Technological addiction. Four Technology Dependencies

In the last decade, the importance of forms of activity of TNCs that are not related to the ownership of shares has increased. The most important aspect relationship between Western TNCs and national governments in developing countries has become the problem of technology transfer, which in modern conditions has a decisive influence on the rate of economic growth, determining the degree to which developing countries use the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. The transfer of technology through the channels of TNCs, contract agreements with corporations create new forms of dependence of developing states, technological ties that integrate the newly-free countries into the international production chain of TNCs.

Developing countries have concentrated their attention and achieved the greatest success in the following three areas of regulation of technology transfer through TNCs: in the fight against the inclusion of restrictive clauses in technology transfer agreements; in the regulation of terms and payments under these agreements. Thus, in the most developed of the newly-free states, a framework has been created to regulate the terms under which technology is supplied. Similar attitudes and mechanisms for their implementation are adopted by young states that are at a lower level. technological development.

However, practice has shown that the use of methods such as the application of criteria for the approval of agreements with TNCs on technology transfer and incentives to direct the flow of technology to certain areas, does not in itself lead to the strengthening of national technological capacity and reduce technological dependence on TNCs. . Here the primary role is played by the development strategy chosen by the state, the whole range of measures in relation to foreign capital. Therefore, the regulation of technology transfer in order to create favorable conditions for national technological development is not limited to the regulation of the conditions under which technology is supplied, and is a more complex task.

Significant development in the 1970s was given to specific agreements not related to the participation of TNCs in equity capital, concluded, as a rule, in those areas of the economy where foreign direct investment is prohibited or limited. Provided effective state control. Such agreements represent an alternative to direct investment by TNCs. However, while many developing countries view contractual agreements as a measure to squeeze out foreign capital, TNCs see them as a means of penetrating the economy of young states or an opportunity to make a profit without exposing capital to the threat of nationalization.

Per last years the positions of developing countries, especially those with large explored reserves of minerals, have strengthened in the field of contract agreements with TNCs in the oil and mining industries. National legislation and administrative practices have been introduced to increase the revenues received by the state under these agreements, control production activities TNCs with a view rational use natural resources.

In the manufacturing industry, agreements with TNCs on turnkey construction have become widespread, during the implementation of which the state has greater opportunities for direct regulation than with other forms of contractual agreements, since it is the direct customer. In the economically more developed of the newly-free countries, the government, by means of encouraging and restrictive methods, orients TNCs towards joint activities with national firms in turnkey construction. On the contrary, in the relatively less developed of the young states, there has been a tendency to encourage the expansion of the functions of TNCs, leading the said construction.

Another trend in the manufacturing industry is the rapid growth of sustainable subcontracting, in which local enterprises act as suppliers to TNCs in developing countries undergoing industrialization. Aimed at inclusion in the international capitalist division of labor. It is characteristic that if earlier TNC subcontracts to local enterprises in developing countries arose spontaneously, now most developing countries are stimulating these subcontracts by providing TNCs that turn to local subcontractors with various benefits. The social impact of encouraging subcontracting between TNCs and local private enterprises in manufacturing and agriculture is to intensify the exploitation of direct producers.

There is a constant improvement of management contracts with TNCs concluded by young states in the most various industries economy. The regulatory activities of the state began to cover management contracts more fully, take into account the various subtleties of such agreements; At the same time, progress in state regulation of management contracts concluded by national private capitalist enterprises with TNCs is much more modest than the corresponding processes in the field of relations between public sector enterprises and TNCs. With the growth of the number of qualified personnel, the accumulation of management experience, there is a tendency to "unpack" management functions, that is, to limit the role of TNCs to those functions, the performance of which so far exceeds the competence of national directors.

Important new directions state regulation in this area is the gradual replacement of foreign managers with national ones, the expansion of the rights and responsibilities of the latter, as well as the regulation of the terms and conditions of management contracts.

The experience of managing contractual agreements with TNCs confirms that the protection of national interests can only be built on the basis of active state intervention in the activities of TNCs that are not related to the ownership of shares, and to the greatest extent, those young states that successfully limit the direct investment of TNCs succeed in this.

Summing up the study of the evolution of forms and methods of state regulation of TNCs in developing countries, it is legitimate to conclude that in the late 70s and early 80s this regulation goes rather "in breadth" rather than in depth, that is, the scope of measures is expanding regulation of aspects and areas of activity of foreign enterprises, but the restrictiveness and radical nature of such measures are decreasing.

