Author of the theory of comparative advantage in international trade. Comparative advantage theory

international trade- the system of international commodity-money relations, formed from the foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose during the emergence of the world market in the 16th-18th centuries. Its development is one of the important factors in the development of the world economy in the modern era.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise The Power of the Popular Masses in Northern Italy.

Benefits of countries' participation in international trade:

• the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, creation of opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, an increase in the degree of equipment utilization, an increase in the efficiency of the introduction of new technologies;
• an increase in export supplies entails an increase in employment;
• international competition makes it necessary to improve enterprises;
• export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation for industrial development.

International trade theories

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. International trade theory provides insight into what lies at the heart of these gains from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, and increase the level of well-being of the population.

Many renowned economists have dealt with issues of international trade. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of Absolute Advantages, Theory comparative advantages D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill., Heckscher-Ohlin Theory, Leontief Paradox, Theory life cycle goods, M. Porter's Theory, Rybczynski's Theorem, and Samuelson's and Stolper's Theory.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity... Direction representatives: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was coined by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of initial capital accumulation and the great geographical discoveries, was based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold is accumulated in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

In this case, trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of mercantilists, called protectionism, boiled down to creating barriers to international trade, protecting domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulating exports and restricting imports by introducing customs duties for foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

• the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
• recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals in order to improve its well-being;
• money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of the commodity mass;
• protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;
• restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's Absolute Advantage Theory. In his study of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith in polemics with mercantilists formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. Refusal from the production of goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's absolute advantage theory suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, since the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to increased productivity of the country as well as skills work force; long periods of homogeneous production provide incentives to develop more efficient working methods.

Natural advantages for a given country: climate; territory; resources. The acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantages by D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his work "The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed between countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not data once and for all, Ricardo argued, so even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production, in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative profit is the greatest - this is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo. According to Ricardo's version, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity (imputed) costs are lower. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (imputed) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute production costs of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently, DS Mill in his work "Foundations of Political Economy" gave an explanation of the price at which exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the exchange price is set according to the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of exports of each country makes it possible to pay for the aggregate of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to labor theory value, considering productive, along with labor, capital and land. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different provision of production factors in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: first, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the country's abundant factors of production are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, there is a tendency towards equalization of “factor prices” in international trade; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the transfer of factors of production beyond national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials entering developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting towards mutual trade of "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

The Leontief paradox. This is the research of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital. The essence of Leontiev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, and labor-intensive ones could decrease. In reality, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decline. The solution to Leontyev's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the goods is much lower than in the export supplies of the United States. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant influence of the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to an increase in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding export.

The theory of the life cycle of a product. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product goes through a cycle of five stages from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it:

• product development. The company finds and implements new idea goods. At this time, the volume of sales is zero, the costs are increasing.
• bringing goods to market. There is no profit due to high marketing costs, sales are slowly growing;
• quick conquest of the market, increased profits;
• maturity. Sales growth is slowing down as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs for marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
• decline. A decline in sales and a decline in profits.

M. Porter's theory. This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter's point of view, that determines success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. The explanation of the country's competitive advantage is based on the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

• government influence on factor conditions;
• the impact of government on demand conditions;
• government impact on related and supporting industries;
• the impact of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Sufficient competition in the domestic market is a serious incentive for success in the global market. Artificial dominance of enterprises using state support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. M. Porter's theoretical premises served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to improve the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production grows, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products in which this increased factor is intensively used, and to reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use a fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must be constant. Factor prices can only remain constant if the ratio of factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only take place with an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a reduction in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use together with a growing factor in an expanding industry. ...

The theory of Samuelson and Stolper. In the middle of the XX century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, presenting that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and the full mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardo model with additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and see trade not only as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means of narrowing the development gap between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of products of labor in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with their export abroad. Import - buying goods from foreign sellers with their import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high rate. Among the main trends in the development of international trade are the following:

1. There is a predominant development of trade in comparison with the branches of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, over the period from the 1950s to the 1990s, the world's GDP grew by about 5 times, and merchandise exports by at least 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $ 30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - at $ 12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% are fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products - about 9%, clothing and textiles - 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographic direction of international trade flows, there has been an increase in the role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the emergence of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from their midst) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade, and by 2001, already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the XX century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has been manifested. In the 1960s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than those of the United States. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to take the lead in terms of competitiveness. In the same period, it was joined by the "newly industrialized countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States is taking the leading position in the world in terms of competitiveness. The export of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. US dollars. The share of the group of goods is 80%, and services - 20% of the total trade in the world.

4. The most important direction in the development of foreign trade is intra-company trade within TNCs. According to some reports, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, and in several ways. Firstly, it is a cross-border supply, for example, distance learning... Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the movement of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third way is a commercial presence, for example, the activity in the country of a foreign bank or restaurant. And the fourth way is the movement of individuals who are providers of services abroad, for example, doctors or teachers. The world's most developed countries are the leaders in trade in services.

Regulation of international trade

The regulation of international trade is subdivided into state regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

The methods of state regulation of international trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods are reduced to the use of customs duties - special taxes that are levied on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are fees charged by the state for registration of goods and other valuables abroad. Such a fee, called a duty, is included in the price of the product and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the import of foreign goods into the country; export duties are less commonly used.

By the form of calculation, duties are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the goods;

b) specific, levied in the form of a certain amount of money from the volume, mass or unit of goods.

The most important purposes of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - sale of goods in the foreign market at prices lower than those for an identical product in the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a set of direct and indirect restrictions externally economic activity with the help of an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

• quotas (contingent) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, contingents are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited by a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the corresponding product is terminated;
• licensing - the issuance of special permits (licenses) to business entities to conduct foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a form of customs taxation applied by a country to generate additional customs revenue;
• embargo - a ban on export-import operations. It can apply to a certain group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
• currency control is a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota can limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc .;
• taxes on export-import operations - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, like customs duties, and therefore are levied on both domestic and foreign goods. Subsidies from the state for exporters are also possible;
• administrative measures, which are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold for domestic market... An important place is occupied by national standards... Failure to comply with the country's standards may serve as a pretext for a ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Likewise, the system of national transport tariffs often creates an advantage in paying for the carriage of goods to exporters over importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: the closure of certain ports and railway stations for foreigners, an order to use a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase government organizations imported goods in the presence of national counterparts, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy has led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for the implementation of international trade deals and control over their implementation by the member states of these organizations.

A special role in the regulation of international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

• GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
• WTO ();
• GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
• TRIPS (Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the principle of the most favored nation (MFN), that is, the most favored nation (MFN) regime is established in the trade of the GATT member countries, which guarantees equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the NSP were established for countries belonging to economic integration groups; for countries former colonies who are in traditional ties with the former metropolises; for border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, the share of "exceptions" accounts for at least 60% of world trade. finished products, which deprives PNB of its versatility.

The GATT recognizes customs tariffs as the only acceptable means of regulating MT, which are reduced iteratively (from round to round). At present, their average level is 3-5%. But even here there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff means of protection (quotas, export and import licenses, tax incentives). These include cases of application of programs for regulating agricultural production, violations of the balance of payments, implementation of regional development and assistance programs.

The GATT contains the principle of refraining from unilateral actions and making decisions in favor of negotiations and consultations, if such actions (decisions) can lead to restriction of freedom of trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at the negotiation rounds of all the members of this Agreement. There were eight of them. The most significant decisions by which the WTO has been guiding in the regulation of MT so far were taken at the last (eighth) Uruguay round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce the value of customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate MT with products of certain sectors (including agriculture) and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country's foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases, while duties on raw materials are reduced and their elimination for some types alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products- only 40% of world imports. The liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But the last and only means of regulation are customs duties.

In the area of ​​anti-dumping measures, the concepts of "legal subsidies" and "acceptable subsidies" have been adopted, which include subsidies aimed at protecting environment and regional development provided that their size is at least 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of it total cost... All others are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included the requirements for the minimum export of goods produced by the joint venture, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO... The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the legal successor to the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the tasks of ensuring freedom of trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called linkages. The meaning of the linkages is that any decisions of the state to increase the tariff are taken simultaneously (in conjunction with) the decision to liberalize imports of other goods. The WTO is outside the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of the participating countries to comply with the adopted agreements.

