him belonged to the class of commoners. Cromwell, Washington and many other commanders have risen to their highest positions through careers in the army.

Church as a channel of social mobility uplifted a large number of people. Pitirim Sorokin, having studied the biographies of 144 Roman Catholic popes, found that 28 of them came from the lower classes, and 27 from the middle strata. The rite of celibacy (celibacy), introduced in the 11th century by Pope Gregory VII, did not allow the Catholic clergy to have children, so the vacant high positions of the clergy were occupied by lower-ranking persons. After the legalization of Christianity, the church begins to fulfill the function of the ladder along which slaves and serfs began to climb, and sometimes to the highest and most influential positions. The church was not only a channel for upward mobility, but also for downward mobility: many kings, dukes, princes, lords, nobles and other aristocrats of various ranks were ruined by the church, brought to trial by the Inquisition, destroyed.

social marginality. The process of loss by individuals of their identification with certain social communities, classes is expressed by the concept marginalization.

Social mobility can lead to the fact that a person has left the limits of one group, but has been rejected or only partially included in another. Thus, individuals and even groups of people appear, occupying marginal (from lat. marginalis- located on the edge) of a position, not integrating for a certain time into any of those social groups that they are guided by.

In 1928, the American psychologist R. Park first used the concept of "marginal man". Studies of the characteristics of a personality located on the border of different cultures, conducted by the Chicago sociological school, laid the foundation for the classical concept of marginality. Later it was picked up and revised by researchers studying borderline phenomena and processes in society.

The main criterion that determines the state of marginality of an individual or a social group is a state associated with a state of transition, presented as a crisis.

Marginality can arise for various reasons, both personal and social. The phenomenon of marginality is quite common in the transition of society from one economic and political system to another, with a different type of stratification. In this case, entire groups or social strata find themselves in a marginal position, which are unable or unable to adapt to the new situation and integrate into the new stratification system. A marginal situation can cause conflicts and deviant behavior. This situation can form a person's anxiety, aggressiveness, doubt about personal value, fear in making decisions. But a marginal situation can become a source of socially effective creative actions.

Stratification of modern Russian society. Modern Russian society is characterized by profound changes in the social class structure of society, its stratification. Under the new conditions, the former status of social groups is changing. The upper elite strata, in addition to traditional management groups, include large owners - new capitalists. A middle stratum appears - relatively financially secure and "arranged" representatives of various socio-professional groups, mainly from entrepreneurs, managers and part of qualified specialists.

The dynamics of social stratification of modern Russian society is characterized by the following main trends:

— significant social stratification;

— slow formation of the “middle class”;

— self-reproduction of the middle class, the narrowness of the sources of its replenishment and expansion;

— a significant redistribution of employment across sectors of the economy;

- high social mobility;

— Significant marginalization.

The middle class of Russian society. In the social class structure of modern society, an important place belongs to the "middle class" ("middle classes"). The scale and qualities of this social group essentially determine the socio-economic, political stability and the nature of the systemic integration of society as a whole. For modern Russia, the formation and development of the "middle class" essentially means the creation of the foundations of civil society and democracy. Russian sociologists compiled a generalized portrait of representatives of the middle class (SK) of Russia and its strata.

The upper layer of the middle class is for the most part highly educated people. 14.6% of them have an academic degree or have completed postgraduate studies, another 55.2% are persons with higher education, 27.1% have specialized secondary education. The middle stratum of the middle class is also quite highly educated. And although here only 4.2% already have an academic degree, the majority are people with higher education (the number of people with secondary specialized education is 31.0%, and with secondary and incomplete secondary education is only 9.8%). In the lower stratum of the middle class, the number of people with secondary and special secondary education reaches a total of 50.2%.

In terms of official status, representatives of the upper layer of the middle class, more than half (51.1%) are top managers and entrepreneurs with employees. Qualified professionals in this layer accounted for 21.9%.

The middle stratum of the middle class is clearly dominated by qualified specialists (30.1%) and workers (22.2%); the share of managers is only 12.9%, entrepreneurs with employees - 12.1%. But in this group, one and a half times higher than in the whole of the NC (6.4%, against 4.3%), the proportion of those who have a purely family business.

In general, using the terminology adopted in studies of the middle class in Western European countries, according to the results of the study, it can be said that the backbone of the upper layer of the middle class is made up of top managers and businessmen who have their own firms with employees. The presence of highly qualified specialists is clearly noticeable in it, quite evenly representing the humanitarian intelligentsia and the military, and to a lesser extent, the engineering and technical revolution. The presence of "white" and "blue collars" is weakly expressed.

The backbone of the middle stratum of the middle class consists primarily of qualified specialists and, to a somewhat lesser extent, "blue-collar workers" - skilled workers. A prominent place in its composition is also occupied by managers and entrepreneurs, including representatives family business and self-employed.