The countries included in cluster No. 1 are the most backward both technologically and economically. Many of them are involved in international division labor as suppliers of cheap raw materials, their population is mainly employed in the agricultural sector.

An analysis of the countries of cluster No. 2 showed that the low incomes of their inhabitants are the main obstacle to increasing the level of technological development and introducing new technologies into production. Low incomes do not allow residents to receive higher education, lead to an outflow of labor from the R&D sector.

Countries in cluster 3 are different from countries with low technological achievements; and from countries included in clusters No. 4 and No. 5.

From the analysis of the countries of cluster No. 4, we can conclude that the share of exports of high-tech goods is the greater, the more gross deductions go to R&D and the higher the degree of urbanization in the country. If the first consequence is not in doubt, then the impact of urbanization can be explained by the fact that cities act as suppliers and consumers of highly skilled labor and scientists and, consequently, urbanization is a sine qua non for the development and production of high-tech products.

The countries of the fifth cluster are the most developed both technologically and economically. They invest heavily in the development of new technologies, but each successive additional unit of investment in R&D yields less and less returns in the form of technological innovations.

For each group of countries, the dependence of the indicators of innovation and technological achievements on the factors of influence was analyzed in the following sequence. The tightness of the relationship between the resulting indicators was checked. Correlation analysis was used. A pair of indicators with a high closeness of relationship was determined, and one of the indicators was not used in further analysis. Similarly, the tightness of the relationship between the influencing factors was checked. The tightness of the relationship between the influencing factors and the resulting indicators was checked in order to remove the influencing factors that do not have a close relationship with the resulting indicators. For each group of countries, a regression model was determined, showing the dependence of the resulting indicator on influencing factors.

Table 2 presents the statistical data of Russia on the named indicators and the statistical data of the countries that have the maximum and minimum values ​​in terms of indicators evaluating innovation and technological achievements and factors influencing innovation and technological achievements, which gives an idea of ​​Russia's place in innovation and technological development countries of the world.

In general, the set of factors used for the analysis made it possible to interpret the dependence of technological development on them and to assess the degree of impact on the indicators of the country's technological development. Economic entity of influencing factors led to the predominance of material factors in the cumulative impact on the main indicators of technological development. The main indicators of technological advances are the number personal computers in the country, exports of high-tech products, the number of patents registered by residents of the country. These indicators can be further used to analyze the impact of technological advances on economic development.

The indicators of the innovation factor are mainly the costs of R&D, the costs of Information Technology, gross national product per capita, urbanization. The results of the analysis indicate their different importance for different clusters of countries around the world.

A comparative analysis of high-income and low-income countries in terms of innovation and technological development does not show significant similarity in all factors. This is especially true for the most important factor innovation and technological development -- gross national product according to PPP. For this average value of the indicator, the gap between countries is widening. A small non-significant reduction is observed between the averages of the factors -- research and development spending and education spending. A significant reduction in the gap is observed in the resulting indicator - the average value of exports of high-tech products, but this is due to the relocation of production transnational corporations to low-income countries where the cheapest natural and labor resources. In terms of the number of patents granted on average per country per one million population, there is a discrepancy between groups of countries, the trend of obtaining more than 90% of all patents issued in the world by residents of high-income countries continues.

The results of such studies can be used to develop measures to reform the Russian innovation complex.

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1.Introduction…………………………………………………………………………3

2. The main reasons for the technological dependence of the Russian Federation on developed countries………………………………… ……………………………………………..4

3. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….10

4. Literature…………………………………………………………………….11

1. Introduction

Why has a one-sided technological dependence developed for Russia? How can we overcome the existing gap between Russia and the developed Western world? And how long might it take Russia to overcome the existing backlog? These and other questions will be discussed in this thesis.

I would like to start with the words of Russian President Vladimir Putin: “We are living in a period of fundamental changes in the economic life of the whole world. Never before has technology been updated so quickly. Much of what habitually surrounds us today seemed like a fantasy 15-20 years ago. The struggle for leadership in global competition has never been so fierce, and we see how countries whose positions only yesterday seemed unshakable are beginning to give way to those that until recently were treated with condescending disdain. Never before have people faced such enormous risks of man-made disasters, never before have there been such serious threats to the natural environment. But the possibilities of mankind have never been so great. The one who uses the new opportunities more fully than others wins. In such circumstances, it is important to ensure the stable progressive development of our economy, the maximum protection of our citizens from the blows of crises, and at the same time the steady and rapid renewal of all aspects of economic life - from the material and technical base to approaches to the economic policy of the state.