GATS. The regulation of international trade in services differs in a certain way. This is due to the fact that services differing in an extreme variety of forms and content do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general tendencies that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account new moments in its development, which are introduced by TNCs that dominate and monopolize it. Currently, the world market for services is regulated at four levels: international (global), sectoral (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which entered into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (openness and unity of reading of laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign manufacturers. However, the implementation of these rules is hampered by the peculiarities of services as a product: the absence of the material form of most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that the regulation of the terms of trade in services means the regulation of the conditions of their production, and this, in turn, means the regulation of the conditions for investing in their production.

The GATS includes three parts: a framework agreement that defines general principles and rules governing trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries; and a list of national governments' commitments to eliminate restrictions in service industries. Thus, only one regional level falls out of the field of GATS activity.

The GATS Agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types of services: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. The issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the sphere of his activity, which is associated with the fears of certain states (European countries) to lose the originality of their national culture.

Sectoral regulation of international trade in services is also carried out in globally, which is associated with their global production and consumption. In contrast to the GATS, the organizations regulating such services are specialized in nature. For example, civil air transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism is regulated by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), shipping- International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are removed (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries can be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, part of which can be trade in services. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

A source - World economy: tutorial / EG Guzhva, MI Lesnaya, AV Kondrat'ev, AN Egorov; SPbGASU. - SPb., 2009 .-- 116 p.

Comparative advantage theories. The theory of absolute advantage. Heckscher-Olin's theory of international trade. Leontief's theory of international trade. Alternative theories of international trade.

International trade theories

Comparative advantage theories

International trade is the exchange of goods and services through which countries meet their unlimited needs based on the development of the social division of labor.

The main theories of international trade were laid down in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. eminent economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. A. Smith in his book "Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776) formulated the theory of absolute advantage and, arguing with the mercantilists, showed that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether are they exporters or importers. D. Ricardo in his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" (1817) proved that the principle of advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

When analyzing theories of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account. First, economic resources - material, natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed between countries. Second, the efficient production of different goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources. It is important to emphasize, however, that the economic efficiency with which countries are able to produce different goods can and does change over time. In other words, the advantages, both absolute and comparative, enjoyed by countries are not data once and for all.

The theory of absolute advantage.

The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is as follows: if a country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage.

Consider a conventional example: two countries produce two goods (grain and sugar).

Suppose one country has an absolute advantage in grain and another in sugar. These absolute advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions or the presence of huge natural resources. Natural benefits play a special role in agriculture and in the extractive industries. On the other hand, the advantages in the production of various products (primarily in the manufacturing industries) depend on the prevailing production conditions: technology, qualifications of workers, organization of production, etc.

In conditions when there is no foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and the amount that it produces, and the relative prices of these goods in the market are determined by the national costs of their production.

Internal prices for the same goods in different countries ah are always different as a result of peculiarities in the supply of factors of production, technologies used, qualifications of the labor force, etc.

For trade to be mutually beneficial, the price of a product on the foreign market must be higher than the domestic price of the same product in the exporting country and lower than in the importing country.

The benefit that countries receive from foreign trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which may be due to the specialization of production.

So, according to the theory of absolute advantage, each country should specialize in the production of the product for which it has an exclusive (absolute) advantage.

The Law of Comparative Advantage. In 1817, D. Ricardo proved that international specialization is beneficial for the nation. This was the theory of comparative advantage, or, as it is sometimes called, the theory of comparative cost of production. Let's consider this theory in more detail.

Ricardo took only two countries for simplicity. Let's call them America and Europe. Also, to simplify matters, he took into account only two goods. Let's call them food and clothing. For simplicity, all production costs are measured in labor time.

One should probably agree that trade between America and Europe should be mutually beneficial. It takes fewer work days to produce a food unit in America than in Europe, while a unit of clothing in Europe takes fewer work days than America. It is clear that in this case, America, apparently, will specialize in the production of food and, exporting some of it, will receive a ready-made dress exported by Europe in return.

However, Ricardo did not stop there. He showed that comparative advantage depends on the ratio of labor productivity.

Based on the theory of absolute advantage, foreign trade always remains beneficial for both parties. As long as there remain differences in the ratios of domestic prices between countries, each country will have a comparative advantage, that is, it will always have a commodity whose production is more profitable at the existing ratio of costs than the production of others. The gain from the sale of products will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity cost is lower.

Comparing situations of absolute and comparative advantage leads to an important conclusion: in both cases, the gains from trade arise from the fact that cost ratios are different in different countries, i.e. the directions of trade are determined by relative costs, regardless of whether a country has an absolute advantage in the production of a product or not. It follows from this conclusion that a country maximizes its gain from foreign trade if it specializes entirely in the production of a product for which it has a comparative advantage. In reality, such full specialization does not occur, which is explained, in particular, by the fact that replacement costs tend to increase with the growth of production volumes. In the face of increasing substitution costs, the factors determining the direction of trade are the same as with constant (constant) costs. Both countries can benefit from foreign trade if they specialize in the production of those goods where they have a comparative advantage. But with increasing costs, firstly, full specialization is unprofitable and, secondly, as a result of competition between countries, the marginal replacement costs are leveled.

It follows that as food and dress production increases and specializes, a point will be reached at which the cost ratio in the two countries is leveled.

In this situation, the grounds for deepening specialization and expanding trade - differences in the ratio of costs - exhaust themselves, and further specialization will be economically inexpedient.

Thus, the maximization of gains from foreign trade occurs with partial specialization.

The essence of the theory of comparative advantage is as follows: if each country specializes in those products in the production of which it has the greatest relative efficiency, or relatively lower costs, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries from the use of productive factors will increase in both cases.

The principle of comparative advantage, when extended to any number of countries and any number of goods, can have universal implications.

A serious disadvantage of the principle of comparative advantage is its static nature. This theory ignores any price fluctuations and wages, it abstracts from any inflationary and deflationary gaps in the intermediate stages, from all kinds of balance of payments problems. It proceeds from the assumption that if workers leave one industry, then they do not turn into chronically unemployed, but will certainly move to another, more productive industry. Not surprisingly, this abstract theory severely compromised itself during the Great Depression. Some time ago, her prestige began to recover again. V mixed economy based on the theory of neoclassical synthesis, mobilizing modern theories of chronic recession and inflation, the classical theory of comparative advantage is gaining social significance again.

The theory of comparative advantage is a coherent and logical theory. For all its oversimplification, it is very important. A nation that ignores the principle of comparative advantage can pay dearly for this - a decline in living standards and a slowdown in potential economic growth.

Heckscher-Olin's theory of international trade

The theory of comparative advantage leaves aside the key question: what causes differences in costs between countries? Swedish economist E. Heckscher and his student B. Olin tried to answer this question. In their opinion, differences in costs between countries are mainly due to the fact that the relative endowments of countries with factors of production are different.

According to the Heckscher-Olin theory, countries will seek to export excess factors and import scarce factors of production, thereby compensating for the relatively low provision of countries with factors of production on the scale of the world economy.

It must be emphasized that we are not talking about the number of factors of production available to countries, but about the relative provision of them (for example, about the amount of land suitable for cultivation per worker). If in a given country some factor of production is relatively greater than in other countries, then the price for it will be relatively lower. Consequently, the relative price of the product, in the production of which this cheap factor is used to a greater extent than others, will be lower ”than in other countries. Thus, comparative advantages arise that determine the direction of foreign trade.

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory successfully explains many of the patterns observed in international trade. Indeed, countries export mainly products, the costs of which are dominated by their relatively surplus resources. However, the structure of productive resources that the industrialized countries have at their disposal is gradually leveling off. In the world market, the share of trade in "like" goods between "like" countries is increasing.

