Indicators of participation in the international division of labor. The main indicators of the level of international specialization of the industry The coefficient of relative export specialization indicates

Answer
world economy- a system of national economies united by economic relations based on the international division of labor.
The world economy is the result of a long historical development. The world economy as an integral system took shape at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, when the entire globe was divided and assigned to international corporations and individual countries.
The subjects of the world economy are:
about 200 nation-states;
transnational and multinational corporations;
international organizations and institutions.
By the 21st century the following structure of the world economy was formed:
world market of goods and services;
world capital market;
world market work force;
international currency unit;
international credit and financial system.
International exchange is actively developing in the field of science and technology, innovations and information, as well as in the field of culture.
In the structure of the world economy, the center and the periphery are distinguished.
The center has a high level economic development, has a flexible economic mechanism that quickly adapts to the world economic situation and masters the latest achievements of science, engineering and technology. The center includes 26 countries with developed market economies.
Periphery - these are countries with a low level of development, primarily developing, with a raw material nature of exports. The periphery depends on the center, because it lags behind it in socio-economic development.
The international division of labor is the highest stage in the development of world production, based not only on the division of labor within one country, but also on the territorial division of social labor. It is manifested in the specialization of individual countries in the production certain types products that these countries systematically exchange.
The international division of labor is the basis for expansion international trade and an objective basis for the development of the world market. The level of development of the international division of labor depends on the level of development of the productive forces of individual countries of the world economy and their external activity. The objective basis of its genesis and development is the difference in natural and climatic conditions of individual countries, the presence of minerals, flora and fauna in them, as well as trends in the manufacture of goods based on the use of local raw materials.
Under the conditions of the international division of labor, there is no need for each country to produce the entire range of necessary goods. It specializes in the production of those products that are cost-effective. So, big countries with developed economies have broad specialization and compete with each other. Conversely, small countries have a narrow specialization in the world market.
The implementation of the international division of labor occurs through interstate specialization and cooperation. International specialization of production is the production or territorial isolation of the output of a particular good or part of it. Production specialization appears in the following forms: subject, detail, stage. The first form means the release of a known good, the second - the release of nodes, aggregates, parts of the good, the third - involves a specific stage technological process.
To determine the level of participation of a country in international specialization, two indicators are used: the coefficient of relative export specialization (COES) and the export quota in the industry's production.
KOES is calculated by the formula

where E0 is the share of goods in the country's exports; Em is the share of goods in world exports. This coefficient determines (approximately) industries, as well as goods and services, that are specialized for the country at the international level.
The export quota is determined by the ratio of the value of the exported product to the value of the gross domestic product.

The increase in the export quota shows not only an increase in the level of this country in the international division of labor, but also an increase in the competitiveness of goods and services. The international specialization of production allows for economies of scale in output by reducing costs per unit of output. For example, detailed specialization makes it possible to reduce the cost of materialized labor by almost half, and the cost of living labor up to five times.
Modern concepts of the international division of labor originate from classical political economy, from the theories of A. Smith and D. Ricardo.
International cooperation of production is stable production links between separate producers from different countries and the exchange of specialized goods. International cooperation, like international specialization, contributes to the growth of production efficiency in the countries participating in these processes.
One of the important forms of interstate relations is international trade. Moreover, the foreign trade exchange of goods and services in the world outpaces the growth rate of production by about three times.

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- This is based on the international division of labor, a stable exchange between countries of products produced by them with the greatest economic efficiency.
It follows from the above examples that the international division of labor does not necessarily require international labor cooperation for its existence and development, although in most cases it leads to it. At the same time, international labor cooperation is completely based on the international division of labor and cannot exist independently.
The current stage of development of world economic relations is characterized by an increase in dependence due to the transfer of production in developed economic systems to a new technological base, with a predominance of information technologies. The new qualitative state of the productive forces stimulated the internationalization of reproduction processes, which manifested itself in two main forms: integration (rapprochement, mutual adaptation of national economies) and transnationalization (creation of interethnic production complexes).
The main indicators of the level of international specialization of the industry include the coefficient of specialization of the industry of relative export specialization (COES) and the export quota in the industry's production.
KOES is determined by the formula

