home » Business ideas » Theories of the development of world trade. Classical theories of foreign trade

Theories of the development of world trade. Classical theories of foreign trade

International trade is the exchange of goods and services, through which countries satisfy their unlimited needs on the basis of the development of the social division of labor.

The main theories of international trade were laid down in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. eminent economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo. A. Smith in his book “A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776) formulated the theory of absolute advantage and, arguing with mercantilists, showed that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether whether they are exporters or importers. D. Ricardo in his work “The Beginnings of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817) proved that the principle of advantage is only a special case general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative advantage.

When analyzing theories foreign trade two things must be taken into account. First, economic resources - material, natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries. Second, the efficient production of different goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that economic efficiency, with which countries are able to produce different goods, can and does change over time. In other words, the advantages, both absolute and comparative, enjoyed by countries are not given once and for all.

The theory of absolute advantage.

The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is as follows: if a country can produce a particular product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage.

Consider a hypothetical example: two countries produce two goods (grain and sugar).

Suppose one country has an absolute advantage in grains and the other in sugar. These absolute advantages can, on the one hand, be generated by natural factors - special climatic conditions or the presence of huge natural resources. Natural advantages play a special role in agriculture and extractive industries. On the other hand, the advantages in the production of various products (primarily in the manufacturing industries) depend on the prevailing working conditions: technology, qualifications of workers, organization of production, etc.

In conditions when there is no foreign trade, each country can consume only those goods and such quantities as it produces, and the relative prices of these goods in the market are determined by the national costs of their production.

Domestic prices for the same goods in different countries are always different as a result of peculiarities in the availability of factors of production, technologies used, and qualifications. work force etc.

For trade to be mutually beneficial, the price of a commodity in the foreign market must be higher than the domestic price of the same commodity in the exporting country and lower than in the importing country.

The benefit to countries from foreign trade will be an increase in consumption, which may be due to the specialization of production.

So, according to the theory of absolute advantage, each country should specialize in the production of the product in which it has an exclusive (absolute) advantage.

The law of comparative advantage. In 1817, D. Ricardo proved that international specialization is beneficial for the nation. It was the theory of comparative advantage, or, as it is sometimes called, "the theory of comparative costs of production." Let's consider this theory in more detail.

Ricardo took only two countries for simplicity. Let's call them America and Europe. Also, to simplify the matter, he took into account only two goods. Let's call them food and clothing. For simplicity, all production costs are measured by labor time.

It should probably be agreed that trade between America and Europe should be mutually beneficial. It takes fewer working days to produce a unit of food in America than in Europe, while it takes fewer working days to produce a unit of clothing in Europe compared to America. It is clear that in this case, America will apparently specialize in food production and, exporting a certain amount of it, will receive in return a ready-made dress exported by Europe.

However, Ricardo did not limit himself to this. He showed that comparative advantage depends on labor productivity ratios.

Based on the theory of absolute advantage, foreign trade always remains beneficial for both parties. As long as there are differences in the ratios of domestic prices between countries, each country will have a comparative advantage, that is, it will always have a product whose production is more profitable at the existing cost ratio than the production of others. The gain from the sale of products will be greatest when each product is produced by the country in which the opportunity cost is lower.

Comparison of situations of absolute and comparative advantage leads to an important conclusion: in both cases, the gain from trade stems from the fact that the ratios of costs in different countries are different, i.e. The directions of trade are determined by relative costs, whether or not a country has an absolute advantage in the production of a product. It follows from this conclusion that a country maximizes its gains from foreign trade if it specializes entirely in the production of a product in which it has a comparative advantage. In reality, such complete specialization does not occur, partly because replacement costs tend to rise as output increases. Under conditions of increasing replacement costs, the factors that determine the direction of trade are the same as under constant (constant) costs. Both countries can benefit from foreign trade if they specialize in the production of those goods where they have a comparative advantage. But with increasing costs, firstly, full specialization is unprofitable and, secondly, as a result of competition between countries, the marginal costs of substitution are leveled off.

It follows that, as food production and ready-made clothing increase in specialization and production, a point will be reached at which the ratio of costs in the two countries equalizes.

In this situation, the reasons for deepening specialization and expanding trade - differences in the ratio of costs - exhaust themselves, and further specialization will not be economically feasible.

Thus, the maximization of gains from foreign trade occurs with partial specialization.

The essence of the theory of comparative advantage is as follows: if each country specializes in those products in the production of which it has the greatest relative efficiency, or relatively lower costs, then trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries from the use of productive factors will increase in both cases.

The principle of comparative advantage, when extended to any number of countries and any number of products, can be of universal significance.

A serious drawback of the principle of comparative advantage is its static nature. This theory ignores any fluctuations in prices and wages, it abstracts from any inflationary and deflationary gaps in the intermediate stages, from all sorts of balance of payments problems. It proceeds from the fact that if workers leave one industry, they do not turn into chronically unemployed, but will certainly move to another, more productive industry. Not surprisingly, this abstract theory was heavily compromised during the Great Depression. Some time ago, her prestige began to recover again. In a mixed economy based on the theory of neoclassical synthesis, which mobilizes modern theories of chronic recessions and inflation, the classical theory of comparative advantage regains public importance.

The theory of comparative advantage is a coherent and logical theory. For all its excessive simplification, it is very important. A nation that ignores the principle of comparative advantage may pay a heavy price for this - a decrease in living standards and a slowdown in potential rates economic growth.

Heckscher-Ohlin's Theory of International Trade

The theory of comparative advantage leaves aside the key question: what causes cost differences between countries? The Swedish economist E. Heckscher and his student B. Ohlin tried to answer this question. According to them, the differences in costs between countries are mainly due to the fact that the relative endowment of countries with factors of production is different.

According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, countries will tend to export surplus factors and import scarce factors of production, thereby compensating for the relatively low provision of countries with factors of production on a global scale.

It should be emphasized that we are not talking here about the number of factors of production available to countries, but about their relative availability (for example, the amount of cultivable land per worker). If in a given country there is relatively more of a factor of production than in other countries, then its price will be relatively lower. Consequently, the relative price of the product, in the production of which this cheap factor is used to a greater extent than others, will be lower than in other countries. Thus, comparative advantages arise, which determine the direction of foreign trade.