According to the All-Russian Center for Living Standards for 2006, the middle class in our country includes families where the monthly income for each family member is from 30,000 to 50,000 rubles. Representatives of this class are characterized not only by the ability to eat normally and acquire necessary goods long-term use, but also have decent housing (at least 18 square meters per person) or real opportunity its improvements, plus a country house or the possibility of acquiring it in the foreseeable future. Of course, there must be a car or cars. It is also necessary to have funds for treatment, surgery, tuition fees for children, legal fees, if necessary. Such a family can rest in our resorts or abroad.

For the whole country in 2006, the listed requirements were met by average per capita consumer spending from 15 to 25 thousand rubles per month. Plus should be about the same monthly savings. Naturally, each territory has its own characteristics, and the amount of income and savings will be different. For Moscow, for example, these limits are 60-80 thousand rubles. Above this bar are the wealthy and wealthy. In total, as these studies have shown, about 10 percent of the country's population, or about 13.5 million Russians, can be attributed to the middle class. So, approximately 6-7 million families.

Approximately 90% of the Russian middle class has substantial savings. It also includes private shareholders who have invested in securities - no more than 400 thousand people. Taking into account the members of their families, it turns out about one and a half million Russians - 1% of the population. This is the upper middle class. For comparison: in the US, the number of such shareholders is tens of millions, almost a good half of American families. Them efficient operation, property and income created the basis for a stable functioning of the market without deep state intervention.

In Western Europe and the USA, and other countries, an influential "middle class" has existed for several centuries and makes up 50 to 80% of the population. It consists of various groups of entrepreneurs and merchants, skilled workers, doctors, teachers, engineers, clergymen, military personnel, government officials, middle staff of firms and companies. There are also significant political, economic and spiritual differences between them.

There are not so many wealthy and wealthy citizens with incomes higher than the middle class in our country. This is 4 million people, or 3 percent of the total population. Very rich - dollar millionaires - from 120 to 200 thousand.

With a 60 million poor army (taking into account not only their income, but also housing conditions) and a small middle class, it is difficult to talk about long-term stability in society today.

New marginal groups. As a result of the changes that have taken place in Russia in the last decade in the economic, political and social spheres public life new marginal groups have emerged:

- “post-specialists” are professional groups of the population that are being released from the economy and do not have employment prospects due to their narrow specialization in the new economic situation in Russia, and retraining is associated with a loss of skill level, loss of profession;

- "new agents" - private entrepreneurs, the so-called. self-employed population not previously oriented towards private entrepreneurial activity, but forced to look for new ways of self-realization;

- "migrants" - refugees and forced migrants from other regions of Russia and from the countries of the "near abroad". The peculiarities of the situation of this group are related to the fact that it objectively reflects the situation of multiple marginality, due to the need to adapt to a new environment after a forced change of place of residence.

Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

All-Russian Correspondence Institute of Finance and Economics

test

in the discipline "Sociology"

on the topic

"Social stratification of society"

Option number 11

Artist: Khasanova M.V.

Specialty: F&K

Record book number: 04FFD41122

Head: Zainetdinov Sh.R.

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………….…………3

INTRODUCTION:

Considering the first question, I will reveal the essence of structuring society, I will give a definition of the concept of "stratification", what social stratification is, what reflects and what are the causes of social stratification. What criteria are used to locate the strata.

Considering the types of stratification systems, I will reveal their content.

In answer to the second question, I will characterize Western sociological theories of social stratification: Marxist, functional significance, concepts of the West German sociologist R. Dahrendorf, French sociologist A. Touraine, American sociologist A. Barber.

Setting out the third question, I will consider the concept of stratification, the problem of inequality, what is their view of the placement of layers in hierarchical subordination.

1 question.

The concept of social "stratification of society". Causes of social stratification. Types of stratification systems.

Stratification is a hierarchically organized structure of social inequality that exists in a certain society, in a certain historical period of time. Moreover, social inequality is reproduced in fairly stable forms as a reflection of the political, economic, cultural and normative structure of society. The existence of social differentiation can be taken as an axiom. However, the explanation of its nature, the foundations of historical evolution, the relationship of specific forms remains one of the key problems of sociology.

social stratification- this is a description of social inequality in society, its division into social strata according to income, the presence or absence of privileges, and lifestyle.

In the case of primitive society, this inequality was not so significant, and because of this, the phenomenon of stratification was almost absent. As society has developed, inequality has only grown and grown. In complex societies, it divided people by level of education, income, power. arose castes, Then estates and not so long ago classes.

Term "stratification" originally a geological term. There it serves to indicate the location of the layers of the Earth along a vertical line. Sociology inherited this scheme and made the structure of society, like the structure of the Earth, placing the social strata of society also vertically. The basis for this scheme of structure is the so-called income ladder, where the poor have the lowest rung, the middle class of the population - the middle, and the rich stratum - the top.

Inequality or stratification arose gradually, accompanying the birth of human society. Its initial form was already present in the primitive mode. The tightening of stratification occurred during the period of the creation of early states due to the creation of a new class - slaves.
Slavery is the first historical system stratification. It arose in ancient times in China, Egypt, Babylon, Rome, Greece, etc. Slavery often deprived a person of any rights at all and bordered on an extreme degree of inequality.