Ko = Eo / Em
where Eo is the share of goods (the totality of goods of the industry) in the country's exports;
Em is the share of goods (analogue goods) in world exports.
With the help of KOES, it is possible, as a first approximation, to determine the range of goods and, accordingly, industries that are internationally specialized for a given country. The higher (more than one) the ratio in favor of the national structure of exports for a particular product or group of products, the more pronounced is the international specialization of the relevant industry. On the contrary, the lower this ratio (less than one), the less reason to consider the relevant goods and industries as internationally specialized.
The export quota indicates the extent to which the national industry, its individual branches are oriented towards foreign markets, and at the same time shows the degree of isolation of the latter from the national market. The increase in the export quota in production indicates the intensification international relations industry in one direction - to foreign consumers and to increase the competitiveness of internationally specialized products.
The greater the share in the composition of exported products of internationally specialized industries is occupied by products of advanced manufacturing industries, the more progressive the country's SMEs are, the higher its real level. Conversely, a clear predominance in exports of products of extractive industries, Agriculture- evidence of the usually passive role of the country in the MRI, the relative backwardness of its SMEs.

Under the international specialization of production (SME) is understood such a form of division of labor between countries, in which the increase in the concentration of homogeneous production and the socialization of labor in the world occurs on the basis of the process of differentiation of national industries, separation into independent (separate) technological processes, into separate industries and sub-sectors the production of homogeneous products of labor in excess of internal needs, which causes an ever greater mutual complementation of differentiated national complexes.

SME develops in two directions - production and territorial. In turn, the production direction is divided into intersectoral, intrasectoral specialization and specialization of individual enterprises (companies). In the territorial aspect, SME involves the specialization of individual countries and regions in the production of certain products and their parts for the world market. The main types of SMEs are subject (production of finished products), detail (production of parts, components of products) and technological, or staged, specialization (performing individual operations or performing individual technological processes, such as assembly, painting, welding, heat treatment, etc.).

At all historical stages, and especially at the modern one, SMEs are characterized by the dynamism of ongoing processes, the continuous change in its types, directions, the transition to more complex forms generated by deep changes in social production, shifts in the structure of world needs, the impact of scientific and technological revolution.

In the 1930s, the world was dominated by international intersectoral specialization of production and the corresponding exchange of products from one complex industry (for example, manufacturing) for products from another (extractive industry and/or agriculture). In the 1950s and 1960s, international specialization of production at the level of primary industries continued to occupy a leading position (automobile and aircraft building, production of plastics, bearings, radio equipment, etc.). In the 1970s and 1980s, intra-industry SMEs came to the fore and consolidated their position and the corresponding exchange of goods - analogues with different consumer characteristics (for example, wheeled tractors for caterpillars, leather shoes for rubber, etc.).

The value of ISCO as a factor in increasing the efficiency of national production and intensifying international turnover is steadily increasing. Thus, in the 1970s and 1980s, the growth rate of world trade in engineering products by 40% (in the 60s by 4%) was provided by components. During the 60-90s, the share of parts and assemblies as components in foreign trade was economically developed countries engineering products more than doubled.

One of the central places in the problems of the methodology of international specialization of production is the definition of the concepts of "internationally specialized industry" and "internationally specialized products".

SMEs should be understood as the existing set of industries in the sphere of material production of any country that are most actively involved in the MRT. The industries that determine the nature of a country's international specialization are also internationally specialized industries. Their characteristics- a significantly higher share of exports in production compared to other industries, usually a higher share of such industries in the production of a given country compared to their share in world production, a higher level of development of intra-industry specialization and cooperation.

The notion of "internationally specialized products" is closely related to the concept of "internationally specialized industry" and clarifies it. The latter includes products that are the subject of bilateral and multilateral agreements on ISCO, on the division production programs. Internationally specialized are also goods produced in one or more countries and covering the needs of the world market. These include the products of international corporations that carry out the division of labor between their manufacturing enterprises located in different countries.

The main indicators of the level of international specialization of the industry include the coefficient of relative export specialization (COES) and the export quota in the industry's production.

KOES is determined by the formula

where - the share of goods (the totality of goods of the industry) in the country's exports; - share of goods (analogue goods) in world exports.

With the help of KOES, it is possible, as a first approximation, to determine the range of goods and, accordingly, industries that are internationally specialized for a given country. The higher (more than one) the ratio in favor of the national structure of exports for a particular product or group of products, the more pronounced is the international specialization of the relevant industry. On the contrary, the lower this ratio (less than one), the less reason to consider the relevant goods and industries as internationally specialized.

The export quota testifies to the extent to which the national industry, its individual branches, are oriented towards foreign markets, and at the same time shows the degree of isolation of the latter from the national market. An increase in the export quota in production testifies to the intensification of international relations of industry in one direction - to foreign consumers - and to an increase in the competitiveness of internationally specialized products.