Leontief's theory of international trade

The famous American economist Vasily Leontiev in the mid-50s. made an attempt to empirically test the main conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and came to paradoxical conclusions. Using the input-output model of input-output balance, built on the basis of data on the US economy for 1947, V. Leontyev proved that relatively more labor-intensive goods prevailed in American exports, and capital-intensive ones prevailed in imports. This empirically obtained result contradicted what was proposed by the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, and therefore was called the "Leontief paradox". Subsequent studies confirmed the presence of this paradox in the post-war period not only for the United States, but also for other countries (Japan, India, etc.).

Numerous attempts to explain this paradox made it possible to develop and enrich the Heckscher-Ohlin theory by taking into account additional circumstances affecting international specialization, among which the following can be noted:

heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily labor, which can vary significantly in terms of skill level. From this point of view, the exports of industrialized countries may reflect a relative surplus of highly skilled labor and specialists, while developing countries export products that require large expenditures of unskilled labor;

state foreign trade policy, which can restrict imports and stimulate production within the country and export of products of those industries where relatively scarce factors of production are used intensively.

Alternative theories of international trade

In recent decades, significant shifts have taken place in the directions and structure of world trade, which do not always lend themselves to an exhaustive explanation within the framework of classical trade theories. This prompts how to further development already existing theories, and to the development of alternative theoretical concepts. The reasons are as follows: 1) the transformation of technical progress into a dominant factor in world trade, 2) the ever-increasing share in trade of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods produced in countries with approximately the same supply of production factors, and 3) a sharp increase in the share of world trade turnover accounted for by intra-firm trade. Consider alternative theories.

The essence of the theory of the product life cycle is as follows: the development of world trade finished products depends on the stages of their life, that is, the period of time during which the product is viable in the market and ensures the achievement of the seller's goals.

A product's life cycle spans four stages - adoption, growth, maturity, and decline. The first stage is the development of new products in response to the emerging demand within the country. Therefore, the production of a new product is of small-scale nature, requires highly skilled workers and is concentrated in the country of innovation (usually an industrialized country), and the manufacturer occupies an almost monopoly position and only a small part of the product goes to the external market.

During the growth stage, the demand for a product increases and its production expands and gradually spreads to other developed countries, the product becomes more standardized, competition between manufacturers increases and exports expand.

The stage of maturity is characterized by large-scale production, the price factor becomes predominant in the competition, and as markets expand and technologies spread, the country of innovation no longer has competitive advantages. Manufacturing begins to move to developing countries where cheap labor can be effectively used in standardized manufacturing processes.

As the life cycle of a product goes into decline, demand, especially in developed countries, decreases, production and sales markets are concentrated mainly in developing countries, and the country of innovation becomes a frequent importer.

The theory of the product life cycle fairly realistically reflects the evolution of many industries, but it is not a universal explanation of the trends in the development of international trade. If research and development, advanced technology ceases to be the main factor determining competitive advantages, then the production of a product will indeed move to countries that have a comparative advantage in other factors of production, for example, in terms of cheap labor. However, there are many products (with a short life cycle, high transportation costs, significant opportunities for quality differentiation, a narrow range of potential consumers etc.) that do not fit into the life cycle theory.

Economies of scale theory. In the early 80s. P. Krugman, K. Lancaster and some other economists have proposed an alternative to the classical explanation of international trade, based on the so-called scale effect.

The essence of the effect theory is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, that is, there is an economy due to mass production.

According to this theory, many countries (in particular, industrialized ones) are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and in these conditions it will be profitable for them to trade with each other with specialization in those industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect of mass production. In this case, specialization allows you to expand production and produce a product at a lower cost and, therefore, at a lower price. In order for this effect of mass production to be realized, a sufficiently large market is required. International trade plays a decisive role in this, as it allows expanding sales markets. In other words, it allows the formation of a single integrated market, more capacious than the market of any single country. As a result, more products are offered to consumers and at lower prices.

At the same time, the realization of economies of scale, as a rule, leads to a violation of perfect competition, since it is associated with the concentration of production and the consolidation of firms, which become monopolists. The structure of the markets is changing accordingly. They become either oligopolistic with a predominance of inter-industry trade in homogeneous products, or markets of monopolistic competition with developed intra-industry trade in differentiated products. In this case, international trade is increasingly concentrated in the hands of giant international firms, transnational corporations, which inevitably leads to an increase in the volume of intra-firm trade, the directions of which are often determined not by the principle of comparative advantages or differences in the provision of factors of production, but strategic objectives the firm itself.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work were used materials from the site matfak.

Mercantilist theory developed and implemented in XVI-XVIII centuries, is the first of theories of international trade.

Supporters of this theory believed that the country needed to restrict imports and try to produce everything by itself, as well as in every possible way to encourage the export of finished goods, seeking an inflow of currency (gold), that is, only export was considered economically justified. As a result of the positive trade balance, the flow of gold into the country increased the opportunities for capital accumulation and thus contributed to economic growth, employment and prosperity of the country.

Mercantilists did not take into account the benefits that countries receive in the course of international division labor from the import of foreign goods and services.

According to the classical theory of international trade emphasizes that “the exchange is favorable for each country; every country finds an absolute advantage in it ", the necessity and importance of foreign trade is proved.

For the first time, the policy of free trading was defined A. Smith.

D. Ricardo developed the ideas of A. Smith and argued that it is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which the relative benefit is greatest, where it has the greatest advantage or the least weakness.

Ricardo's reasoning found its expression in comparative advantage theory(comparative production costs). D. Ricardo proved that international exchange is possible and desirable in the interests of all countries.

J.S. Mill showed that, according to the law of supply and demand, the exchange price is set at such a level that the aggregate export of each country makes it possible to cover its aggregate imports.

According to Heckscher-Ohlin theories countries will always seek to covertly export surplus factors of production and import scarce factors of production. That is, all countries tend to export goods that require significant inputs of production factors, which they have in relative abundance. As a result the Leontief paradox.

The paradox is that, using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, Leontiev showed that the American economy in the post-war period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital.

Comparative advantage theory was developed by taking into account the following circumstances affecting international specialization:

1. heterogeneity of factors of production, primarily the labor force, differing in the level of qualifications;
2. the role of natural resources that can be used in production only in conjunction with large amounts of capital (for example, in the extractive industries);
3. influence on the international specialization of foreign trade policies of states.

The state can restrict imports and stimulate production within the country and the export of products of those industries where they are intensively used relatively scarce factors of production.

Michael Porter's theory of competitive advantage

In 1991, the American economist Michael Porter published a study "Competitive Advantages of Countries", published in Russian under the title " International competition"In 1993. In this study, a completely new approach to the problems of international trade has been elaborated in sufficient detail. One of the prerequisites for this approach is the following: Firms, not countries, compete on the international market. To understand the role of the country in this process, it is necessary to understand how an individual firm creates and maintains a competitive advantage.

Success in the foreign market depends on a correctly chosen competitive strategy. Competition implies constant changes in the industry, which significantly affects the social and macroeconomic parameters of the home country, therefore the state plays an important role in this process.

According to M, Porter, the main unit of competition is the industry, i.e. a group of competitors that produce goods and provide services and directly compete with each other. An industry produces products with similar sources of competitive advantage, although the boundaries between industries are always rather vague. To choose the firm's competitive strategy there are two main factors in the industry.

1. Industry structures, in which the firm operates, i.e. features of competition. Competition in an industry is influenced by five factors:

1) the emergence of new competitors;

2) the emergence of substitute goods or services;

3) the ability of suppliers to bargain;

4) the ability of buyers to bargain;

5) the rivalry of existing competitors among themselves.

These five factors determine the profitability of an industry because they affect the foam rates that firms set, their costs, capital expenditures, and more.

As new competitors enter the industry, the overall profitability potential of the industry diminishes as they bring new manufacturing capacity into the industry and seek market share, and as substitute products or services appear, the price that a firm can charge for its product is limited.

Suppliers and buyers, when bargaining, derive their benefits, which can lead to a decrease in the company's profits -

The price to be paid for competitiveness when competing with other firms is either additional costs or a decrease in price, and as a result, a decrease in profits.