According to the Economic Academy of the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation, the contribution of scientific and technical potential to the economic growth industrialized countries is estimated at 25-30%. Therefore, the preservation and development of scientific and technical potential is of decisive importance from the point of view of ensuring the economic security of Russia as a great power.

At present, the scientific and technical sphere in Russia is in a state close to critical due to the fall in demand for scientific and technical products. This leads to an outflow of scientists to commercial and other structures not related to scientific activity, the departure of a number of promising scientists abroad, and a deterioration in the professional and age composition of scientists. Due to insufficient funding, the work of a scientist loses prestige. In addition, the material and technical component is deteriorating and information base scientific and technical potential. All this is largely due to a decrease in expenditures, primarily from the federal budget, for scientific activities.

2. The main reasons for the technological dependence of the Russian Federation on developed countries

In fact, during the existence of the USSR, Russia occupied leading positions in the main areas of science, such as aviation, rocket science and astronautics, electric power, hydropower, thermal power, nuclear power, electrical engineering, electronics, radio engineering and telecommunications, computer science, machine science and technology. machine manufacturing and others. Since then, Russia has lost its leading position and we have become largely dependent on developed countries, in particular, in terms of technology. One of the reasons for this situation is the fact that after the collapse of the USSR, Russia had to join the global division of labor, which at that time developed without its participation, moreover, it was aimed at confronting the USSR. The markets of developed countries were surrounded by many barriers erected to protect their own interests.

Nevertheless, Russia has managed to build a modern economy that allows it to function normally in a highly competitive environment. Mainly due to the huge reserves of natural resources. More than a quarter of Russia's GDP is the result of the sale of gas, oil, metals, timber, other raw materials or products of the first processing stage on the world market. One way or another, today Russia is highly dependent on the world economy, in particular, on developed countries.

Consider the export of high-tech products.

	Billion USD	% of world volume
Total in the world
Germany
Great Britain
Singapore
Other countries

Table 1. Absolute volume of exports of high-tech products and share in its world volume: leading countries and Russia, 2006

From this table, we clearly see that, unlike China and developed countries, the export of high-tech products from the Russian Federation is insignificant. The volume of Russian exports of high-tech products in 2006 amounted to 9.5 billion dollars, having increased in nominal terms by 1.2 times compared to the previous year and 2.2 times compared to 1996. Thus, a small share of high-tech exports in the total volume demonstrates a low competitiveness of domestic enterprises in the world market. If in 1998 it was 3.4%, by 2007 this share had dropped to 1.6%.

Why did such a situation arise? After the Soviet national economic complex, we simply could not adapt to work in the new conditions. In the process of establishing a market economy, the most necessary industries related to the export of raw materials and semi-finished products survived. This led to a loss of quality and a simplification of the production structure. Hence the extremely high dependence on imports of consumer goods, technologies and sophisticated products.

Today, after the economy has risen to its feet, we can give an objective assessment of the experience of the last two decades and find out the reasons for which such a one-sided technological dependence has developed.

The negative results of two decades lie in the fact that all privatization took place without taking into account intellectual property, which allowed newly privatized enterprises and organizations to be re-profiled, turned into trading, warehouse and purely commercial ones. The colossal engineering potential, which did not have time to move into small and medium business depreciated and became redundant. re-emerged big business turned out to be immune to high technologies. The authors of inventions, with rare exceptions, have ceased to receive remuneration even in high-tech industries. The government began to pay less and less attention to scientific research. Talented scientists, inventors, engineers and simply gifted people began to look for employment abroad, hence the so-called "brain drain". Technical sciences have become less prestigious. In their place, such professions as economists, lawyers and programmers have become leaders, from the abundance of which there is nowhere to go. The general current ideology of management, which spontaneously arose after 1991, contributed to the fact that in the first ten years of perestroika, almost all engineers - heads of enterprises were replaced by people with a hastily received economic education. New economists-managers who came from somewhere to high-tech industries such as telecommunications, machine-building, instrument-making, defense, energy, aerospace and others, to the surprise of many experts and analysts, began to get rid of the most highly qualified specialists. But saving on highly qualified specialists is a strategic mistake of any management. This is known all over the world. The country was overwhelmed by a wave of man-made disasters in the sea, in the air, on land.