The basis of international cooperation of production (ICP) is the growing level of development of productive forces. In a short historical period, the primary cell of production - the enterprise - has radically changed, and in such a way that this is reflected in all aspects of the social (and, consequently, international) division of labor. More and more complete and consistent separation from the composition of enterprises of individual stages of the technological process, production constituent parts final product and its transfer to "partial" enterprises mark a new qualitative leap in the division of labor in industry. This served as a stimulus for the development of cooperative processes.

As a result of the impact of scientific and technological revolution, a material basis was created for the broad development of industrial cooperation. The scientific and technological revolution has also changed the very nature of the ITUC by including science as its most important element. In this way, main function labor cooperation - to serve as a means of increasing the material goods produced with higher labor productivity - was supplemented by another important function - the implementation of fundamentally new tasks that are difficult or impossible to solve without combining the efforts of producers from several countries.

The main features of the MCP are:

preliminary agreement by the parties in a contractual manner of the terms of joint activities;

coordination economic activity partner enterprises from different countries in a certain, mutually agreed area of ​​this activity;

presence as direct subjects of production cooperation industrial enterprises from different countries;

fixing in a contractual manner as the main objects of cooperation finished products, components and related technology;

distribution of tasks between partners within the framework of an agreed program, assignment of industrial specialization to them, based on the main goals of cooperation agreements;

direct connection of mutual or unilateral deliveries of goods carried out by partners with the implementation of production programs within the framework of cooperation.

The theory and practice of cooperation activities at any level distinguish between the object of cooperation or the area of ​​activity in which it is carried out, the method of cooperation, i.e. organizational forms and means, as well as the normative apparatus, with the help of which the participants in cooperation achieve the jointly set goals. Thus, as a certain system of relations, cooperation should be classified on the basis of two main determinants - the area and the method (or form) of cooperation.

The main methods used in establishing cooperative ties are:

1) implementation joint programs;

2) contractual specialization;

3) creation of industrial joint ventures (JV).

Within the framework of the first method - the implementation of joint programs - the MCP manifests itself in two main forms: contract cooperation and joint production.

Contract cooperation- the oldest type of industrial relations in industry. The essence of contracting activity is that one of the parties to the agreement (customer) entrusts the other (executor) with the performance of certain work in accordance with predetermined requirements for its implementation regarding terms, volumes, quality of performance, etc. Contract production cooperation has two main varieties: a "classic" contract for the manufacture of products and a contract for the design and release of a new product.

The second method of production cooperation - contractual specialization - consists in delimiting the production programs of the participants in such agreements. In accordance with specialization agreements, the contracting parties seek to eliminate or reduce duplication of production, and consequently, direct competition among themselves in the market. The most important condition that gives such specialization agreements a cooperative character is the presence in it of provisions on close cooperation of participants in the form of joint production of usually complex products, mutual or unilateral subcontracting, joint research and development, etc.

The creation of production joint ventures is one of the three main methods of cooperative activity, which is becoming more and more widespread in the world. This is the so-called integrated cooperation, when under a single organizational form the capital of several participants is combined to achieve separate, jointly agreed goals.

114 Chapter 2 Modern tendencies development of the international division of labor

private enterprises, contractual specialization. Strategic alliances play an essential role in its development.

8. International specialization and cooperation lie at the basis of industrial cooperation between countries, which takes communications between countries beyond the scope of ordinary trade and develops with the support of states that conclude bilateral and multilateral agreements for this purpose.

Terms and concepts

Monoculture

Export diversification

Production specialization

Commercial Specialization

Subject Specialization

Detailed Specialization

Technological Specialization

Intercompany cooperation

Intra-company cooperation

Contract specialization

Contract specialization

Co-production

Joint ventures

Strategic alliances

Scientific and technical specialization

Industrial cooperation

Relative export specialization coefficient

Questions for self-examination

1. With what changes in the productive forces of society is the growth of the international division of labor associated?

2. What factors, apart from economic ones, influenced the international division of labor in the late 19th - early 20th centuries?