1. Determine what types of activities Aristotle attributed

A - to economics: B - to chrematistics:

1. large trade - B

2. speculation - B

3. farming - A

4. petty trade - A

5. usury - B

6. craft - A

2. Arrange in the correct chronological order:

1. appearance labor theory cost - 3

2. emergence of the quantity theory of money - 2

3. emergence of limiting analysis - 4

4. emergence of neoclassical theory - 5

5. the emergence of the theory and practice of counter-cyclical regulation of the economy - 6

6. selection of two sides of the goods - 1

3. Determine what is characteristic of the methodology of economic thought in medieval Western Europe:

1. assessment of economic phenomena from the standpoint of Christian morality - +

2. scholastic method - +

3. normative method - +

4. institutional method

5. statistical methods

4. Arrange economic currents and schools in the order of their occurrence:

1. neoclassical school - 4

2. physiocracy - 1

3. Marxism - 2

4. neoclassical synthesis - 6

5. Keynesianism - 5

6. marginalism - 3

5. Determine what is typical for: A - early mercantilism; B - late mercantilism

1. active trade balance policy - B

3. active cash balance policy - A

4. spending laws - A

5. the predominance of economic (indirect) methods of influencing the economy - B

6. patronage of the development of domestic industry - B

6. Determine which of the following refers to mercantilism:

1. study of the question of economic crises

2. macroeconomic approach - +

3. using the method of logical abstraction

4. Preferential study of the sphere of production

5. study of the sphere of circulation - +

6. microeconomic approach

7. empirical research method - +

7. Arrange in the correct chronological order:

1. substantiation of anti-crisis regulation of the economy - 5

2. development of the main provisions of economic liberalism - 2

3. formulating the laws of rational consumption of a limited amount of goods - 4

4. the emergence of the idea of the specific development of different countries - 3

5. development of the main provisions of the policy of protectionism - 1

8. Set what is typical for: A - mercantilism, B - classical school

1. the sphere of circulation is mainly studied - A

2. . wealth is created in all areas of production - B

3. active state intervention in the economy - A

4. wealth - reserves of precious metals - A

5. free trading - B

6. causal research method - B

7. protectionism - A

8. the main area of the economy that contributes to the increase in the country's wealth - foreign trade - A

9. Determine which of the following applies to the classical school as a whole:

1. study of imperfect competition

2. universality of economic laws - +

3. the main condition for market equilibrium is the equality of savings and investment

4. equality of contracting parties - +

5. high wage mobility - +

6. The economy of each country develops according to its own laws

7. the concept of socio-economic formations

8. full awareness of all market participants - +

9. search for optimal economic behavior

10. Put in the correct chronological order:

1. transformation of the economy into an independent branch of research - 2

2. the emergence of macroeconomics as a branch of economic science - 5

3. the emergence of microeconomics as a branch of economic science - 4

4. an attempt to combine micro- and macroeconomics in one theory - 6

5. formation of economic theory as a science - 3

6. first attempts to comprehend economic activity - 1

11. Arrange economic currents and schools in the order of their occurrence:

1. neoliberalism - 5

2. historical school - 3

3. mercantilism - 1

4. classical school - 2

5. Neo-Keynesian - 6

6. monetarism - 7

7. institutionalism - 4

12. Determine what is generally characteristic of marginalism:

1. search for optimal economic behavior - +

2. study of averages

3. use of marginal analysis - +

4. rationale for the need state regulation economy

5. microeconomic approach - +

6. active use of mathematical methods - +

7. study of statics - +

13 .Determine what is characteristic of the starting positions: A - classical school, B - neoclassical school

1. main driving force economic development- capital accumulation - A

2. the main problem - the efficiency of the economy - B

3. study of limit values - B

4. economic liberalism - B

5. the establishment of strict control over the issuance of the money supply - A

6. costly principle of determining the cost - B

7. active use of exact science methods - B

8. The concept of automatic self-adjustment of the market mechanism - A

9. priority value of private property and free competition - B

14. Determine what is generally characteristic of the institutional flow of economic thought:

1. interdisciplinary approach to the study of economics - +

2. criticism of economic liberalism - +

3. the state does not and should not influence economic development

4. all institutions (stable structures in society) influence economic development - +

5. economic development is influenced only by economic institutions

6. criticism of the theory of rational man

7. evolutionary approach to the study of economics - +

8. the need for state regulation of the economy

15. Determine what is characteristic of the starting positions: A - neoclassical, B - Keynesianism

1. most attention is paid to demand factors - B

2. study of microeconomic indicators - A

3. the need for state regulation of the economy - B

4. automatic self-regulation of the market - A

5. redistribution of income in favor of groups with fundamentally low incomes - B

6. study of macroeconomic indicators - B

7. Studied statics - A

8. justifying and encouraging income inequality - A

9. the existence of involuntary unemployment is recognized - B

10. special attitude to the land as a factor of production - A

11. absolute price flexibility - A

16. Determine what is typical for anti-crisis programs: A - Keynesianism, B - monetarism

1. active regulation of the economy by the state - A

2. financing of private enterprises from the state budget - A

3. fight against the budget deficit, reduce government spending - B

4. the state should only create the necessary conditions for the free development of the market mechanism - B

5. tight long-term monetary policy - B

6. the main problem that needs to be dealt with in the economy is inflation - B

7. the main problem that needs to be dealt with in the economy is unemployment - A

8. broad government spending, the budget deficit is not terrible - A

9. tax increase - A

10. flexible short-term monetary policy - A

17. Determine which of the indicated measures of the state economic policy were recommended by J.M. Keynes (A), L. Erhard (B):

1. small business protection - B

2. strong antitrust policy - B

3. broad government spending to improve the economic environment - A

4. redistribution of national income in favor of groups with fundamentally low incomes - B

5. stable currency policy - B

6. "cheap money" policy - A

18. Match:

1. J. M. Keynes - 3. the tasks of the state should include the regulation of commodity markets

2. M. Friedman - 2. the main task of the state is to establish the balance of the money market; equilibrium of commodity markets will be established automatically

3. F. Hayek - 1. the state cannot and should not influence either the money or commodity markets

19. Determine the correctness of the statement (yes / no):

1. Legists divided society into "lower" and "higher" - no

2. From the point of view of P. Proudhon and S. Sismondi, it is necessary to develop small-scale production - yes

3. Representatives of economic thought in ancient states paid special attention to the organization of the private economy - yes

4. . According to D. Ricardo and K. Marx, the rate of profit tends to decrease - yes

5. According to representatives of the German historical school, national characteristics do not affect the nature of the economic system - no

6 .. W. Petty and P. Boisguillebert are considered the founders of the classical school - yes

7.. Representatives of Greek economic thought believed that the main purpose of production should be to make a profit - no

8. Accelerator shows the impact of investments on income growth - yes

9. M. Friedman believed that the state should strive to reduce inflation rates to a controllable value - yes

20. Establish a correspondence between economic directions, economists and their theories:

1. the concept of "measurement without theory" - 7	1. F. Hayek
2. the theory of the leisure class - 3	2. E. Hansen
3. theory of modern monetarism - 4	3. T. Veblen
4. theory of social market- 8 economy	4. M. Friedman
5. theory of spontaneous order - 1	5. V. Oyken
6. investment cycle theory - 2	6. J.M. Keynes
	7. W. Mitchell
	8. L. Erhard

21. Establish a correspondence between the main currents of Western economic thought and their ideas:

1. institutionalism - 2	1. the need for state regulation of the economy
2. neoclassical - 4.6	2. economic development is influenced not only by economic, but also by political, social, legal, cultural, psychological factors
3. Keynesianism - 3.1.5	3. the inability of the market to self-regulate
	4. automatic self-regulation of the market
	5. The most important factor influencing economic development is the demand factor
	6. economic liberalism