Mitigation stratification occurred with the gradual liberalization of views. For example, during this period in countries with the Hindu religion, a new division of society is created - into castes.

castes are social groups, a member of which a person became only because he was born from representatives of one or another stratum (caste). Such a person was deprived for the rest of his life of the right to move to another caste, from the one in which he was born. There are 4 main castes: peasants, merchants, warriors and priests. In addition to them, there are still about 5 thousand castes and a podcast.

All the best prestigious professions and privileged positions are held by the rich stratum of the population. Usually their work is connected with mental activity and management of the lower parts of society. Their examples are presidents, kings, leaders, kings, political leaders, scientists, politicians, artists. They are the highest rung in society.

IN modern society the middle class can be considered lawyers, qualified employees, teachers, doctors, as well as the middle and petty bourgeoisie. The lowest layer can be considered the poor, unemployed and unskilled workers. Between the middle and the lower one can still distinguish one class in the composition, which often includes representatives of the working class.

Society stratification occurs with the application of several factors: income, wealth, power and prestige.

Income can be characterized as the amount of money that a family or a certain individual received in a certain period of time. Such money includes: wages, alimony, pensions, fees, etc.
Wealth - this is the possibility of having property (movable and immovable), or the presence of accumulated income in the form of cash. This is the main feature of all the rich. They can either work or not work in order to get their wealth, because the share of wages in their general condition is not large.
Power exercise the ability to impose their wishes, not taking into account the will of others. In modern society, all power is subject to regulation by laws and traditions. People who have access to it can freely use a wide range of various social benefits, have the right to make decisions that, in their opinion, are important for society, including laws (which are often beneficial to the upper class).
Prestige - this is the degree of respect in society for a particular profession. On the basis of these bases for the division of society, the aggregate socio-economic status is determined. In another way, it can be called the place of a certain person in society.

There are many stratification criteria by which it is possible to divide any society. Each of them is associated with special ways of determining and reproducing social inequality. The nature of social stratification and the way it is established in their unity form what we call the stratification system.

Below are NINE TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS that can be used to describe any social organism, namely:

1.Physico-genetic 2.Slave-owning

3. Caste 4. Class

5. Etacratic 6. Socio-professional

7. Class 8. Cultural-symbolic

9. Cultural and normative

PHYSICAL-GENETIC stratification system, which is based on the differentiation of social groups according to "natural", socio-demographic characteristics. Here, the attitude towards a person or group is determined by their gender, age and the presence of certain physical qualities - strength, beauty, dexterity. Accordingly, the weaker, those with physical disabilities are considered defective here and occupy a lowered social position. Inequality is affirmed in this case by the existence of the threat of physical violence or by its actual use, and then fixed in customs and rituals. Currently, devoid of its former significance, it is still supported by military, sports and sexual-erotic propaganda.

The second stratification system - SLAVE - is also based on direct violence. But inequality is determined here not by physical, but by military-legal coercion. Social groups differ in the presence or absence of civil rights and property rights. At the same time, certain social groups are completely deprived of any civil and property rights and, moreover, along with things, they turn into an object of private property. Moreover, this position is most often inherited and, thus, is fixed in generations. Examples: this is ancient slavery, where the number of slaves sometimes exceeded the number of free citizens. Ways to reproduce the slave system are also quite diverse. Ancient slavery was kept mainly due to conquests.

The third type of stratification system is CAST. It is based on ethnic differences, which, in turn, are reinforced by the religious order and religious rituals. Each caste is a closed, as far as possible, endogamous group, which is assigned a clear place in the social hierarchy. This place appears as a result of the isolation of the special functions of each caste in the system of division of labor. There is a fairly clear list of occupations that members of this caste can engage in: priestly, military, agricultural occupations. The highest position is occupied by the caste of "ideologists" who possess some kind of sacred knowledge. Since the position in the caste system is inherited, the possibilities of social mobility are extremely limited here. And the stronger caste is expressed, the more closed this society turns out to be.

The fourth type is represented by the ESTATE stratification system. In this system, groups differ in legal rights, which, in turn, are strictly connected with their duties and are directly dependent on these duties. Moreover, obligations mean obligations to the state, enshrined in law. Some estates are obliged to carry out military or official service, others - to bear the "tax" in the form of taxes or labor duties.

Some similarity with the class system is observed in the ETAK-RATIC society (from French and Greek - "state power"). In it, differentiation between groups occurs, first of all, according to their position in the power-state hierarchies (political, military, economic), according to the possibilities of mobilizing and distributing resources, as well as according to the privileges that these groups are able to derive from their power positions. The degree of material well-being, the style of life of social groups, as well as the prestige they feel are associated here with the same formal ranks that they occupy in the respective power hierarchies. All other differences - demographic and religious-ethnic, economic and cultural - play a secondary role. The scale and nature of differentiation (the amount of power, the size of regulated property, the level of personal income, etc.) in the etacratic system are under the control of the state bureaucracy. At the same time, hierarchies can be fixed formally legally - through bureaucratic Tables of Ranks, military regulations, assignment of categories to state institutions - or they can remain outside the sphere of state legislation (a good example is, for example, the system of the Soviet party nomenclature, the principles of which are not spelled out no laws). Independence from legal formalization, the possibility of complete formal freedom of members of society (with the exception of dependence on the state), the absence of automatic inheritance of positions of power - also distinguish the etacratic system from class divisions. The etacratic system is revealed with the greater force, the more authoritarian character the government takes.