The significance of each of the five factors is determined by its main technical and economic characteristics... For example, the ability of buyers to bargain depends on how many buyers the firm has, how much of the sales falls on one buyer, whether the price of a product is a significant part of the buyer's total costs, and the threat of new competitors on how difficult it is for a new competitor to “penetrate” the industry. ...

2. The position the firm holds in the industry.

A firm's position in the industry is primarily determined by competitive advantage. A firm is ahead of its competitors if it has a stable competitive advantage:

1) lower costs, indicating the firm's ability to develop, produce and sell a comparable product at less cost than competitors. Selling a product at the same or approximately the same price as competitors, the firm in this case makes a large profit.

2) differentiation of goods, that is, the ability of the firm to meet the needs of the buyer, offering goods or more High Quality, or with special consumer properties, or with extensive after-sales service capabilities.

The competitive advantage gives you higher productivity than the competition. Others important factor that influences a firm's position in an industry is the scope of competition, or the breadth of purpose that the firm is targeting within its industry.

Competition does not mean equilibrium, but constant change. Each industry is constantly being improved and updated. Moreover, the home country plays an important role in stimulating this process. Home country - it is a country where strategy, basic products and technology are developed and a workforce with the necessary skills is available.

M. Porter identifies four properties of a country that form the environment in which local firms compete and that influence its international success (Figure 4.6.). The dynamic model of the formation of the competitive advantages of the industry can be represented in the form of a national diamond.

Figure 4.6. Determinants of a country's competitive advantage

Countries are most likely to succeed in industries where the components of the national diamond are mutually reinforcing.

These determinants, each individually and all together as a system, create the environment in which firms in a given country are born and operate.

Countries achieve success in certain industries due to the fact that the environment in these countries is developing most dynamically and, constantly posing challenges to firms, makes them better use the existing competitive advantages.

Advantage on every determinant is not a prerequisite for competitive advantage in an industry. It is the interaction of advantages across all determinants that provides self-reinforcing winning points that are not available to foreign competitors.

Each country, to one degree or another, possesses the factors of production necessary for the activities of firms in any industry. The theory of comparative advantage in the Heckscher-Ohlin model is devoted to the comparison of available factors. The country exports goods, in the production of which various factors are intensively used. However, factors. as a rule, they are not only inherited, but also created, therefore, for obtaining and developing competitive advantages, it is not so much the stock of factors at the moment that is important, but the speed of their creation. In addition, an abundance of factors can undermine a competitive advantage, and a lack of them can induce renewal, which can lead to long-term competitive advantage. At the same time, the endowment with factors is quite important, therefore this is the first parameter of this component of the "diamond".

Endowment with factors

Traditionally, the economic literature distinguishes three factors: labor, land and capital. But their influence is now more fully reflected in a slightly different classification:

· Human resources, which are characterized by the number, qualifications and cost of labor, as well as the duration of normal working hours and work ethics.

These resources are divided into numerous categories, since each industry requires a specific list of specific categories of workers;

· Physical resources, which are determined by the quantity, quality, availability and cost of land, water, minerals, forest resources, sources of electricity, etc. These can also include climatic conditions, geographic location and even time zone;

· A resource of knowledge, that is, a set of scientific, technical and commercial information that affects goods and services. This stock is concentrated in universities, research organizations, data banks, literature, etc .;

· Monetary resources, characterized by the amount and value of capital that can be used to finance industry;

Infrastructure, including the transport system, communication system, postal services, transfer of payments between banks, healthcare system, etc.

The combination of factors applied differs from industry to industry. Firms achieve a competitive advantage when they have cheap or high quality factors at their disposal that are important in competing in a particular industry. So, the location of Singapore on an important trade route between Japan and the Middle East has made it the center of the ship repair industry. However, obtaining a competitive advantage based on factors depends not so much on their availability as on their effective use, since MNEs can provide missing factors by purchasing or locating activities abroad, and many factors relatively simply move from country to country.

Factors are divided into basic and developed, general and specialized. The main factors include natural resources, climatic conditions, geographical location, unskilled labor, etc. They are received by the country through inheritance or with little investment. They are of little importance to a country's competitive advantage, or the advantage they create is unsustainable. The role of the main factors decreases due to a decrease in the need for them or due to their increased availability (including as a result of the transfer of activities or purchases abroad). These factors are important in the extractive industries and v industries related to agriculture. Developed factors include modern infrastructure, highly qualified workforce, etc.

International trade theories

It is these factors that are most important, as they allow you to achieve a higher level of competitive advantage.

According to the degree of specialization, factors are divided into general ones, which can be applied in many industries, and specialized ones. Specialized factors form a more solid and lasting basis for competitive advantage than generic factors.

The criteria for dividing factors into basic and developed, general and specialized must be considered in dynamics, since they change over time. Factors differ depending on whether they arose in a lyonic way or created artificially. All factors contributing to the achievement of a higher level of competitive advantage are artificial. Countries succeed in the industries in which they are best able to create and improve the necessary factors.

Demand conditions (parameters)

The second determinant of national competitive advantage is the demand in the domestic market for goods or services offered by this industry. Influencing economies of scale, demand in the domestic market determines the nature and speed of innovation. It is characterized by: structure, volume and nature of growth, internationalization.

Firms can achieve a competitive advantage given the following key characteristics of the demand structure:

· A significant share of domestic demand falls on global market segments;

Buyers (including intermediaries) are picky and demanding, which forces firms to raise standards for the quality of production, service and consumer properties goods;

· The need in the home country arises earlier than in other countries;

· The volume and nature of growth in domestic demand allows firms to gain a competitive advantage if there is a demand abroad for a product that is in great demand in the domestic market, and there is also a large number of independent buyers, which creates a more favorable environment for renewal;

· Domestic demand is growing rapidly, which stimulates the intensification of capital investment and the speed of renewal;

· The internal market is quickly saturated, as a result, competition becomes tougher, in which the strongest survive, which forces them to enter the external market.

The impact of demand parameters on competitiveness also depends on other parts of the diamond. Thus, without strong competition, a broad domestic market or its rapid growth does not always stimulate investment. Without the support of the relevant industries, firms are unable to meet the needs of discerning buyers, etc.

Related and supporting industries

The third determinant that determines the national competitive advantage is the presence in the country of supplying industries or related industries that are competitive in the world market,

In the presence of competitive supplier industries, the following are possible:

· Efficient and quick access to expensive resources, such as equipment or skilled labor, etc.;

· Coordination of suppliers in the domestic market;

· Assisting the innovation process. Domestic firms benefit most when their suppliers are competitive in the global marketplace.

The presence in the country of competitive related industries often leads to the emergence of new highly developed types of production. Related refers to industries in which firms can interact with each other to form a value chain, as well as industries that deal with complementary products such as computers and software. Interaction can take place in the field of technology development, production, marketing, service. If a country has related industries that can compete on the world market, access to information exchange and technical interaction opens up. Geographic proximity and cultural affinity lead to more active interchange than with foreign firms.

Success in the Myronian market of one industry may entail the development of the production of additional goods and services. However, the success of supplying and related industries can only affect the success of national firms if the rest of the diamond is positively affected.

LECTURES ON THE COURSE "WORLD ECONOMY".FROLOVA T.A.

Topic 1: THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE 2

1. The theory of comparative advantage 2

2. Neoclassical theories 3

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory 3

4. Leontief paradox 4

5. Alternative theories of international trade 4

Topic 2. WORLD MARKET 6

1. The essence of the world economy 6

2. Stages of the formation of the world economy 6

3. The structure of the world market 7

4. Competition in the global market 8

5. Government regulation world trade 9

Topic 3. WORLD MONEY SYSTEM 10

1. Stages of development of the world monetary system 10

2. Exchange rates and currency convertibility 12

3. State regulation of the exchange rate 14

4. Balance of payments 15

Topic 4: INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INTEGRATION 17

1. Forms of economic integration 17

2. Forms of capital movement 17

3. Consequences of Export and Import of Capital 18

4. Labor migration 20

5. State regulation of labor migration 21

Topic 5. GLOBALIZATION AND PROBLEMS OF THE WORLD ECONOMY 22

1 Globalization: The Entity and the Challenges It Creates 22

3. International economic organizations 23

Topic 6. SPECIAL ECONOMIC ZONES (SEZ) 25

1.Classification of FEZ 25

3. Benefits and phases of the life cycle of SEZ 26

Topic 1: THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE

1. The theory of comparative advantage

The theory of international trade went through a number of stages in its development along with the development of economic thought. However, their main questions were and remain the following: what lies at the heart of the international division of labor? Which international specialization is most effective for countries?