22. Establish a correspondence between economic areas (schools) and the concepts (theories) developed by them:

1. institutionalism - 9	1. organic composition of capital
2. classical school - 5	2. investment multiplier
3. mercantilism - 4.8	3. theory ultimate performance
4. marginalism - 3.6	4. protectionism
5. Keynesianism - 2	5. "economic man"
6. Marxism - 1.7	6. theory of marginal utility
	7. labor theory of value
	8. active trade balance policy
	9. prestigious (ostentatious) consumption

23. Determine the correctness of the statement (yes / no):

1. Thomas Aquinas for the first time in the history of economic thought began to understand profit as a reward for labor and risk - yes

2. A. Marshall is considered the founder of the neoclassical school - yes

3. From the point of view of J.S. Mill, the laws of distribution, like the laws of production, are objective and cannot be changed - no

4. According to P. Boisguillebert, wealth is created in all areas of production - no

5. From the point of view of legalists, one of the most important tasks of the state in the economy is "balancing the economy" - yes

6. According to Say's law of markets, general overproduction crises are impossible - yes

7. J. M. Keynes believed that in conditions of mass unemployment, one can not be afraid of inflation - yes

8. For the first time in the history of economic thought, the question of the value of a commodity was raised by Plato - yes

24. Establish a correspondence between economic schools, economists and their theories:

1. theory of three factors of production - 9	1. T. Malthus
2. theory of national economy - 7	2. J. Robinson
3. population theory - 1	3. J. Schumpeter
4. . theory of imperfect competition - 2	4. J.B. Clark
5. theory of effective competition - 3	5. E. Chamberlin
6. the theory of the "invisible hand" - 6
7. theory of marginal productivity - 4
8. equilibrium price model - 8	8. A. Marshall
9. theory of monopolistic competition - 5

25. Establish a correspondence between economic currents and the concepts developed by them:

1. mercantilism - 2 1. effective demand

2. classical school - 6,5,4 2. active cash balance

3. marginalism - 8.3 3. industrial education of the nation

4. Keynesianism - 1.7 4. Say's law of markets

5. free trading

6. economic liberalism

7. basic psychological law

8. laws of Gossen

26. Match:

1. theory of surplus value - 8

1. N.D.Kondratiev

2. the theory of supply-side economics - 5

Friends! You have a unique opportunity to help students like you! If our site helped you find the right job, then you certainly understand how the work you added can make the work of others easier.

If the Test, in your opinion, is of poor quality, or you have already seen this work, please let us know.

Topic: Classical and modern theories of world trade (Option No. 9)

University: VZFEI

Year and city: Moscow 2011

Option number 9

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade. 3

2. Control test tasks. 15

3. Task. sixteen

List of references.. 18

1. Classical and modern theories of world trade

world trade- is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

The first attempt at a theoretical understanding of international trade and the development of recommendations in this area was the doctrine of mercantilism, which dominated the manufacturing period, i.e. from the 16th century until the middle of the 18th century. when the international division of labor was predominantly limited to bilateral and tripartite relations. At that time, industry had not yet broken away from the national soil, and goods were produced for export from national raw materials. So, England processed wool, Germany - flax, France - silk into flax, etc. The mercantilists held the view that the state should sell as much of any goods on the foreign market as possible, and buy as little as possible. At the same time, gold, identified with wealth, will accumulate. It is clear that if all countries pursue such a policy of refusing to import, then there will be no buyers and there will be no question of any international trade.

Classical theories of world trade

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages

The founder of economic science, Adam Smith, in his book An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), paid considerable attention to the division of labor based on specialization. economic activity. At the same time, A. Smith extended the conclusions about the division of labor to the world economic sphere, for the first time theoretically substantiating the principle of absolute advantages (or absolute costs): “The basic rule of every prudent head of the family is not to try to make at home such items, the production of which will cost more than buying them on the side ... What seems reasonable in the conduct of any private family can hardly be unreasonable for the whole kingdom. If any foreign country can supply us with any commodity at a cheaper price than we are able to manufacture it, it is much better to buy it from her with some part of the product of our own industrial labor applied in that area in which we have some advantage"

Thus, the essence of A. Smith's views is that the basis for the development of international trade is the difference in absolute costs. Trade will bring economic benefits if goods are imported from a country where costs are absolutely lower, and those goods are exported whose costs in this country are lower than abroad.

D. Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage

Another classic, David Ricardo, convincingly proved that interstate specialization is beneficial not only in cases where a country has an absolute advantage in the production and marketing of a given product compared to other countries, i.e. it is not necessary that the cost of producing this product be less than the cost of similar products produced abroad. It is quite enough, according to D. Ricardo, for this country to export those goods for which it has a comparative advantage, i.e. that in these commodities the ratio of its expenditures to that of other countries would be more favorable to it than in other commodities.

The theory of comparative advantage is based on a number of assumptions. It comes from the presence of two countries and two goods; production costs only in the form of wages, which, moreover, are the same for all professions; ignoring differences in wage levels between countries; no transport costs and free trade. These initial prerequisites were necessary to identify the basic principles for the development of international trade.

The Heckscher-Ohlin factor ratio theory of production

Further development of the classical theory of international trade is associated with the creation in the 20s. 20th century Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Olin theories of the ratio of factors of production. This theory is based on the same premises as Smith and Ricardo's theories of absolute and comparative advantage. The main difference is that it proceeds from the presence of not one, but two factors of production: labor and capital. According to the views of Heckscher and Ohlin, each country is endowed with these factors of production to varying degrees, which gives rise to differences in the ratio of prices for them in countries participating in international trade. The price of capital is the interest rate, and the price of labor is wages.

The level of relative prices, i.e. the ratio of capital and labor prices in countries more saturated with capital will be less than in countries where there is a shortage of capital and relatively large labor resources. Conversely, the level of relative prices for labor and capital in countries with excess labor resources will be lower than in other countries where they are deficient.

This in turn leads to differences in the relative prices of the same goods, on which national comparative advantages depend. Hence, each country tends to specialize in the production of goods that require more factors with which it is relatively better endowed.

Factor price equalization theorem (Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem)

Under the influence of international trade, the relative prices of goods participating in world trade tend to equalize. This also leads to an equalization of the ratio of prices for factors of production used in the creation of these goods in different countries. The nature of this interaction was revealed by the American economist P. Samuelson, who proceeded from the basic postulates of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. In accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson theorem, the mechanism for equalizing prices for factors of production is as follows. In the absence of foreign trade, the prices of factors of production (wages and interest rates) will differ in both countries: the price of the excess factor will be relatively lower, and the price of the scarce factor will be relatively higher.

Participation in international trade and the specialization of the country in the production of capital-intensive goods lead to the flow of capital into export industries. The demand for a factor of production that is abundant in a given country exceeds the supply of the latter, and its price (interest rate) rises. On the contrary, the demand for labor, which is a scarce factor in a given country, is relatively reduced, which leads to a decrease in its price - wages.

In another country, relatively better endowed with labor resources, specialization in the production of labor-intensive goods leads to a significant movement of labor resources to the corresponding export industries. An increase in the demand for labor leads to an increase in wages. The demand for capital decreases relatively, which causes a decrease in its price - the interest rate.