This is followed by the sixth, SOCIO-PROFESSIONAL stratification system. Within the framework of this system, groups are divided according to the content and conditions of their work. A special role is played by the qualification requirements for a particular professional role - the possession of relevant experience, skills and abilities. Approval and maintenance of hierarchical orders in this system is carried out with the help of qualification certificates (diplomas, licenses, patents), the effectiveness of which is supported by the power of the state or some other sufficiently powerful corporation (professional workshop). Moreover, these certificates are most often not inherited, although there are exceptions in history. The socio-professional division is one of the basic stratification systems, various examples of which can be found in any society with any developed division of labor. This is a system of craft workshops in a medieval city and a rank grid in modern state industry, a system of certificates and diplomas of education received, scientific degrees and titles that open the way to qualified and prestigious jobs.

An important element of social life is social stratification (differentiation), i.e. stratification of society into groups, layers. It is social stratification that shows how unequal the social position of members of society, their social inequality. Different scholars define the cause of inequality in different ways. M. Weber saw these reasons in economic criteria (income), social prestige (status) and the attitude of a member of society to political circles. Parsons singled out such differentiating signs as:

1. what a person has from birth (gender, ethnicity);

2. acquired status (work activity);

3. what a person has (property, moral values, rights).

Considering the history of society and those communities that existed earlier, we can say that social stratification is a natural inequality between members of a society that has its own internal hierarchy and is regulated by various institutions.

It is important to distinguish between the concepts of "inequality" and "injustice". "Inequality" is a natural and conditioned process, and "injustice" is a manifestation of selfish interests. Any person must understand that egametarism (the doctrine of the need for equality) is an unreal phenomenon that cannot simply exist. But many used this idea in the struggle for power.

There is a stratification

one-dimensional (a group is distinguished by one attribute);

multidimensional (31

a group that has a set of common characteristics).

P. Sorokin tried to create a universal stratification map:

1. unilateral groups (on one basis):

a) biosocial (racial, gender, age);

b) socio-cultural (genus, language, ethnic groups, professional, religious, political, economic);

2. multilateral (several signs): family, tribe, nation, estates, social class.

In general, the manifestation of social stratification must be considered in a particular country and at a particular time. Therefore, those groups that are considered must be in constant motion, they must be in a society that is fully functioning. Therefore, social stratification is closely related to social mobility.

A change in position in the stratification system may be due to the following factors:

1. vertical and horizontal mobility;

2. change in social structure;

3. appearance new system stratification.

Moreover, the third factor is a very complex process that brings many changes in the life of society in the economic sphere, ideological principles, norms and values.

For a long time in our country there was a rejection of such a phenomenon as inequality. It is important to understand that inequality in society is simply necessary. Indeed, without it, society will cease to function, since the members of this society will no longer have goals, will not strive to achieve them. Why does a schoolboy study well, go to college, study subjects, look for Good work, after all all the same all will be equal. Social inequality stimulates the activities of members of society.

To describe the system of inequality between groups of people in sociology, the concept of "social stratification" is widely used - hierarchically organized structures of social inequality (ranks, status groups) that exist in any society. The term "social stratification" as a scientific revolution was introduced by Pitirim Sorokin, who borrowed this concept from geology. Functionalism, in the tradition of Emile Durkheim, derives social inequality from the division of labor: mechanical (natural, sex and age) and organic (arising as a result of training and professional specialization). Marxism focuses on the problems of class inequality and exploitation.

Stratification implies that certain social differences between people acquire the character of a hierarchical ranking. The easiest way to start understanding the realities of social stratification is to determine the place of an individual among other people. Any person occupies many positions in society. These positions can not always be ranked according to their importance.

To designate the whole picture of differences between people, there is a special concept in relation to which social stratification is a special case. This is social differentiation, showing the differences between macro- and microgroups, as well as individuals, both in terms of objective characteristics (economic, professional, demographic) and subjective (value orientations, behavioral style). This concept was used by Herbert Spencer in describing the process of the emergence of functionally specialized institutions and the division of labor, which is universal for the evolution of society.

In the theory of stratification, the problem of equality and inequality is discussed. Equality is understood as: personal equality, equality of opportunity, equality of life opportunities and equality of results. Inequality obviously implies the same types of relationships, but in reverse.

The inequality of distances between statuses is the main property of stratification, hence four main dimensions of stratification can be distinguished: income, power, education and prestige.

Income (property) is measured in monetary units that an individual or family receives over a certain period of time.

Ownership, by definition, is the main economic attitude between individual and group participants in the production process. Ownership can be private, group, public.