The foundations of the theory of international trade were laid in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. English economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Smith in his work "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" showed that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, because can benefit from it, whether they are exporters or importers. He created the theory of absolute advantage.

Ricardo, in his work "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", proved that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

A country has an absolute advantage if there is a commodity which, per unit of cost, it can produce more than another country.

These advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions, the availability of natural resources. Natural benefits play a special role in agriculture and extractive industries.

On the other hand, benefits can be acquired, i.e. due to the development of technology, the improvement of the qualifications of workers, the improvement of the organization of production.

In the absence of foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and only the amount that it produces.

The relative prices of goods in the domestic market are determined by the relative costs of their production. The relative prices for the same product produced in different countries are different. If this difference exceeds the cost of transporting goods, then there is an opportunity to profit from foreign trade.

For trade to be mutually beneficial, the price of a product on the foreign market must be higher than the domestic price in the exporting country and lower than in the importing country.

Basic theories of international trade

The benefit that countries receive from foreign trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which may be due to 2 reasons:

changes in consumption patterns;

specialization of production.

As long as there remain differences in the ratios of domestic prices between countries, each country will have comparative advantage, i.e. she will always have a commodity, the production of which is more profitable at the existing ratio of costs than the production of others.

The total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity costs are lower. The directions of world trade are determined by relative costs.

2. Neoclassical theories

Contemporary Western economists have developed Ricardo's theory of comparative costs. The most famous is the opportunity cost model, the author of which is the American economist G. Haberler.

The model of the economy of 2 countries is considered, in which 2 goods are produced. Curves are assumed for each country production capabilities... The best technology and all resources are considered to be used. In determining the comparative advantage of each country, the basis is the volume of production of one good, which must be reduced in order to increase the production of another good.

This model of the division of labor is called neoclassical. But it is based on a number of simplifications. It comes from the presence of:

only 2 countries and 2 products;

free trade;

labor mobility within the country and immobility (no overflow) by countries;

fixed production costs;

lack of transportation costs;

no technical changes;

complete interchangeability of resources in their alternative use.

3. Heckscher-Ohlin theory

In the 30s. XX century Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertel Olin created their own model of international trade. By this time, great changes had taken place in the system of the international division of labor and international trade. The role of natural differences as a factor of international specialization has noticeably decreased, and industrial goods began to prevail in the exports of developed countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model is intended to explain the reasons for international trade in manufactured goods.

in the production of various goods, factors are used in different proportions;

the relative endowment of countries with factors of production is not the same.

Hence follows the law of proportionality of factors: in an open economy, each country tends to specialize in the production of a commodity that requires more factors, with which the country is relatively better endowed.

International exchange is the exchange of abundant factors for rare ones.

Thus, surplus factors are exported in a hidden form and scarce factors of production are imported, i.e. the movement of goods from country to country compensates for the low mobility of factors of production on the scale of the world economy.

In the process of international trade, the prices of factors of production are equalized. Initially, the price of a factor in excess will be relatively low. The surplus of capital leads to specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods, the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for capital increases, therefore, the price of capital increases.

If there is an abundance of labor in the country, then labor-intensive goods are exported. The price of labor (wages) also rises.

4. The Leontief paradox

Vasily Leontyev studied in Berlin after graduating from Leningrad University. In 1931 he emigrated to the United States and began teaching at Harvard University. In 1948 he was appointed Director of the Economic Research Service. Developed a method economic analysis Input-output (used for forecasting). In 1973 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In 1947 Leontiev made an attempt to empirically test the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and came to paradoxical conclusions. Examining the structure of US exports and imports, he found that relatively more labor-intensive goods predominated in US exports, and capital-intensive ones predominated in imports.

Considering that in the post-war years in the United States capital was a relatively surplus factor of production, and the level of wages was significantly higher than in other countries, this result contradicted the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and therefore was called the Leontief paradox.

Leontiev hypothesized that in any combination with a given amount of capital, 1 man-year of American labor is equivalent to 3 man-years of foreign labor. He suggested that higher productivity in American labor is associated with higher skill levels in American workers. Leontyev conducted a statistical test, which showed that the United States exports goods that require more skilled labor than imported ones.

This study served as the basis for the creation by the American economist D. Keesing in 1956, a model that takes into account the qualifications of the labor force. There are 3 factors involved in production: capital, skilled and unskilled labor. A relatively abundance of highly skilled labor leads to the export of goods requiring large quantities of skilled labor.

Later models of Western economists used 5 factors: financial capital, skilled and unskilled labor, land suitable for agricultural production, and other natural resources.

5. Alternative theories of international trade

In the last decades of the 20th century, significant shifts have taken place in the directions and structure of international trade, which are not always explained by the classical MT theory. Among these qualitative shifts, one should note the transformation of scientific and technological progress into a dominant factor in international trade, an increasing proportion of counter deliveries of similar industrial goods. It became necessary to take this influence into account in the theories of international trade.

Product life cycle theory.

In the mid 60s. XX century American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the life cycle of a product, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products on the basis of the stages of their life.

The life stage is the period of time during which a product has market viability and ensures that the seller's goals are met.

The life cycle of a product covers 4 stages:

Implementation. At this stage, a new product is developed in response to an emerging need within the country. Production is of small-scale nature, requires highly skilled workers and is concentrated in the country of innovation. The manufacturer has an almost monopoly position. Only a small part of the product goes to the external market.

Growth. The demand for the product is growing, its production is expanding and spreading to other developed countries. The product is becoming standardized. Competition is increasing, exports are expanding.

Maturity. This stage is characterized by large-scale production; the price factor prevails in the competition. The country of innovation no longer has any competitive advantages. Production begins to move to developing countries where labor is cheaper.

Decline. In developed countries, production is declining, sales markets are concentrated in developing countries. The country of innovation becomes a net importer.

Economies of scale theory.

In the early 80s. XX century P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative explanation of international trade, based on economies of scale. The essence of the effect is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise from mass production.

According to this theory, many countries are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade with each other with specialization in industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect of mass production. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs and prices. In order for the economies of scale to be realized, a large market is required, i.e. world.

Technological Gap Model.

Supporters of the neotechnological trend tried to explain the structure of international trade by technological factors. The main advantages are associated with the monopoly position of the innovator firm. A new optimal strategy for firms: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone needs, but which no one can produce yet. As soon as others can master this technology - to produce something new.

The attitude towards the state has also changed. According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the government's job is not to interfere with firms. Neo-tech economists believe that the state should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of outdated industries.

The most popular model is the technology gap model. Its foundations were laid in 1961 in the work of the English economist M. Posner. Later, the model was developed in the works of R. Vernon, R. Findlay, E. Mansfield.

Trade between countries can be caused by technological change arising in any one industry in one of the trading countries. The country is gaining a comparative advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at low cost. If created New Product, then the innovative firm has a quasi-monopoly for a certain period of time, i.e. gets additional profit.

As a result of technical innovations, a technological gap has formed between countries. This gap will be gradually bridged as other countries will begin to copy the innovation of the innovating country. Posner, to explain the constantly existing international trade, introduces the concept of "innovation stream", which over time arises in different industries and different countries.

Both trading countries benefit from the innovation. As it spreads new technology the less developed country continues to gain, while the more developed country loses its advantages. Thus, international trade exists even when countries are equally endowed with factors of production.