3. Why do developing countries want to change their place in the international division of labor?

4. What caused the deepening division of labor between industrialized countries?

5. Why is the transition from intersectoral to intrasectoral specialization accelerating in the world economy?

6. What is the relationship between specialization and cooperation?

7. Name the main forms of international cooperation.

8. What caused the emergence of strategic alliances?

9. What is industrial cooperation?

1. Features of the modern world market

The development of trade between countries leads to the formation of a special sphere of market relations - the world market. International trade, as noted earlier, existed in antiquity, but the world market, covering the trade of a significant part of the countries, and then all countries of the world, arose only in the process of developing commodity-money relations. It was possible to speak about the world market already in the 16th century.

It is necessary to distinguish between the national markets of individual countries and the world market. The latter has a number of distinctive features. In the national market, the movement of goods is determined only by economic factors. It is not limited between different territories of the country, prices for the same products tend to equalize. In each country, a national level of labor productivity is formed, wages, the average rate of profit and interest rates, the general level of taxation, etc. The world market of goods is significantly influenced by the borders between states, the foreign economic policy of the latter. The movement of goods between national economies is limited, and some goods produced in individual countries do not participate in world trade at all. The world market receives goods manufactured in countries with different economic conditions, i.e. with different levels of labor productivity, wages, profit margins, etc.

A distinctive feature of the world market is the existence of a special system of prices - world prices.

In the world economy, not only the world market for goods materialized in the form of products, but also the world market for services is taking shape. In particular, the development of the division of labor in the field of scientific research has led to an increase in the trade in licenses.

The world market is developing in a competitive environment between countries. Structure and directions of trade of individual countries

Chapter 3. The World Market and Structural Shifts in World Trade

are formed under the influence of changes in the competitiveness of their goods in the world market. World trade is characterized by uneven growth of both the trade of individual countries and the entire world trade turnover.

In the era of developed capitalism, the world market becomes a sphere of activity large companies. Already in the late XIX - early XX century. these companies sought to collude with each other in a section of the world market for certain goods and dictate prices for them. Subsequently, most countries adopted antitrust legislation prohibiting the creation of cartels. Therefore, now there are only a few international cartels, although, of course, the conclusion of secret agreements between companies of different countries on the division of markets and prices for them is not ruled out. In modern conditions, the positions of TNCs are strengthening in the world market, especially the largest TNCs in the USA, Japan, Great Britain and other countries, which are striving to monopolize the markets of individual goods.

But the possibility of monopolization of the world market is less than the national markets. The reason for this is that a large number of companies participate in the competition on the world market, including large national companies relying on the help of their states. True, highly specialized branches of world production may turn out to be monopolized on a global scale to a greater extent.

Now we can talk about the oligopolistic structure of the world market, when the production of individual goods is mainly in the hands of a small group of companies from different countries. The oligopolistic structure generates powerful incentives for cooperation between companies, especially in the scientific and technical field. The modern form of cooperation between large companies, as shown in Chap. 2, have become strategic alliances.

The predominance of large companies in the world market does not mean that small and medium-sized companies cannot enter it. The latter act both as subcontractors of large firms on the basis of cooperation agreements, and independently, especially in the light industry. V Lately companies that introduce new products and technologies (venture companies) are increasingly active in the world market.

It would be wrong to imagine that the modern world market develops only in conditions of anarchy. In a number of areas, there is a tendency to consciously regulate the movement of goods on the world market through the use of well-known elements of planning. This is manifested in the fact that, firstly, the largest

1. Features

modern world market

The largest TNCs, which account for the majority of world trade, study the state of markets in different countries and regions and, based on the concept of marketing, plan production at their enterprises and sales of products, taking into account the trend in demand for the corresponding products.

Secondly, the elements of sustainability of trade between countries are given by inter-company agreements on cooperation. And although changes in production technology and demand for products produced on the basis of cooperation, as well as general changes in the market situation, can undermine established ties, nevertheless, cooperation agreements introduce some elements of planning. In the same direction, there are contracts for the construction of large facilities abroad, the execution of which is designed for a number of years.

Thirdly, long-term trade contracts also lead to the stability of relations between producers and consumers, especially those concluded in the field of trade in mineral raw materials - coal, metal ores, etc. should have a more or less stable prospect of selling their products.

Fourthly, in order to regulate the markets for individual goods and stabilize prices for them at the initiative of developing countries that came up with a program of a new international economic row, international trade agreements have been concluded. In some; they provide for the creation of buffer stocks, which should receive goods when the market is oversaturated and be withdrawn from them when the demand for these goods grows. To finance buffer stocks within the framework of the UN, a General Fund has been created (see Chapter 9). For the same purpose, organizations of countries exporting raw materials have been created. The most important of these is the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), which, in order to maintain oil prices, sets quotas for oil supplies to the world market for participating countries.