Education is measured by the number of years of school or university education.

Power is measured by the number of people who are affected by the decision. Power is the ability of a social subject in his own interests to determine the goals and directions of other social subjects, to dispose of the material, information and status resources of society, to form and impose rules and norms of behavior.

Wealth and poverty set a multidimensional stratification hierarchy. Along with the above components of the measurement, social prestige comes into play.

Prestige - respect for status, prevailing in public opinion.

Types of stratification systems

When it comes to the main types of stratification systems, a description of caste, slaveholding, estate and class differentiation is usually given. At the same time, it is customary to identify them with the historical types of social structure observed in the modern world or already irrevocably gone into the past. Another approach assumes that any particular society consists of combinations of various stratification systems and their many transitional forms.

Social stratification is a social inequality between people, which has a hierarchical nature, is regulated by the institutions of public life. The nature of social inequality and the way it is asserted form a stratification system. Basically, stratification systems are identified with the historical types of social structure and are called: caste, slave, estate and class.

To describe the social organism in the history of different societies, it would be rational to speak of nine types of stratification systems:

1. physical and genetic. Separation of groups according to natural characteristics (gender, age, strength, beauty). The weak have an inferior position;

2. caste. At the core are ethnic differences. Each caste has its own place in society, and this place it occupies as a result of the performance by this caste of certain functions in the system of division of labor. There is no social mobility, since caste membership is a hereditary phenomenon. This society is closed;

3. estate-corporate. Groups have their own responsibilities and rights. Class membership is often inherited. There is a relative closeness of the group;

4. Etacratic. Inequality here depends on the position of the group in the power-state hierarchies, the distribution of resources, and privileges. Groups on this basis have their own style of life, well-being, the prestige of the positions they occupy;

5. social and professional. The conditions and content of labor (special skills, experience) are of great importance here. The hierarchy in this system is based on certificates (diplomas, licenses), reflecting the level of a person's qualifications. The validity of these certificates is maintained by the state;

6. class. Differences exist in the nature and extent of ownership (although political and legal statuses are the same), the level of income, material wealth. Membership in any class is not established by law and is not inherited;

7. cultural and symbolic. Different groups have different opportunities to receive socially significant information, to be the bearer of sacred knowledge (previously it was priests, in modern times - scientists);

8. cultural and normative. Differences in the way of life and norms of behavior of people lead to differences in respect and prestige (difference in physical and mental labor, manner of communication);

9. socio-territorial. Uneven distribution of resources between regions, use of cultural institutions, access to housing and work is different.

Of course, we understand that any society combines even several stratification systems, and the types of stratification systems presented here are “ideal types”.

Types of social stratification

Social stratification - hierarchically organized structures of social inequality (ranks, status groups, etc.) that exist in any society.

In sociology, four main types of stratification are distinguished: slavery, castes, estates and classes. It is customary to identify them with the historical types of social organization observed in the modern world or already irrevocably gone into the past.

Slavery - economic, social and legal form enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and an extreme degree of inequality. Slavery has historically evolved. There are two forms of slavery:

1. Under patriarchal slavery, a slave had all the rights of a younger member of the family: he lived in the same house with his masters, participated in public life, married free men, and inherited his master's property. It was forbidden to kill him;

2. Under classical slavery, the slave was finally enslaved: he lived in a separate room, did not participate in anything, did not inherit anything, did not marry and had no family. He was allowed to be killed. He did not own property, but he himself was considered the property of the owner ("talking tool").

A caste is a social group, membership in which a person owes solely to his birth.

Each person falls into the appropriate caste, depending on what his behavior was in a previous life: if it was bad, then after the next birth he should fall into a lower caste, and vice versa.

An estate is a social group that has fixed custom or legal law, inherited rights and obligations.

The estate system, which includes several strata, is characterized by a hierarchy, expressed in the inequality of position and privileges. A classic example of a class organization was Europe, where at the turn of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. society was divided into upper classes (nobility and clergy) and an unprivileged third estate (artisans, merchants, peasants).

In the X - XIII centuries. There were three main estates: the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry. In Russia since the second half of the XVIII century. the class division into the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the peasantry and the bourgeoisie was established. Estates were based on landed property.

The rights and obligations of each estate were determined by legal law and consecrated by religious doctrine. Membership in the estate was determined by inheritance. Social barriers between estates were quite rigid, so social mobility existed not so much between estates as within them. Each estate included many layers, ranks, levels, professions, ranks. The aristocracy was considered a military class (chivalry).

The class approach is often opposed to the stratification approach.

Classes are social groups of politically and legally free citizens. The differences between these groups lie in the nature and extent of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, as well as in the level of income received and personal material well-being.

social mobility

When studying the inequality of members of society, it is important that they be in a moving, functioning society. Therefore, social mobility is taken into account, i.e., the transition of an individual from one social status to another (a child becomes a student, a bachelor becomes a family man).

The term "social mobility" was introduced by P. Sorokin. He called social mobility the transition of an individual from one social position to another. Exist:

horizontal social mobility;

vertical social mobility.31

These movements take place within the social space.