Pages: next →

123456See all

1. Theoriesinternationaltrade (7)

   Abstract >> Economics

   … Other natural resources. ( LECTURES Leontyeva V.E.) The essence of finance ... areas, such as theoryinternationaltrade, theory monopoly, econometrics. The attitude of L. ... is increasing in our time. Modern economy, representing an open ...

2. Theoriesinternationaltrade (4)

   Abstract >> Economics

   ... this question in its earlier " Lectures ", it was these arguments that prompted the classics ... part of the classic theoryinternationaltrade and most of it modern interpretations explain the meaning of external trade, economic benefits ...

3. The main theoryinternationaltrade (4)

   Abstract >> Economic theory

   ... Olin, theory M. Porter and the paradox of V. Leontiev. Subject of study - internationaltrade... V modern conditions ... In 1748. started reading public lectures on literature and natural law ... In the same year in lectures in a number of their main economic ...

4. The basics internationaltrade (2)

   Coursework >> Economic Theory

   ... and on a practical level. The basics moderntheoryinternationaltrade were laid down in the 19th century. the classics of English ... Yablokova, S.А. World Economy [Text]: Synopsis lectures/ S.A. Yablokova. - M .: PRIOR, 2007 .-- 160 p. - ISBN ...

5. The main theoryinternationaltrade (2)

   Study Guide >> Economics

   ... E.Yu. Internationaltrade: Well lectures. – … internationaltrade... The subject of research is theoryinternationaltrade. Theoryinternationaltrade Heckscher-Ohlin. Theory comparative advantage explains directions internationaltrade …

I want more similar works ...

Modern theories of the world economy

⇐ PreviousPage 3 of 7Next ⇒

The economies of scale theory of Krugman and Lancaster was created in the 80s of the twentieth century. This theory provides an explanation of the modern causes of world trade in terms of the economy of the firm. The authors believe that the maximum benefit is in industries where production is carried out in large batches, because in this case there is a scale effect.

The origins of the theory of economies of scale go back to A. Marshall, who noted the main reasons for the advantages of a group of companies over an individual company. M. Camp and P. Krugman made the greatest contribution to the modern theory of economies of scale. This theory explains why there is trade between countries that are equally endowed with factors of production. Producers of such countries agree among themselves that one country receives both its own market and the market of a neighbor for free trade in any specific product, but in return gives another country a market segment for another product. And then the producers of both countries get markets for themselves with a greater capacity for absorbing goods. And their customers are cheaper goods. Because with the growth of market volumes, economies of scale begin to operate, which looks like this: as the scale of production increases, the cost of producing each unit of output decreases.

Why? Because production costs are not growing at the rate at which production volumes are growing. The reason is as follows. That part of costs, which is called "fixed", does not grow at all, and that part, which is called "variable", grows at a lower rate than the volume of production. Because the main component in variable costs production is the cost of raw materials. And when purchasing it in larger volumes, the price per unit of goods decreases. As you know, the "more wholesale" lot, the more favorable the purchase price.

Many countries are provided with the main factors of production in similar proportions, and therefore it will be profitable for them to trade with each other with specialization in industries that are characterized by the presence of the effect of mass production. Specialization allows you to expand production volumes, reduce costs and prices.

In order for the economies of scale to be realized, the largest possible market is required, i.e. world. And then it turns out that in order to increase the volume of their market, countries with equal capabilities agree not to compete for the same products in the same markets [which leads producers to lower incomes]. On the contrary, to expand their sales opportunities for each other, providing free access to their markets to firms of partner countries, by SPECIALIZING EACH COUNTRY ON "OWN" GOODS.

It becomes profitable for countries to specialize and exchange even technologically homogeneous but differentiated products (the so-called intra-industry trade).

Vorsicht The effect of scale is observed up to a certain limit of growth of this very scale. At some point in time, gradually increasing management costs become exorbitant and "eat up" the profitability of the firm from its increase in its scale. Because more and more large companies become more and more difficult to control.

The theory of the life cycle of a product. This theory as applied to explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy appeared in the 60s of the XX century. The author of this theory, Vernon, explained world trade from a marketing point of view.

The fact is that a product in the process of its existence on the market goes through a number of stages: creation, maturity, production decline and disappearance. According to this theory, industrialized countries specialize in the production of technologically new goods, and developing countries - in the production of obsolete goods, since the creation of new goods requires significant capital, highly qualified specialists, and developed science in this area. All of this is available in industrialized countries.

According to Vernon's observations, at the stages of creation, growth and maturity, the production of goods is concentrated in industrialized countries, since during this period, the product gives the maximum profit. But over time, the product becomes obsolete and goes into a “decline” or stabilization stage. This is facilitated by the fact that goods appear - competitors of other firms, distracting demand. As a result of all this, price and profit fall.

The production of obsolete goods is now being transferred to poorer countries, where, firstly, it will again become a novelty, and secondly, its production in these countries will be cheaper. At the same stage of obsolescence of a product, a firm may sell a license to manufacture its product to a developing country.

The theory of the life cycle of a product is not a universal explanation of trends in the development of international trade. There are many products with a short life cycle, high transportation costs, with a narrow circle of potential consumers, etc., which do not fit into the theory of the life cycle.

But most importantly, for a long time, global corporations have been locating the production of both commodity novelties and obsolete goods in the same developing countries.

international trade

Another thing is that while the product is new and expensive, it is sold mainly in rich countries, and as it becomes obsolete, it passes to poorer countries. And in this part of his theory, Vernon is still relevant.

M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages. Another important theory explaining the specialization of countries in the world economy is M. Porter's theory of competitive advantages... In it, the author examines the specialization of countries in world trade from the point of view of their competitive advantages. According to M. Porter, for success in the world market, it is necessary to combine the correctly chosen competitive strategy of companies with the competitive advantages of the country.

Porter highlights four signs of competitive advantage:

⇐ Previous1234567Next ⇒

© 2015 arhivinfo.ru All rights belong to the authors of the posted materials.

It relies on the benefits it brings to the participating countries. International trade theory provides insight into what lies at the heart of these gains from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, and increase the level of well-being of the population.

Many renowned economists have dealt with issues of international trade. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's theory of comparative advantages. and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory.

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the 15th-17th centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Direction representatives: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was coined by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade originated during the period of initial capital accumulation and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of a nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be used again for international exchange.

In this case, trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain maximum benefits, it was proposed to strengthen government intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of mercantilists, called protectionism, boiled down to creating barriers to international trade, protecting domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulating exports and restricting imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

The need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

Recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its welfare;

Money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of the commodity mass;

Protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products is welcomed;

Restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's Absolute Advantage Theory.

In his study of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Smith in polemics with mercantilists formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it, regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. Refusal from the production of goods for which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's absolute advantage theory suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If a country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries can produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, since the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country as well as in the qualifications of the labor force; long periods of homogeneous production provide incentives to develop more efficient working methods.

Natural advantages for a given country: climate; territory; resources. The acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage by D. Ricardo and D.S. Mill.

In his work "The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed between countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not data once and for all, Ricardo argued, so even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production, in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative profit is the greatest - this is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo.

According to Ricardo's version, the total volume of output will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity (imputed) costs are lower. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (imputed) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute production costs of both cloth and wine are lower in Portugal than in England.

Subsequently D.S. Mill in his work "Foundations of Political Economy" gave an explanation of the price at which exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the exchange price is set according to the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of exports of each country makes it possible to pay for the aggregate of its imports - this is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive, along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different provision of production factors in countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: first, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the country's abundant factors of production are used, and, conversely, to import goods for the production of which relatively rare factors are needed; secondly, there is a tendency towards equalization of “factor prices” in international trade; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the transfer of factors of production beyond national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when in exchange for raw materials entering developed countries, machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting towards mutual trade of "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

The Leontief paradox.

This is the research of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital. The essence of Leontiev's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, and labor-intensive ones could decrease. In reality, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decline.

The solution to Leontyev's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the goods is much lower than in the export supplies of the United States. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant influence of the price of labor in export supplies. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming the Leontief paradox. This is due to an increase in the share of services, labor prices and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

The theory of the life cycle of a product.