Leontief's paradox

In accordance with the theory of the ratio of factors of production, relative differences in their endowment determine the structure of foreign trade of individual groups of countries. In countries that are relatively more capital-saturated, capital-intensive goods should predominate in exports, while labour-intensive goods should dominate in imports. Conversely, in countries that are relatively more labor-saturated, labor-intensive goods will dominate in exports, and capital-intensive goods will dominate in imports.

The factor ratio theory of production has been repeatedly subjected to empirical tests by analyzing specific statistical data in relation to various countries.

The most famous study of this kind was carried out in 1953 by a well-known American economist. Russian origin V. Leontiev. He analyzed the structure of US foreign trade in 1947 and 1951.

The US economy after World War II was characterized by high capital saturation and relatively higher wages compared to other countries. According to the factor-of-production theory, the United States of America should have exported predominantly capital-intensive goods and imported predominantly labor-intensive goods.

V. Leontiev determined the ratio of capital and labor costs required for the production of export products worth 1 million dollars and the volume of imports of the same value. Contrary to expectations, the results of the study showed that US imports were 30% more capital intensive than exports. This result became known as the "Leontief paradox".

There are various explanations of Leontief's paradox in the economic literature. The most persuasive of these is that the United States, earlier than other industrialized countries, has achieved significant advantages in the creation of new high-tech products. Therefore, in American exports, a significant place was occupied by goods in which the cost of skilled labor was relatively high, and in imports goods that required relatively large capital expenditures, including different kinds commodities.

Leontief's paradox warns against overly straightforward and simplistic use of the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory for practical purposes.

Modern theories of international trade

The Heckscher-Ohlin theory explained the development of foreign trade by the different endowments of countries with factors of production, however, in recent decades, trade between countries where the difference in the endowment of factors is small there is a contradiction - the causes of trade have disappeared, and trade has increased. This is explained by the fact that the Heckscher-Ohlin theory developed in those years when inter-industry trade was predominant. Back in the early 1950s, the exchange of raw materials from developing countries for manufactured goods from developed countries was most characteristic. By the beginning of the 80s, already 2/3 of exports, for example, from Great Britain accounted for Western Europe and North America. In the foreign trade of industrialized countries, the mutual exchange of manufactured products has become predominant. Moreover, these countries simultaneously sell and buy not just manufactured products, but goods of the same name, differing only in qualitative characteristics. A feature of the production of export goods of industrialized countries is the relatively high cost of R&D. These countries today are increasingly specialized in the production of the so-called science-intensive high-tech products.

The development of knowledge-intensive industries and the rapid growth of the international exchange of their products led to the formation of neo-technological theories. This direction is a collection of individual models that partially complement each other, but sometimes contradict each other.

Technology Gap Theory

According to this theory, trade between countries takes place even with the same endowment with factors of production and can be caused by technical changes that occur in one industry in one of the trading countries, due to the fact that technical innovations initially appear in one country, the latter gains an advantage: new technology makes it possible to produce goods at a lower cost. If the innovation consists in the production of a new product, then the entrepreneur in the innovator country has a so-called "quasi-monopoly" for a certain time, in other words, he receives additional profit by exporting a new product. Hence the new optimal strategy: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what no one else can produce yet, but is necessary for everyone or many. As soon as others can master this technology - to produce something new and again something that is not available to others.

As a result of the emergence of technical innovations, a "technological gap" is formed between countries that have and do not have these innovations. This gap will gradually be overcome, because other countries begin to copy the innovation of the innovator country. However, until the gap is bridged, trade in new goods produced using new technology will continue.

The "product life cycle" theory

In the mid 60s. American economist R. Vernon put forward the theory of the product life cycle, in which he tried to explain the development of world trade in finished products based on the stages of their life, i.e. the period of time during which the product has viability in the market and ensures the achievement of the goals of the seller.

The above theory is the most popular neo-technological theory. It attracted almost all economists, since it more accurately reflects the real state of the international division of labor in the modern period. In accordance with this theory, each new product goes through a cycle that includes the stages of introduction, expansion, maturity and aging. Each stage is distinguished by a specific nature of demand and technology.

At the first stage of the cycle, the demand for the product will be small. It is presented to people with high incomes, for whom the price is not of great importance when making a decision to purchase a product. The more people with high incomes, the more likely it is that new products will appear on the market, the production of which requires high costs, because their technology hasn't matured yet. This technology involves the use of a large number of highly skilled workers. The export of the new product at the first stage will be insignificant.

In the second stage - the stage of growth, the demand in the domestic market expands rapidly, the product becomes universally recognized. Serial production of large batches of new goods begins. At this stage, there is a demand for a new product abroad. Initially, it is completely satisfied by exports, and then foreign production of a new product begins due to the transfer of technology.

In the third stage, demand in the domestic market is saturated. The production technology is completely standardized, which makes it possible to use less skilled labor, reduce production costs, prices and achieve maximum production of goods by firms in the innovator country and foreign companies. The latter begin to penetrate the domestic market of the country where the goods appeared.

At the last stage of the cycle, the product ages, its production begins to decline. A further reduction in prices no longer leads to an increase in demand, as it was at the stage of maturity.

This is the general scheme of the passage of a new product "cycle of life". Theorists of this model are not limited to such general descriptions. They believe that it is possible to indicate specific countries whose conditions are most suitable for production or latest products or goods at other stages of maturity.

The theory of specialization of production

In the early 80s of the XX century. American economists P. Krugman and K. Lancaster proposed an alternative to the classical explanation of the causes of international trade. According to their approach, countries with the same factor endowment will be able to benefit most from trade with each other if they specialize in different industries, characterized by economies of scale. The essence of this effect, well known from microeconomic theory, is that with a certain technology and organization of production, long-term average costs decrease as the volume of output increases, i.e. economies of scale arise.

In order for the effect of mass production to be realized, obviously, a sufficiently capacious market is necessary. International trade plays a decisive role in this, as it allows the formation of a single integrated market, more capacious than the market of any single country. As a result, consumers are offered more products and at lower prices.

Theory of international competitiveness of nations

In a separate row is the theory of M. Porter, who believes that the theories of D. Ricardo and Heckscher-Ohlin have already played a positive role in explaining the structure of foreign trade, but in recent decades they have actually lost their practical significance, since the conditions for the formation of competitive advantages have changed significantly, the dependence of the competitiveness of industries on the presence in the country of the main factors of production is eliminated. M. Porter identifies the following determinants that form the environment in which the competitive advantages of industries and firms develop:

1) factors of production of a certain quantity and quality;

2) the conditions of domestic demand for the products of this industry, its quantitative and qualitative parameters;

3) the presence of related and supporting industries that are competitive in the world market;

4) the strategy and structure of firms, the nature of competition in the domestic market.

Named determinants competitive advantage form a system, mutually reinforcing, and, causing the development of each other. Added to these are two more factors that can seriously affect the situation in the country: the actions of the government and random events. All of the listed characteristics of the economic environment in which competitive industries can be formed are considered in dynamics as a flexible developing system.