P. Sorokin spoke about individual (career) and group (migration) social mobility. Of course, the process of group mobility is more complicated.

Vertical mobility is the movement of a social object from one social stratum to another, different in level. Individual vertical mobility practically does not change the stratification and political culture, since its meaning lies mainly in the passage of some kind of hierarchical system (promotion, income).

The reasons for mass movements must be sought in changes in the economic sphere, a political upheaval or a change in ideological orientations. Vertical group social mobility introduces major changes in the stratification structure and changes the existing hierarchy. P. Sorokin named the following institutions as channels of vertical mobility: army, church, university. But they are not always effective. There is also upward mobility (promotion in rank, approval of fashion) and downward (as a rule, forced) - deprivation of ranks, degradation.

Horizontal social mobility is the movement of a social object to another group without changing its status. This includes a job change in the same position, etc.). Horizontal mobility usually refers to movements in geographic space. There are main historical types of migrations:

1. the movement of entire peoples (for example, the Great Migration of Peoples in the 4th - 5th centuries, which destroyed the Roman Empire);

2. moving from city to village and vice versa. But the process of urbanization prevails;

3. movements associated with socio-economic reasons (development of empty territories);

4. movements associated with emergencies - natural disasters, revolutions, religious persecution (for example, the Bible describes the departure of the Jews from Egypt).

In connection with the spread of such a phenomenon as displacement, diasporas began to arise (an ethnic group living outside its place of origin). They contribute to the rapprochement of ethnic groups and cultures, but often become a source of conflict and tension in society.

It can be said that one of the conditions for the normal development of society, its functioning, the free development of the individual and the establishment of the principles of social justice is the freedom of social movements.

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people, i.e. changes in one's status is called social mobility.

Mobility is an independent indicator of the progress of society. There are two main types of social mobility - vertical and horizontal.

Pitirim Sorokin, one of the greatest theorists of social stratification, noted that where there is powerful vertical mobility, there is life and movement. The fading of mobility breeds social stagnation. He distinguished between vertical (rising and falling) mobility, associated with the transition from one layer to another, and horizontal, in which movements occur within one layer, and the status and prestige of the position do not change. True, P. Sorokin calls social mobility "channels of vertical circulation."

We will consider such social institutions like the army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation (mobility).

The army functions as a channel not in peacetime, but in wartime. In wartime, soldiers advance through talent and bravery. As they rise in rank, they use the power they gain as a channel for further advancement and the accumulation of wealth. They have the opportunity to loot, rob, capture.

The Church as a channel of social mobility has moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society. P. Sorokin studied the biographies of 144 Roman Catholic popes and found that 28 came from the lower classes, and 27 from the middle strata.

The school as an institution of education and upbringing, no matter what specific form it takes, has served in all ages as a powerful channel of social mobility. Large competitions for colleges and universities in many countries are explained by the fact that education is the fastest and most accessible channel of vertical mobility.

Property most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money. P. Sorokin established that not all, but only some occupations and professions contribute to the accumulation of wealth. According to his calculations, in 29% of cases this allows the occupation of a manufacturer, in 21% - a banker and a stockbroker, in 12% - a trader. The professions of artists, artists, inventors, statesmen and the like do not provide such opportunities.

Family and marriage are channels of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union. For example, an example of such mobility can be seen in Antiquity. According to Roman law, a free woman who marries a slave becomes a slave herself and loses the status of a free citizen.

It should be noted that the term "social mobility" was not popular among domestic sociologists of the Soviet period. Soviet authors considered it inconvenient to use the terminology proposed by the anti-communist P.A. Sorokin, who at one time was subjected to devastating criticism by V. I. Lenin.

Together with "social stratification", "social mobility" was also rejected as an alien and unnecessary concept.

Topic 6. Sociology of national relations (Ethnosociology)

Society, understood as a "product of people's interaction", as the integrity of people's social relations to nature and to each other, consists of many heterogeneous elements, among which the economic activity of people and their relations in the process of material production are the most significant, basic, but not the only ones. On the contrary, the life of society consists of many different activities, social relations, social institutions, ideas and other social elements.

All these phenomena of social life are mutually interconnected and always appear in a certain interconnection and unity.

This unity is permeated by material and mental processes, and the integrity of social phenomena is in the process of constant changes, taking various forms.

The study of society as the integrity of social relations in all its various manifestations requires grouping heterogeneous elements of society into separate entities in accordance with their common features and then identifying the relationships of such groups of phenomena.

One of important elements social structure of society is a social group. Of great importance is the socio-territorial group, which is an association of people that has the unity of relations to a certain territory they have mastered. An example of such communities can be: a city, a village, and in some aspects - a separate district of a city or state. In these groups there is their relationship with the environment.

Territorial groups have similar social and cultural traits that have arisen under the influence of certain situations. This happens even despite the fact that the members of this group have differences: class, professional, etc. And if we take the characteristics of various categories of the population of a certain territory, we can judge the level of development of this territorial community in social terms.