It was put forward and substantiated by R. Verna, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product goes through a cycle of five stages from the moment it appears on the market until it leaves it:

Product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. At this time, the volume of sales is zero, the costs are increasing.

Bringing goods to market. There is no profit due to high marketing costs, sales are slowly growing;

Rapid market conquest, increased profits;

Maturity. Sales growth is slowing down as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to increased costs for marketing activities to protect the product from competition;

Decline. A decline in sales and a decline in profits.

M. Porter's theory.

This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, from Porter's point of view, that determines success or failure in specific industries and the place that a country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. The explanation of the country's competitive advantage is based on the role of the home country in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations).

Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

The influence of the government on factor conditions;

Government influence on demand conditions;

Government impact on related and supporting industries;

The influence of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

Sufficient competition in the domestic market is a serious incentive for success in the global market. Artificial dominance of enterprises with the help of state support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. M. Porter's theoretical premises served as the basis for developing recommendations at the state level to improve the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production grows, then in order to maintain constant prices for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products in which this increased factor is intensively used, and to reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use a fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must be constant.

Factor prices can only remain constant if the ratio of factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only take place with an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a reduction in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use together with a growing factor in an expanding industry. ...

The theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

In the middle of the XX century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, presenting that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardo model with additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and see trade not only as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means of narrowing the development gap between countries.

Topic: Classic and modern theories of world trade (Option number 9)

Type: Test work | Size: 23.31K | Downloaded: 304 | Added 05/10/11 at 17:26 | Rating: +10 | More Testing

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Moscow 2011

Option number 9

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade. 3

2. Control test tasks. 15

3. The challenge. sixteen

List of used literature .. 18

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade

World trade- is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

The first attempt at a theoretical understanding of international trade and the development of recommendations in this area was the doctrine of mercantilism, which prevailed in the manufacturing period, i.e. from the XVI century. until the middle of the 18th century. when the international division of labor was mainly limited to bilateral and tripartite relations. Industry at that time had not yet broken away from the national soil, and goods were produced for export from national raw materials. So, England processed wool, Germany - linen, France - silk into linen, etc. Mercantilists adhered to the view that the state should sell on the foreign market as much of any goods as possible, and buy as little as possible. This will accumulate gold, identified with wealth. It is clear that if all countries pursue such a policy of refusing to import, then there will be no buyers and there will be no question of any international trade.

Classical theories of world trade

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages

The founder of economic science, Adam Smith, in his book "Investigation of the nature and causes of the wealth of nations" (1776) paid significant attention to the division of labor on the basis of the specialization of economic activity. At the same time, A. Smith extended the conclusions about the division of labor to the world economy, for the first time theoretically substantiating the principle of absolute advantages (or absolute costs): than buying them on the side ... What appears to be reasonable in the course of action of any private family can hardly be unreasonable for the whole kingdom. If some foreign country can supply us with some commodity at a cheaper price than we are able to manufacture it, it is far better to buy it from her with some part of the product of our own industrial labor, applied in the area in which we have some advantage "

Thus, the essence of A. Smith's views is that the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. Trade will bring an economic effect if goods are imported from a country where the costs are absolutely lower, and those goods are exported whose costs in this country are lower than abroad.

D. Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage

Another classic, David Ricardo, convincingly proved that interstate specialization is beneficial not only in cases where a country has an absolute advantage in the production and sale of this product in comparison with other countries, i.e. it is not necessary that the costs of producing this product be less than the costs of similar products created abroad. It is quite enough, according to D. Ricardo, for this country to export those goods for which it has comparative advantages, i.e. so that for these goods the ratio of its costs to the costs of other countries would be more favorable for it than for other goods.

The theory of comparative advantage is based on a number of assumptions. It comes from the presence of two countries and two goods; production costs only in the form of wages, which, moreover, are the same for all professions; ignoring differences in wage levels between countries; lack of transport costs and the availability of free trade. These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles of the development of international trade.

Heckscher-Ohlin's Factor Correlation Theory

Further development of the classical theory of international trade is associated with the creation in the 20s. XX century Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Olin theory the ratio of factors of production. This theory is based on the same premises as the theories of absolute and comparative advantage of Smith and Ricardo. The main difference is that it proceeds from the presence of not one, but two factors of production: labor and capital. According to the views of Heckscher and Ohlin, each country is endowed with these factors of production to varying degrees, which gives rise to differences in the ratio of prices for them in countries participating in international trade. The price of capital is the interest rate, and the price of labor is wages.

The level of relative prices, i.e. the ratio of the prices of capital to labor in countries richer in capital will be lower than in countries with a capital deficit and relatively large labor resources. Conversely, the level of relative prices for labor and capital in countries with surplus labor resources will be lower than in other countries where they are scarce.

This, in turn, leads to a difference in the relative prices of the same goods, on which national comparative advantages depend. Hence, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods requiring more factors, with which it is relatively better endowed.

Factor price equalization theorem (Heckscher - Ohlin - Samuelson theorem)

Under the influence of international trade, the relative prices of goods involved in world trade tend to equalize. This also leads to the equalization of the ratio of prices for the factors of production used in the creation of these goods in different countries. The nature of this interaction was revealed by the American economist P. Samuelson, who proceeded from the basic postulates of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem, the mechanism for equalizing prices for factors of production is as follows. In the absence of foreign trade, the prices of factors of production (wages and interest rates) will differ in both countries: the price of the surplus factor will be relatively lower, and the price of the scarce factor will be relatively higher.

Participation in international trade and the country's specialization in the production of capital-intensive goods lead to the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for a factor of production that is surplus in a given country exceeds the supply of the latter, and its price (interest rate) rises. On the contrary, the demand for labor, which is a scarce factor in a given country, is relatively reduced, which leads to a decrease in its price - wages.

In another country, relatively better endowed with labor resources, specialization in the production of labor-intensive goods leads to significant displacement labor resources to the respective export industries. An increase in the demand for labor leads to an increase in wages. The demand for capital decreases relatively, which leads to a decrease in its price - the interest rate.

The Leontief paradox

In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, the relative differences in the endowment of them determine the structure of foreign trade of individual groups of countries. In countries that are relatively more capital-saturated, capital-intensive goods should prevail in exports, and labor-intensive goods in imports. Conversely, in countries that are relatively more labor-saturated, labor-intensive goods will prevail in exports, and capital-intensive ones in imports.

The theory of the ratio of factors of production has been repeatedly subjected to empirical tests by analyzing specific statistics for different countries.

The most famous study of this kind was carried out in 1953 by the famous American economist of Russian origin V. Leontiev. He analyzed the structure of U.S. foreign trade in 1947 and 1951.

The US economy after World War II was characterized by high capital saturation and relatively higher wages compared to other countries. In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, the United States of America had to export mainly capital-intensive, and import mainly labor-intensive goods.

V. Leontyev determined the ratio of capital and labor costs required for the production of export products for 1 million dollars and the same volume of imports in terms of value. Contrary to expectations, the survey found that US imports were 30% more capital intensive than exports. This result became known as the "Leontief paradox".

In the economic literature, there are various explanations for the Leontief paradox. The most convincing of these is that the United States, ahead of other industrialized countries, achieved significant advantages in the creation of new knowledge-intensive goods. Therefore, in American exports, a significant place was occupied by goods in which the cost of skilled labor was relatively high, while imports were dominated by goods requiring relatively large capital expenditures, including various types of raw materials.

The Leontief paradox warns against an overly straightforward and oversimplified use of the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory for practical purposes.

Modern theories of international trade

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory explained the development of foreign trade by the different endowments of countries with factors of production, but in recent decades, trade between countries began to increase, where the difference in endowments of factors is small, i.e. there is a contradiction - the reasons for trade have disappeared, and trade has increased. This is due to the fact that the Heckscher-Ohlin theory developed in those years when inter-industry trade was predominant. Back in the early 1950s, the most characteristic was the exchange of raw materials from developing countries for the products of the manufacturing industry of developed countries. By the beginning of the 1980s, 2/3 of exports, for example, to Great Britain, went to Western Europe and North America. In the foreign trade of industrially developed countries, the mutual exchange of manufactured products has become predominant. Moreover, these countries simultaneously sell and buy not just the products of the manufacturing industry, but the same goods by name, differing only in quality characteristics. A feature of the production of export goods in industrialized countries is the relatively high costs of R&D. These countries today increasingly specialize in the production of so-called science-intensive high-tech products.