The state plays an important role in the process of formation of specific advantages of the sectors of the national economy, although this role is different at different stages of this process. These can be targeted investments, export promotion, direct regulation of capital flows, temporary protection of domestic production and promotion of competition in the early stages; indirect regulation through tax system, development of market infrastructure, information base for business in general, financing of scientific research, support of educational institutions, etc. Experience shows that in none of the countries the creation of competitive industries was possible without the participation of the state in one form or another. This is even more so for transitional economic systems, since the relative weakness of the private sector does not allow it to independently form the necessary factors of competitive advantage and win a place in the world market in a short time.

Theory foreign trade activities firms

In this theory, the object of analysis is not a single country, but an international firm. The objective basis of this approach is a fact generally recognized by economic science: a significant part of foreign trade operations is actually an intra-company exchange: intra-company communications currently account for about 70% of all world trade in goods and services, 80-90% of licenses and patents sold, 40% of capital exports .

Intra-company trade is based on the exchange of semi-finished products and spare parts used in the assembly of a product intended for sale on the world market. At the same time, foreign trade statistics indicate that foreign trade is rapidly expanding between countries where the largest transnational corporations are located.

So, the development and complication of international trade is reflected in the evolution of theories that explain the driving forces of this process. V modern conditions differences in international specialization can only be analyzed on the basis of the totality of all key models of the international division of labor.

If we consider world trade in terms of its development trends, then on the one hand, there is a clear strengthening of international integration, the gradual erasure of borders and the creation of various interstate trade blocs, on the other hand, a deepening of the international division of labor, the gradation of countries into industrialized and backward.

In historical terms, one cannot fail to note the growth of the influence of Asian countries on the processes of world trade; it is quite likely that in the new millennium this region will take a leading role in the global process of production and sale of goods.

2. Control test tasks

1. Specify the features according to which developing countries belong to the periphery of the world economy:

a) raw material specialization;

b) low level of development of productive forces;

c) intensive type of economy;

d) the multistructural nature of the economy with a predominance of non-market relations;

e) flexible adaptation to the world economic situation.

Answer: a), b), d).

The periphery is primarily developing countries. Since market relations in these countries function poorly, the market does not stimulate the development of production; they mainly supply raw materials to the world market.

2. The main reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is:

a) foreign activities of TNCs;

b) low level of real wages in the country;

c) unemployment;

d) religious factor.

Answer: b).

The most important reason for the outflow of labor from Russia is the low level of wages. Specialists of various professions leave for other countries to get a job new job in order, ultimately, to improve their material well-being, which is not easy to do in Russia.

3. Challenge

Two goods of the same quality - Russian and American - cost, respectively, 300,000 rubles and 20,000 dollars. The nominal exchange rate of the US currency is 24 rubles. / 1 dollar. What is the real exchange rate?

Solution:

A general measure of a country's competitiveness in international markets is the price of a given country's product relative to the price of a similar product in another country, taking into account the ratio of the currencies of these countries. This ratio is called the real exchange rate and is calculated as follows:

Where: P - the price of goods (or the general price level) in their country;

P * - the price of goods (or the general level of prices) abroad;

e - nominal exchange rate;

ε - real exchange rate.

ε \u003d 1/24 dollars / rubles * 300000 / 20000 \u003d 0.625

That is, the price Russian goods is 0.625 US. That is, ceteris paribus, we can exchange 6 units of Russian goods for 1 unit of American goods.

Answer: The real exchange rate is 0.625

List of used literature

Kudrov V. M., World economy: textbook. - M.: Yustitsinform, 2009 - 512 p.
Malkov IV World economy in questions and answers: textbook. allowance. - M.: Prospekt, 2004. - 271 p.
Polyak G. B., Markova A. N. History of the world economy: textbook. For university students. - 3rd ed. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2008. - 670 p.

Questions of the effectiveness of foreign trade are among the fundamental problems of economic theory, on which economic thought has been working for the past three centuries. The development of foreign trade is reflected in the evolution of theories, models, concepts that explain the driving forces of this process.

The first attempt to create a theory of international trade, combining trade relations with domestic economic development, was made by mercantilists. Mercantilism theory was based on the idea that the wealth of a country depends on the amount of gold and silver. In this regard, the mercantilists believed that in the field of foreign trade it is necessary to maintain an active trade balance and carry out state regulation of foreign trade activities in order to increase exports and reduce imports.

Mercantilist theories of international trade gave rise to a direction of economic policy that has outlived it and remains relevant today - protectionism. The policy of protectionism consists in the active protection by the state of the interests of the domestic economy, as they are understood by this or that government.

As a result of the mercantilist policy, using the tools of protectionism, complex systems of customs duties, taxes, and barriers were created that ran counter to the needs of the emerging capitalist economy. Moreover, the static theory of mercantilism was based on the principle of enriching one country by reducing the welfare of other nations.

The next stage in the development of the theory of international trade is associated with the name of A. Smith - the creator absolute advantage theory. A. Smith believed that the task of the government is not to regulate the sphere of circulation, but to implement measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor, taking into account the support of the free trade regime. The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is that international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each produces at a lower cost.

The theory of absolute advantages is only part of the general economic doctrine of A. Smith, the ideologist of economic liberalism. From this doctrine follows the policy of free trade, opposed to protectionism.

Modern economists see the strength of the theory of absolute advantages in that it shows the clear advantages of the division of labor not only at the national level, but also at the international level. The weakness of this theory is that it does not explain why countries trade even in the absence of absolute advantages.

The answer to this question was found by another English economist D. Ricardo, who discovered law of comparative advantage, which says: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can serve as an exceptional difference in the costs of production of goods, regardless of absolute values.

The role and significance of the law of comparative advantage is evidenced by the fact that for many decades it remained dominant in explaining the effectiveness of foreign trade turnover and had a strong impact on the entire economic science.

However, D. Ricardo left unanswered the question of the origin of comparative advantages, which form the necessary prerequisites for the development of international trade. In addition, the limitations of this law include those assumptions that were introduced by its creator: one production factor was taken into account - labor, production costs were considered constant, the production factor was mobile within the country and immobile outside it, there were no transportation costs.

During the 19th century the labor theory of value (created by D. Ricardo and developed by K. Marx) gradually lost its popularity, faced with competition from other teachings; at the same time, great changes took place in the system of the international division of labor and international trade, caused by a decrease in the role of natural differences and an increase in the importance of industrial production. As a response to the challenge of the time, neoclassical economists E. Heckscher and B. Olin created factor theory: mathematical calculations on it are given by P. Samuelson. This theory can be represented by two interrelated theorems.

The first of these, explaining the structure of international trade, not only recognizes that trade is based on comparative advantages, but also derives the reason for comparative advantages from the difference in endowment with factors of production.

Second - factor price equalization theorem Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson - affects the effect of international trade on factorial prices. The essence of this theorem is that the economy will be relatively more efficient by producing goods that make more intensive use of factors that are abundant in a given country.

The limitation of the theory is due to many assumptions. It was assumed that returns to scale are constant, factors are mobile inside the country and immobile outside it, competition is perfect, there are no transport costs, tariffs and other obstacles.