Basically, territorial communities are divided into two groups: rural and urban population. Relations between these two groups developed differently at different times. Of course, the urban population prevails. Mostly urban culture today, with its patterns of behavior, activity penetrates more and more into the village, the village.

The resettlement of people is also important, because regional differences affect the economic, cultural state, the social appearance of a person - there is a lifestyle. All this is influenced by the movement of migrants.

The highest level of development of the socio-territorial community is the people. The next step is national territorial communities.

The initial is the primary territorial community, which is integral and indivisible. An important function of this community is the socio-demographic reproduction of the population. It ensures the satisfaction of people's needs through the exchange certain types human activity. An important condition for reproduction is the self-sufficiency of the elements of the artificial and the nature of the environment.

It is also important to take into account the mobility of territorial communities. In some cases, the living environment for reproduction requires the formation of a combination of urban and rural environments, taking into account the natural environment (agglomeration).

One of the important elements of the social structure is the social group. An important role in society is played by such a social group as a socio-ethnic community. An ethnos is a set of people who have developed in a certain territory and have common cultural values, language, and psychological make-up. The defining moments of this group are everyday life, clothing, housing, i.e. all that is called the culture of an ethnos.

The formation of an ethnic group occurs on the basis of the unity of economic life and territory, although many ethnic groups in further development lost the commonality of territories (settlers).

There are certain properties that separate one ethnic group from another: folk art, language, traditions, norms of behavior, i.e. that culture in which people live all their lives and pass it on from generation to generation (ethnic culture).

Historians and sociologists have created a theory of the development of an ethnos: from tribal associations to totemic clans, and then to clans that united and formed nationalities, and then nations arose. This theory is constantly undergoing various changes.

L.N. had his own point of view on the issue of ethnic communities. Gumilyov: ethnos is the basis of all elements and forms of social structure. Gumilyov considered the whole history as the relationship of ethnic groups, which have their own structure and behavior, distinguishing one ethnic group from another. Gumilyov spoke about the concept of a sub-ethnos, which is an unseparated part of an ethnos, but which has its own differences (Pomors in Russia).

From Gumilyov's point of view, there are such forms of communities as convixia - people united by living conditions (family), and consortia - people united by common interests (party). We see that Gumilyov spoke about the definitions of social communities and organizations accepted in sociology.

We can say that an ethnos is only that cultural community that is aware of itself as an ethnos and has ethnic self-consciousness. Ethnic phenomena change very slowly, sometimes over centuries.

If the sign of ethnic self-consciousness is not lost, then no matter how small the group of people is, it does not disappear (for example, “decossackization” did not lead to the disappearance of such an ethnic group as the Cossacks).

Today, more than 3,000 different ethnic groups live in the world. With the question of ethnic communities, questions of interethnic conflicts also arise. This is due to religious intolerance. Living on the same territory of different ethnic groups contributes to inter-ethnic conflicts, and sometimes the consequence of this is the infringement of the rights of an ethnic minority and mainly reading the interests of large ethnic groups (for example, the inter-ethnic policy of the CPSU).

To avoid this, each person must combine the skills of communicating with people of other nationalities, respect for the language of another people, knowledge of the language of the indigenous nationality.

Thus, the process of development of socio-ethnic communities is complex and contradictory and largely depends on the economic, social and political conditions of society.

The sociology of settlement studies the relationship between social development people and their position in the settlement system. Settlement - the distribution of settlements over the inhabited territory, the distribution of the population by settlements and, finally, the placement of people within the boundaries of the settlement.

For the sociology of settlement, it is fundamentally important that settlement is conditioned by the development of productive forces (the development of relations in the "society - nature" system) and the nature of social relations (the essence of connections and relations in the "society - man" system). Settling eventually becomes a category of sociology for three reasons:

1. up to a certain historical milestone, it has a socially differentiated character;

2. factors of a socio-economic nature determine the functioning of the settlement as a set of territorially localized settlements;

3. connection of people and the conditions specified above, i.e. residence in certain settlements becomes a prerequisite for their unification into social communities of a special kind and, thereby, for their transformation into the subject of sociology.

The most profound expression of the social differentiation of settlement is the difference between town and country. This difference is based on the separation of handicraft production from agriculture. The isolation of these most important types of production led to the separation of the city from the countryside. The division of labor also includes the assignment of people to certain types. This distribution by type of labor, which is always tied to the territory, gives rise to the phenomenon of settlement as a place of residence.

Demography is a statistical study of the human population (its size and density, distribution and life statistics: births, marriages, deaths, etc.).

Modern demographic studies also look at the population explosion, the interaction between population and economic development, the impact of birth control, illegal immigration, and labor distribution.

The main components of population change are few. The closed population (when there are no processes of immigration and emigration) can change according to a simple equation:

the closed population at the end of a given period of time is equal to the population at the beginning of that period plus the number of births minus the number of deaths.

In other words, the closed population grows only due to births and decreases only due to deaths. In general, the population of the planet is closed.