Along with the trends towards the conscious regulation of world trade in order to increase its stability, opposite trends are also manifested, when the actions of international speculators lead to a sharp rise in prices for individual goods, and then to their fall. For example, as a result of the action of one Japanese company, copper prices rose significantly and remained at this level for some time, which led to an increase in investment in the copper smelting industry. When the supply of copper in the market increased, prices fell sharply, which Japan was interested in, and copper producers suffered heavy losses.

Chapter 3. The World Market and Structural Shifts in World Trade

2. Dynamics of world trade

The instability of individual markets is partly related to the activity commodity exchanges where speculative transactions predominate. However, although the scale of trade on the exchanges as a whole exceeds the real trade in the corresponding goods by dozens of times, the share of goods actually sold on the exchanges is small. The role of commodity exchanges in modern world trade lies in the fact that their prices are a well-known reference point for specific transactions and, in addition, the exchanges act as a tool for hedging (insurance) of real transactions.

An active role in the world market is played by states that not only take measures to protect the national market from the import of goods from outside, but also pursue a targeted policy of forcing the export of domestic goods.

A feature of the current situation is the development of international interstate forms of regulation of the world market. Both common trade organizations arose, for example, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was later transformed into the WTO, and regional integration economic organizations and agreements - the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, etc. The activities of international economic organizations is aimed not only at removing trade barriers between countries to stimulate world trade, but also at regulating trade individual goods, for example, agricultural, to which much attention was paid in the framework of the Uruguay Round of GATT. In addition to the agreement on agriculture, agreements were concluded on dairy products, on trade in civil aircraft, on textiles and clothing; reached an agreement on beef. To an even greater extent, the regulatory principles are manifested in the activities of regional groups, especially the EU. Thus, the activities of international organizations have a significant impact on world trade.

After World War II, when a group of states in Europe and Asia embarked on the path of building socialism, economic relations between them were based on a fundamentally different basis than relations between capitalist countries. The development of relations between the Eastern European countries was facilitated by the creation in 1949. Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The main feature of economic relations between the CMEA member countries was the planned nature of the development of trade between them. At the same time, the coordination of national economic plans and the practice of concluding long-term trade agreements and annual protocols on mutual deliveries were used as the main instrument.

goods, in which both total trade volumes and trade volumes for the most important commodity items were determined.

Relations between the CMEA member countries were characterized by relatively stable prices for mutually traded goods, despite the fact that they were based on world prices, which were subject to fluctuations, sometimes quite sharp. Although this system had certain advantages (in particular, in the context of a sharp increase in oil prices in the 70s, the countries of Eastern Europe had the opportunity to gradually adapt to new prices), on the whole it did not contribute to the rational formation of relations between the countries that were members of the CMEA, led to the conservation of backward industries, artificially supported the production of non-competitive goods. Under the conditions of market reforms being carried out in the Eastern European countries, they abandoned the planned principles of conducting mutual trade and switched to those accepted in world practice.

2. Dynamics of world trade Reasons for high growth rates of trade

In the post-war period world trade developed at a relatively high rate, which was associated with the action of two groups of factors.

The first group - factors that contributed to the overall relatively favorable state of the economies, relatively high rates economic growth and the fact that the economic crises were not so deep and prolonged. These include the influence of scientific and technological revolution, the increasing role state regulation and etc.

The second group of factors that directly served as the reasons for the growth of world trade include important shifts in production that required the development of specialization and cooperation on an international scale. These processes affected the main industries modern industry and were the main factor in the rapid growth of trade exchange between countries. The growth of international trade was largely due to the products of the manufacturing industry.

The processes of international specialization and cooperation brought to life modern stage the development of productive forces were strengthened by the increased export of capital and the development of transnational corporations. TNCs, developing specialization and cooperation between

Chapter 3. The World Market and Structural Shifts in World Trade

2. Dynamics of world trade

I wait with my enterprises located in different states, thereby contributing to the growth of international trade.

The expansion of international specialization and cooperation leads to a refusal in the foreign trade policy of industrialized countries from measures of import protectionism and a transition to liberalization foreign trade, the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction customs duties. Measures of import protectionism became an obstacle to the deepening of the international division of labor and contradicted the interests of TNCs, for which the abolition of various foreign trade restrictions - necessary condition unhindered development of industrial relations between their enterprises abroad. In turn, the liberalization of foreign trade policy, the transition to a more open economy have become a factor in the growth of international trade.