It can be noted that in the field of analysis of foreign trade until the middle of the 20th century. economic thought concentrated more on the study of the supply of goods and factors of production and did not pay due attention to demand in connection with the emphasis on considering the reduction in the level of production costs.

The theory of comparative advantage has become the starting point not only for the development of the theory of factors of production, but also for two other areas, the specificity of which is determined by the fact that they pay attention not only to supply, but also to demand.

In this context, the first direction is associated with the theory of mutual demand, created by the follower of D. Ricardo J.St. Mill, who derived the law of international value, showing at what price goods are exchanged between countries: the greater the external value for the goods of a given country and the less capital is used to produce export goods, the more favorable the country's terms of trade will be. Further development of this theory was obtained in general equilibrium models created by A. Marshall and F. Edgeworth.

D. Ricardo's law also determined the development opportunity cost theory. The prerequisite for its creation was that the facts of economic life were in conflict with the labor theory of value.

In addition, replacement costs are not fixed, as in the theory of comparative advantage, but growing according to a pattern known from general economic theory and in accordance with economic realities.

The foundations of the theory of opportunity costs were laid by G. Haeberler and F. Edgeworth.

This theory was based on the fact that:

production possibility curves (or transformation curves) have a negative slope and show that the actual ratio of the output of different goods is different for each country, which encourages them to trade with each other;
if the curves match, then trading is based on differences in tastes and preferences;
supply is determined by the curve of the marginal level of transformation, and demand is determined by the curve of the marginal level of substitution;
the equilibrium price at which trade is conducted is determined by the ratio of relative world supply and demand.

Thus, comparative advantage is proved not only from the labor theory of value, but also from the theory of opportunity costs. The latter showed that there is no complete specialization of the country in the field of foreign trade, since after reaching an equilibrium price in mutual trade, further specialization of each of the countries loses its economic meaning.

Despite the fundamental nature and the evidence presented, the considered theories were constantly tested on the basis of various empirical data. The first study of the theory of comparative advantage was carried out in the early 1950s by McDougall, who confirmed the law of comparative advantage and showed a positive relationship between the equation of labor productivity in individual industries and the share of their products in total exports. Under the conditions of globalization and internationalization of world economic relations, basic theories cannot always explain the existing multivariance of international trade. In this regard, an active search for new theories that provide answers to various questions of international trade practice continues. These studies can be divided into two large groups. The first, using a neofactorial approach, is based on the assertion that traditional theories require clarification in particular regarding the quantity of factors of production and their quality.

Within this direction, the following models, hypotheses and concepts have been developed and proposed.

The study carried out by V. Leontiev in 1956 served as the basis for the emergence of a skilled labor model developed by D. Kising, who proved that not two, but three factors are used in production: skilled, unskilled labor and capital. In this regard, the unit costs for the production of export goods are calculated for each of the groups separately.
The theory of specific factors of production by P. Samuelson showed that international trade is based on differences in relative prices for goods, which in turn arise due to varying degrees of availability of factors of production, moreover, factors specific to the export sector develop, and factors specific to the import-competing sector is shrinking.
An important place in this direction is given to the issue of distribution of income from international trade. This question was developed in the Stolper-Samuelson, Rybchinsky, Samuelson-Jones theorems.
The Swedish economist S. Linder, who created the theory of intersecting demand, suggests that the similarity of tastes and preferences enhances foreign trade, as countries export goods for which there is a capacious domestic market. The limitation of this theory is due to the fact that it manifests itself with a uniform distribution of income between individual groups of countries.

The second group of studies, formed on the basis of the neotechnological approach, analyzes situations that are not covered by the presented theories, rejects the position on the decisive importance of differences in factors or technologies, and requires new alternative models and concepts.

Within the framework of this direction, the advantages of a country or a company are determined not by the focus on factors and not by the intensity of the spent factors, but by the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology. A number of new models have been created here, developing and enriching the theory of international trade from the side of both demand and supply.

1. Theory of economies of scale substantiated in the works of P. Krugman: the effect of scale makes it possible to explain trade between countries equally endowed with factors of production, similar goods, under the condition of imperfect competition. At the same time, the external effect of scale implies an increase in the number of firms producing the same product, while the size of each of them remains unchanged, which leads to perfect competition. Internal economies of scale contribute to imperfect competition, where producers can influence the price of their products and increase sales by lowering the price. In addition, a special place is given to the analysis of large firms - transnational companies (TNCs), due to the fact that a company that produces products on the most cost-effective scale occupies a dominant position in the world market, and world trade gravitates toward gigantic international monopolies.

The neotechnological school connects the main advantages with the monopoly positions of the firm (country) - innovator and proposes a new strategy: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone or many people need and what no one else can produce yet. At the same time, many economists - supporters of this direction, in contrast to the supporters of the comparative advantage model, believe that the state can and should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of the production of other obsolete ones.

2. Intra-industry trade model based on the postulates of the theory of economies of scale. Intra-industry exchange provides additional benefits from foreign trade relations due to market expansion. In this case, a country can simultaneously reduce the number of goods it produces, but increase the number consumed. By producing a smaller set of goods, a country realizes economies of scale, increasing productivity and reducing costs. A significant contribution to the development of the theory was made by P. Krutman and B. Balassa.

Intra-industry exchange is associated with the theory of similarity, which explains the cross-trade of comparable goods belonging to the same industry. In this regard, the role of the acquired advantages associated with the development and implementation of new technologies is increasing. According to the theory of similarity of countries in this situation, a developed country has a greater opportunity to adapt its products to the markets of similar countries.

3. Supporters dynamic models both the Ricardian explanation of the international exchange of technological differences and the theses of J. Shum-Peter on the decisive role of innovations are used as initial theoretical justifications. They believe that countries differ not only in the availability of production resources, but also in the level of technical development.

One of the first among the dynamic models is the theory of the technological gap by M. Posner, who believed that as a result of the emergence of technological innovations, a “technological gap” is formed between countries that have them and do not have them.

4. Life cycle theory R. Vernon explains the specialization of countries in the production and export of the same product at different stages of maturity. In the Asia-Pacific region, where continuous process successive passage of certain phases of economic development, the concept of "flying geese" by K. Akamatsu took shape and was confirmed by practice, according to which a hierarchy of international exchanges is formed, corresponding to different levels of development of groups of countries.

It examines the links between two groups of characteristics;

evolution of imports - domestic production - exports;
the transition from consumer goods to capital-intensive from simple industrial products to more complex ones.

At the present stage, special attention is paid to the problem of combining the interests of the national economy and large firms - participants in international trade. This direction solves the problems of competitiveness at the level of the state and firm. So, M. Porter calls the main criteria of competitiveness factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of service industries, the company's strategy in a certain competitive situation. At the same time, M. Porter notes that the theory of comparative advantage is applicable only to basic factors such as undeveloped physical resources and unskilled labor. In the presence of developed factors (modern infrastructure, digital exchange of information, highly educated personnel, research of individual universities), this theory cannot fully explain the specifics of foreign trade practice.