However, the population of continents, countries, regions, cities, villages is rarely closed. If we drop the closed population assumption, then immigration and emigration affect population growth and decline in the same way as deaths and births. Then the population (open) at the end of the period is equal to the population at the beginning of the period plus births in that period minus migration out of the country.

Therefore, in order to study demographic changes, it is necessary to know the level of births, deaths and migration.

An ethnic community is a group of people who are related by a common origin and long-term coexistence. In the course of a long joint life activity of people within each group, common and stable features were developed that distinguish one group from another. These features include language, features of everyday culture, emerging customs and traditions of a particular people or ethnic group. (In some languages, and often in scientific literature the terms "people" and "ethnos" are used as synonyms.) These signs are reproduced in the ethnic self-awareness of the people, in which it is aware of its unity, primarily the commonality of its origin and thus its ethnic kinship. At the same time, it distinguishes itself from other nations, which have their own origin, their own language and their own culture.

The ethnic self-consciousness of a people sooner or later manifests itself in all its self-consciousness, in which its origin, inherited traditions, and understanding of its place among other peoples and ethnic groups are fixed.

Ethnic communities are also called consanguineous. These include clans, tribes, nationalities, nations, families, clans. They are united on the basis of genetic ties and constitute an evolutionary chain, the beginning of which is the family.

The family is the smallest consanguineous group of people connected by a unity of origin. It includes grandparents, fathers, mothers and their children.

Several families that have entered into an alliance form a clan. Clans, in turn, unite, in turn, unite into clans.

A clan is a group of blood relatives who bear the name of an alleged ancestor. The clan retained common ownership of land, blood feuds, and mutual responsibility. As remnants of primitive times, clans have survived to this day in various parts of the world (in the Caucasus, Africa and China, among the American Indians). Several clans united to form a tribe.

Tribe - over high form organization, covering a large number of genera and clans. They have their own language or dialect, territory, formal organization (chief, tribal council), common ceremonies. Their number reaches tens of thousands of people. In the course of further cultural and economic development, the tribes were transformed into nationalities, and those - at the highest stages of development - into nations.

A nationality is an ethnic community that occupies a place on the ladder of social development between a tribe and a nation. Nationalities arise in the era of slavery and represent a linguistic, territorial, economic and cultural community. The nationality exceeds the tribe in number, blood ties do not cover the entire nationality.

A nation is an autonomous community of people not limited by territorial boundaries. Representatives of one nation no longer have a common ancestor and a common origin. It must necessarily have a common language, religion, but the nationality uniting them was formed thanks to a common history and culture. The nation arises during the period of overcoming feudal fragmentation and the birth of capitalism. During this period, the achieved high degree political organization, classes, the domestic market and a single economic structure, their own literature and art.

Conflict - a clash of interests of various social communities, a form of manifestation of social contradiction. The conflict is an open clash between oppositely directed desires, needs, interests of two or more social subjects (individuals, groups, large communities) that are in a certain connection and interdependence. All functions of conflicts can be reduced to two main ones, based on the duality of the nature of this phenomenon. The conflict should not be underestimated, because, firstly, the conflict is a phenomenon that affects the development of society, serving as a means of its transformation and progress. Secondly, conflicts quite often manifest themselves in a destructive form, entailing severe consequences for society. Based on this, constructive and destructive functions of the conflict are distinguished. So, among the first are such functions of the conflict as the relaxation of psychological tension, the communicative and binding function and, as a result, the consolidating role in society is inherent in the conflict, and it acts as the driving force of social change. The second group of functions of social conflict is negative, destructive, causing destabilization of relations in social system, destroying social society and group unity.

The classification of social conflicts is carried out on various grounds:

1. The classification may be based on the causes of the conflict (objective, subjective reasons);

2. classification according to the characteristics of the social contradictions that underlie their occurrence (the duration of the contradictions, their nature, role and significance, the scope of their manifestation, etc.);

3. based on the processes of development of conflicts in society (scale, severity of conflicts, time of its occurrence);

4. by characteristic features opposing subjects in it (individual, collective, social conflicts), etc.

It is customary to single out vertical and horizontal conflicts, a characteristic feature of which is the amount of power that opponents have at the time of the conflict (boss - subordinate, buyer - seller).

According to the degree of openness of conflict relationships, open and hidden conflicts are distinguished. Open conflicts are characterized by a pronounced clash of opponents (disputes, quarrels). When hidden - there are no external aggressive actions between the conflicting parties, but indirect methods of influence are used.

According to the degree of distribution, conflicts are personal or psychological, interpersonal or socio-psychological, social.

Personal conflict affects only the structure of consciousness of the individual and the human psyche. Interpersonal conflicts are a clash of individuals with a group or two or more people, each of which does not represent a group, i.e. groups are not involved in the conflict.

Intergroup conflict occurs when the interests of members of formal and informal groups conflict with the interests of another social group.

The division of conflicts into types is very conditional. There is no hard line between species. In practice, conflicts arise: organizational vertical interpersonal, horizontal open intergroup, etc.