The development of knowledge-intensive industries and the rapid growth of international exchange of their products led to the formation of theories of the neotechnological direction. This direction is a collection of separate models, partially complementing each other, but sometimes contradicting one another.

Technology gap theory

In accordance with this theory, trade between countries is carried out even with the same endowment of factors of production and can be caused by technical changes that occur in any one industry in one of the trading countries, due to the fact that technical innovations initially appear in one country, the latter gains an advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at lower costs. If the innovation consists in the production of a new product, then the entrepreneur in the innovating country for a certain time has the so-called "quasi-monopoly", in other words, receives additional profit by exporting a new product. Hence the new optimal strategy: to produce not something that is relatively cheaper, but something that no one else can produce yet, but is necessary for everyone or many. As soon as others can master this technology - to produce something new and again something that is not available to others.

The emergence of technical innovations creates a "technological gap" between countries with and without these innovations. This gap will gradually be bridged, since other countries are beginning to copy the innovation of the pioneering country. However, until the gap is bridged, trade in new goods produced using the new technology will continue.

Product Life Cycle Theory

In the mid 60s. American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the product life cycle, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products on the basis of the stages of their life, i.e. the period of time during which the product is viable in the market and meets the seller's objectives.

The above theory is the most popular theory of the neotechnological direction. It attracted almost all economists, since it more accurately reflects the real state of the international division of labor in the modern period. In accordance with this theory, each new product goes through a cycle that includes the stages of introduction, expansion, maturity and aging. Each stage has a different demand and technology.

In the first stage of the cycle, there will be little demand for the product. It is presented to persons with high incomes, for whom the price does not matter much when deciding whether to purchase a product. The more people with high incomes, the more likely it is that new products will appear on the market, the production of which requires high costs, since their technology has not yet been tested. This technology involves the use of a large number of highly skilled workers. The export of new goods in the first stage will be negligible.

At the second stage - the growth stage, the demand in the domestic market expands rapidly, the product becomes generally recognized. Serial production of large batches of new goods begins. At this stage, there is a demand for a new product abroad. Initially, it is fully satisfied by export, and then overseas production of the new product begins through the transfer of technology.

At the third stage, the demand on the domestic market is saturated. Manufacturing technology is fully standardized, allowing the use of less skilled labor, lower production costs, lower prices and maximum production of goods by firms in the innovating country and overseas. The latter begin to penetrate the domestic market of the country where the product appeared.

At the last stage of the cycle, the product ages, its production begins to decline. A further decline in prices no longer leads to an increase in demand, as it was at the stage of maturity.

This is the general scheme for a new product to pass its "life cycle". The theorists of this model are not limited to such general descriptions... They believe that it is possible to indicate specific countries, the conditions of which are most consistent with production, or newest products, or goods in other stages of maturity.

Production specialization theory

In the early 80s of the XX century. American economists P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative to the classical explanation of the causes of international trade. According to their approach, countries with equal factor endowments will be able to derive the maximum benefit from trade with each other if they specialize in different economies of scale. The essence of this effect, well known from microeconomic theory, is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise from mass production.

In order for the effect of mass production to be realized, a sufficiently large market is obviously necessary. International trade plays a decisive role in this, since it allows the formation of a single integrated market, more capacious than the market of any single country. As a result, more products are offered to consumers and at lower prices.

The theory of international competitiveness of nations

In a separate row is the theory of M. Porter, who believes that the theories of D. Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin have already played a positive role in explaining the structure of foreign trade, but in recent decades they have actually lost their practical significance, since the conditions for the formation of competitive advantages have changed significantly. the dependence of the competitiveness of industries on the availability of the main factors of production in the country is eliminated. M. Porter identifies the following determinants that form the environment in which the competitive advantages of industries and firms develop:

1) factors of production of a certain quantity and quality;

2) the conditions of domestic demand for the products of this industry, its quantitative and qualitative parameters;

3) the presence of related and supporting industries that are competitive in the world market;

4) the strategy and structure of firms, the nature of competition in the domestic market.

The named determinants of competitive advantage form a system, mutually reinforcing and conditioning each other's development. Added to them are two more factors that can seriously affect the situation in the country: government actions and random events. All the listed characteristics of the economic environment, in which competitive industries can be formed, are viewed in dynamics, as a flexible developmental system.

The state plays an important role in the process of forming specific advantages of the branches of the national economy, although this role is different for different stages this process. These can be targeted investment, export promotion, direct regulation of capital flows, temporary protection of domestic production and stimulation of competition in the early stages; indirect regulation through tax system, development of market infrastructure, information base for business in general, research funding, support educational institutions etc. Experience shows that in none of the countries the creation of competitive industries was complete without the participation of the state in one form or another. This is all the more true for transitional economic systems because the relative weakness of the private sector does not allow it to independently form the necessary factors of competitive advantage and win a place in the world market in a short time.

Theory foreign trade activities firms

In this theory, the object of analysis is not a single country, but an international firm. The objective basis of this approach is the fact generally recognized by economic science: a significant part of foreign trade operations is actually an intra-firm exchange: intra-firm ties currently account for about 70% of all world trade in goods and services, 80-90% of licenses and patents sold, 40% of capital exports ...

Intercompany trade is based on the exchange of semi-finished products and spare parts used in the assembly of a product intended for sale on the world market. At the same time, foreign trade statistics indicate that foreign trade is rapidly expanding between countries where the largest transnational corporations are located.

So, the development and complication of international trade was reflected in the evolution of theories explaining the driving forces of this process. V modern conditions differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then there is, on the one hand, a clear increase in international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, the deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward ones.

In historical terms, one cannot fail to note the growing influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade; it is quite likely that in the new millennium this region will take a leading role in the world process of production and sale of goods.

2. Control test tasks

1. Indicate the features according to which developing countries belong to the periphery of the world economy:

a) raw materials specialization;

b) low level of development of productive forces;

c) intensive type of economy;

d) the multi-structured nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations;

e) flexible adaptation to the world economic situation.

Answer: a), b), d).

The periphery is primarily developing countries. Since market relations in these countries are weak, the market does not stimulate the development of production, they supply mainly raw materials to the world market.

2. The main reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is:

a) foreign activities of TNCs;

b) low level of real wages in the country;

c) unemployment;

d) religious factor.

Answer: b).

The most important reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is the low level of wages. Specialists of different professions leave for other countries to get a job new job, in order, ultimately, to improve their material well-being, which is not easy to do in Russia.

3. Task

Two goods of the same quality - Russian and American - cost, respectively, 300 thousand rubles and 20 thousand dollars. The nominal exchange rate for the US currency is RUB 24. / 1 dollar. What is the real exchange rate?

Solution:

The general measure of the country's competitiveness in international markets serves the price of goods of a given country in relation to the price of a similar product in another country, taking into account the ratio of the currencies of these countries. This ratio is called the real exchange rate and is calculated as follows:

Where: P - the price of the product (or the general price level) in your country;

Р * - the price of the goods (or the general price level) abroad;

e is the nominal exchange rate;

ε is the real exchange rate.

ε = 1 / 24dollar / rubles * 300,000 / 20,000 = 0.625

That is, the price of a Russian product is 0.625 US dollars. That is, other things being equal, we can exchange 6 units of Russian goods for 1 unit of American goods.

Answer: The real exchange rate is 0.625

List of used literature

1. Kudrov V.M., World economy: textbook. - M .: Yustitsinform, 2009 - 512 p.
2. Malkov I. V. World economy in questions and answers: textbook. allowance. - M .: Prospect, 2004 .-- 271 p.
3. Polyak GB, Markova AN History of the world economy: textbook. For university students. - 3rd ed. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2008 .-- 670 p.
let us know.