M. Porter also puts forward a rather radical position, according to which, in the era of transnationalization, one should not talk about trade between countries at all, since it is not countries that trade, but firms. Apparently, in relation to our time, when different countries to one degree or another, protectionist mechanisms are used when brands like “made in USA”, “Italian furniture”, “white assembly”, etc. still retain their attractiveness, such a situation is still premature, although it clearly reflects a real trend.

5. Complements the neo-technological analysis of the factors of the international division of labor concept of I. B. Kreyvis, which uses the concepts of price elasticity of demand and supply, which measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. According to Cravis, each country imports goods that it is either unable to produce itself or can produce in limited quantities and whose supply is elastic, while at the same time exporting goods with a highly elastic production that exceeds local needs. As a result, the country's foreign trade is determined by the relative level of elasticity of the national and external supply of goods, as well as higher rates of technological progress in export industries.

In conclusion, we note that at the present stage of the theory of international trade, they pay equal attention to both supply and demand, they seek to explain the practical issues that arise in the course of foreign trade between countries, modifying the international trade system, and are formed on the basis of the criterion for clarifying factors and their quantity, as well as the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology.

The deepening of globalization processes in world economic relations confirms the viability of all theories, and practice - the need for their constant modification.

International trade is a system of international commodity-money relations, consisting of the foreign trade of all countries of the world. International trade arose in the process of the emergence of the world market in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Its development is one of important factors development of the world economy of modern times.

The term international trade was first used in the 12th century by the Italian economist Antonio Margaretti, the author of the economic treatise The Power of the Masses in Northern Italy.

Benefits of participating countries in international trade:

the intensification of the reproduction process in national economies is a consequence of increased specialization, creating opportunities for the emergence and development of mass production, increasing the degree of equipment workload, and increasing the efficiency of introducing new technologies;
an increase in export deliveries entails an increase in employment;
international competition necessitates the improvement of enterprises;
export earnings serve as a source of capital accumulation aimed at industrial development.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, improve the welfare of the population.

Many well-known economists dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's Theory of comparative advantages, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief's paradox, Product life cycle theory, M. Porter's theory, Rybchinsky's theorem, and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory. Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the XV-XVII centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the works of the mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of primitive accumulation of capital and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of the nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

Trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain the maximum benefit, it was proposed to increase state intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and restrict imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

the need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);
recognition of the benefits of attracting gold and other precious metals to the country in order to increase its well-being;
money is an incentive for trade, since it is believed that an increase in the mass of money increases the volume of the mass of commodities;
welcome protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products;
restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. In his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in a polemic with the mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries participating in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods in which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries may produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, as the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country, as well as the qualification of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide incentives for the development of more efficient methods of work.

Natural advantages for a single country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantages of D. Ricardo and D. S. Mill. In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore, even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - such is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo. According to Ricardo, total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity (opportunity) costs. Thus, a relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (opportunity) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine in Portugal are lower than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his work “Foundations of Political Economy”, gave explanations at what price the exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports—such is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in the countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the factors of production available in the country are used in excess, and, conversely, to import goods, the production of which requires relatively rare factors; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize "factorial prices"; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher-Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to the mutual trade of "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are the studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontief's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while the share of labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease. The resolution of the Leontief paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the cost of goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export deliveries. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Theory of the product life cycle. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, Ch. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, the product from the moment it enters the market until it leaves it goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

product development. The company finds and implements a new product idea. During this time, sales are zero and costs rise.
bringing the product to market. There is no profit due to the high costs of marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;
quick market conquest, increase in profits;
maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to an increase in the cost of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;
decline. Decline in sales and shrinking profits.

Theory of M. Porter. This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, according to Porter, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that the country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. At the heart of explaining a country's competitive advantage is the home country's role in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations). Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

government impact on factor conditions;
government influence on demand conditions;
government impact on related and supporting industries;
government influence on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. The artificial dominance of enterprises through government support, in Porter's view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for the development of recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain a constant price for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain unchanged. The prices of factors of production can only remain constant if the ratio of the factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only happen if there is an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a decrease in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor that will become available for use along with a growing factor in an expanding industry. .

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper. In the middle of the XX century. (1948), American economists P. Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with the additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and consider trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.

Development and structure of international trade

International trade is a form of exchange of products of labor in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade. Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with its export abroad. Import - purchase from foreign sellers of goods with its import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade are the following:

1. There is a predominant development of trade in comparison with the branches of material production and the entire world economy as a whole. Thus, according to some estimates, over the period of the 1950s–1990s, the world's GDP increased by about 5 times, and commodity exports by at least 11 times. Accordingly, if in 2000 the world's GDP was estimated at $30 trillion, then the volume of international trade - exports plus imports - was $12 trillion.

2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles - 3%.

3. Among the changes in the geographical direction of international trade flows, there is an increase in the role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the promotion of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area. In 1950, they accounted for only 16% of world trade, and by 2001 - already 41.2%.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade has manifested itself. In the 1960s, Western Europe was the main center of international trade. Its exports were almost 4 times higher than those of the United States. By the end of the 1980s, Japan began to emerge as a leader in terms of competitiveness. In the same period, it was joined by the "new industrial countries" of Asia - Singapore, Hong Kong Taiwan. However, by the mid-1990s, the United States was taking the world's leading position in terms of competitiveness. Export of goods and services in the world in 2007, according to the WTO, amounted to 16 trillion. USD. The share of the group of goods is 80%, and services - 20% of the total volume of trade in the world.

4. The most important direction in the development of foreign trade is intracompany trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80–90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.

5. Trade in services is expanding, and in several ways. Firstly, this is a cross-border supply, for example, distance learning. Another mode of supply of services, consumption abroad, involves the movement of the consumer or the transfer of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third way is a commercial presence, such as the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is moving individuals who are service providers abroad, such as doctors or teachers. The most developed countries of the world are the leaders in trade in services.

Regulation of international trade

The regulation of international trade is divided into state regulation and regulation through international agreements and the creation of international organizations.

Methods of state regulation of international trade can be divided into two groups: tariff and non-tariff.

1. Tariff methods are reduced to the use of customs duties - special taxes that are levied on products of international trade. Customs tariffs are a fee charged by the state for the clearance of goods and other valuables being transported abroad. Such a fee, called a duty, is included in the price of the goods and is ultimately paid by the consumer. Customs taxation involves the use of import duties to hinder the importation of foreign goods into the country, export duties are used less frequently.

According to the form of calculation, fees are distinguished:

a) ad valorem, which are charged as a percentage of the price of the goods;

b) specific, charged in the form of a certain amount of money from the volume, weight or unit of goods.

The most important purposes of using import duties are both direct restriction of imports and restriction of competition, including unfair competition. Its extreme form is dumping - the sale of goods on the foreign market at prices lower than those existing for an identical product on the domestic market.

2. Non-tariff methods are diverse and represent a combination of direct and indirect restrictions foreign economic activity through an extensive system of economic, political and administrative measures. These include:

quotas (contingenting) - the establishment of quantitative parameters within which it is possible to carry out certain foreign trade operations. In practice, contingents are usually established in the form of lists of goods, the free import or export of which is limited to a percentage of the volume or value of their national production. When the quantity or amount of the contingent is exhausted, the export (import) of the relevant product is terminated;
licensing - issuance of special permits (licenses) to business entities for conducting foreign trade operations. It is often used in conjunction with quotas to control license-based quotas. In some cases, the licensing system acts as a kind of customs taxation applied by the country to obtain additional customs revenues;
embargo - a ban on export-import operations. It may apply to a specific group of goods or be introduced in relation to individual countries;
currency control - a restriction in the monetary sphere. For example, a financial quota may limit the amount of currency an exporter can receive. Quantitative restrictions may apply to the volume of foreign investment, the amount of foreign currency exported by citizens abroad, etc.;
taxes on export-import transactions - taxes as non-tariff measures that are not regulated by international agreements, like customs duties, and therefore are levied on both domestic and foreign goods. Government subsidies for exporters are also possible;
administrative measures, which are mainly related to restrictions on the quality of goods sold on domestic market. An important place is occupied by national standards. Failure to comply with the standards of the country may serve as a reason for the ban on the import of imported products and their sale on the domestic market. Similarly, a system of national transport tariffs often creates an advantage in paying freight to exporters over importers. In addition, other forms of indirect restrictions can also be used: the closure of certain ports and railway stations for foreigners, an order to use a certain share of national raw materials in the production of products, a ban on the purchase of imported goods by state organizations in the presence of national analogues, etc.

The high importance of MT for the development of the world economy led to the creation by the world community of special international regulatory organizations, whose efforts are aimed at developing rules, principles, procedures for the implementation of international trade transactions and monitoring their execution by the member states of these organizations.

A special role in the regulation of international trade is played by multilateral agreements operating within the framework of:

GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade);
WTO();
GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services);
TRIPS (Treaty-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights);

GATT. In accordance with the fundamental provisions of the GATT, trade between countries should be carried out on the basis of the most favored nation (MFN) principle, i.e., the most favored nation treatment (MFN) is established in the trade of the GATT member countries, guaranteeing equality and non-discrimination. However, at the same time, exceptions from the NSP were established for countries that are members of economic integration groups; for countries, former colonies, which are in traditional relations with the former mother countries; for border and coastal trade. According to the most rough estimates, “exceptions” account for at least 60% of world trade finished products, which deprives the PNB of universality.

GATT recognizes as the only acceptable means of regulating the MT customs tariffs, which are iteratively (from round to round) reduced. Currently, their average level is 3-5%. But here, too, there are exceptions that allow the use of non-tariff remedies (quotas, export and import licenses, tax incentives). These include cases of application of agricultural production regulation programs, violation of the balance of payments, implementation of regional development programs and assistance.

GATT contains the principle of renunciation of unilateral actions and decision-making in favor of negotiations and consultations, if such actions (decisions) can lead to restriction of freedom of trade.

GATT - the predecessor of the WTO - made its decisions at the negotiations rounds of all members of this Agreement. There were eight in total. The most significant decisions that have guided the WTO in regulating the MT so far were taken at the last (eighth) Uruguay Round (1986-1994). This round further expanded the range of issues regulated by the WTO. It included trade in services, as well as a program to reduce customs duties, intensify efforts to regulate the MT with the products of certain industries (including agriculture) and strengthen control over those areas of national economic policy that affect the country's foreign trade.

It was decided to escalate customs duties as the degree of processing of goods increases while reducing duties on raw materials and eliminating them for certain types of alcoholic beverages, construction and agricultural equipment, office furniture, toys, pharmaceutical products - only 40% of world imports. The liberalization of trade in clothing, textiles and agricultural products continued. But customs duties are recognized as the last and only means of regulation.

In the area of anti-dumping measures the concepts of "legitimate subsidies" and "eligible subsidies" were adopted, which include subsidies aimed at environmental protection and regional development, provided that their size is at least 3% of the total value of imports of goods or 1% of its total cost. All the rest are classified as illegal and their use in foreign trade is prohibited.

Among the issues of economic regulation that indirectly affect foreign trade, the Uruguay Round included requirements for a minimum export of goods produced at the joint venture, the mandatory use of local components, and a number of others.

WTO. The Uruguay Round decided to create the WTO, which became the legal successor of the GATT and retained its main provisions. But the decisions of the round supplemented them with the objectives of ensuring free trade not only through liberalization, but also through the use of so-called linkages. The meaning of linkages is that any government decision to increase the tariff is taken simultaneously (in conjunction with) the decision to liberalize imports of other goods. The WTO is outside the scope of the UN. This allows it to pursue its own independent policy and control over the activities of the participating countries to comply with the adopted agreements.

GATS. Certain specifics are different regulation of international trade in services. This is due to the fact that services, characterized by an extreme variety of forms and content, do not form a single market that would have common features. But it has general tendencies that make it possible to regulate it at the global level, even taking into account the new moments in its development that are introduced by TNCs that dominate it and monopolize it. Currently, the global services market is regulated at four levels: international (global), sectoral (global), regional and national.

General regulation at the global level is carried out within the framework of the GATS, which entered into force on January 1, 1995. Its regulation uses the same rules that were developed by the GATT in relation to goods: non-discrimination, national treatment, transparency (publicity and unity of reading laws), non-application of national laws to the detriment of foreign manufacturers. However, the implementation of these rules is hampered by the peculiarities of services as a commodity: the lack of a real form of most of them, the coincidence of the time of production and consumption of services. The latter means that the regulation of the terms of trade in services means the regulation of the conditions for their production, and this in turn means the regulation of the conditions for investing in their production.

The GATS consists of three parts: a framework agreement defining general principles and regulation of trade in services; special agreements acceptable to individual service industries; and a list of commitments by national governments to eliminate restrictions on service industries. Thus, only one level, the regional level, falls out of the field of activity of the GATS.

The GATS agreement is aimed at liberalizing trade in services and covers the following types of services: services in the field of telecommunications, finance and transport. The issues of export sales of films and television programs are excluded from the scope of its activities, which is associated with the fears of individual states (European countries) of losing the originality of their national culture.

Sectoral regulation of international trade in services is also carried out in global scale, which is associated with their global production and consumption. Unlike GATS, the institutions that regulate these services are specialized. For example, civil air transportation is regulated by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), foreign tourism is regulated by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), maritime transportation is regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO).

The regional level of international trade in services is regulated within the framework of economic integration groupings, in which restrictions on mutual trade in services are lifted (as, for example, in the EU) and restrictions on such trade with third countries may be introduced.

The national level of regulation concerns foreign trade in services of individual states. It is implemented through bilateral trade agreements, integral part which may be trade in services. A significant place in such agreements is given to the regulation of investments in the service sector.

Source - World economy: textbook / E.G. Guzhva, M.I. Lesnaya, A.V. Kondratiev, A.N. Egorov; SPbGASU. - St. Petersburg, 2009. - 116 p.