The dismissal of "engineering brains" gave an immediate economic effect. It turned out that technological renewal based on our own domestic developments is no longer possible. There was no one to effectively apply these technologies and improve them in a timely manner. There were no engineering brains there. An example is the accident at the Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric power station, which was “arranged” by “effective managers” who neglected engineering knowledge and personnel.

Raising the technological base turned out to be not so easy, and enterprises began to unite into state corporations in order to restart innovative development. Their leaders began to receive from the government every year more and more budgetary funds for modernization and renovation. However, even the investment of such huge budgetary funds did not change the situation at the enterprises. There was still no one to master domestic developments. The so-called “money laundering” took place, and innovations did not continue to improve. Huge amounts of money were wasted. To justify their helplessness, corporate executives claimed that there was no growth in Russia based on innovation.

Nevertheless, continue to develop without the latest technologies impossible in principle. The government was forced to accept the trend of buying technology from abroad and allocate even more money than before. But no self-respecting country will sell its inventions in full, as it is economically unprofitable. They only provided "demo versions". In recent years, this practice has already been in the USSR. We bought shoe factories on a turnkey basis, when the Europeans sold us obsolete equipment, while they themselves mastered the new one. This practice is very beneficial for the West, since it receives double income: first from the use of its own production, and then from the sale of outdated own production.

If nothing is changed, then our path will lead to complete technological dependence on the West, which has become very clear today. The government does nothing and, in fact, agreed with technological dependence, although it does not officially say this, and people and companies that develop their own innovations patent them abroad, where they are very successfully implemented. In Russia, they do not receive due attention. It seems to the government that it is much more “profitable” to buy products abroad, the technologies of which were created by our own scientists, who were forced to go abroad. As a result, high import duties are paid by our citizens and our enterprises.

It is necessary to recall the experience of such great personalities in Russian history as Peter the Great and Stalin, who technologically updated the country's economy. Their method of individually searching for and supporting talent cannot be overstated. They found truly gifted people among the people and gave them the opportunity to develop their ideas. It is this method of individually seeking out and supporting folk talent among engineers, scientists and entrepreneurs that can truly form a solid and successful technology base. By the way, there are many brilliant scientists and inventors in our country.

It is a clear shortage of outstanding, strategically thinking managers and politicians that exists today in the country. All other problems follow from here.

In order to overcome the emerging one-sided technological dependence, it is necessary to better sponsor organizations that carry out research and development.

Tab. 2. Organizations performing research and development

Their number for the period 1990–2007 increased by 1.2 times. The marked growth was associated with both the disaggregation of existing and the creation of new scientific organizations.

Recognizing the need for a fairly rapid formation of a new approach to science, technology and innovation policy, in early 2007, the Ministry of Education and Science initiated a large-scale work on long-term forecasting of the science and technology development of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2025. The goals, objectives and principles of scientific and technological development in Russia are formulated in the "Concept for the long-term forecast of scientific and technological development Russian Federation for the period up to 2025". Its main goal is to position the country in the system of international scientific and technological cooperation based on the development of the national innovation system.

Let us sum up everything that has been said above and name the main reasons for the technological dependence of the Russian Federation on developed countries:

1. a significant gap between the available resources and the effect of their use;
2. lack of high-quality funding for knowledge-intensive industries;
3. poor training of highly qualified personnel in higher educational institutions;
4. degradation of human resources.

So what measures should be taken to eliminate the current situation? First, it is necessary to form a long-term state concept of scientific and technological development of the country. Secondly, to provide funding for fundamental science with a significant increase in the amount of remuneration for scientific work. And finally, thirdly, to prevent the collapse of the scientific and technical sphere, to protect it from the elements of the market by creating economic and legal regulatory mechanisms.

Short description

Why has a one-sided technological dependence developed for Russia? How can we overcome the existing gap between Russia and the developed Western world? And how long might it take Russia to overcome the existing backlog? These and other questions will be discussed in this thesis.

The basis of any production is the technological process, which is understood as a set of actions for the extraction and processing of raw materials into finished products. Any processes are based on physical, chemical, biological processes that differ in the nature of quantitative and qualitative changes in raw materials during their processing.

Main classification technological processes is the method of organization and the frequency of processing of raw materials.

Types of technological processes depending on the method of their organization : single, typical, group, discrete (discontinuous, periodic), continuous and combined.

Single technological process (ETP) is developed for the manufacture or repair of a product of the same name, size and design, regardless of the type of production. The development of the ETP includes the following steps.

1. Analysis of the initial data and selection of the current UTP analogue.

2. The choice of the initial workpiece and the method of its production.

3. Determination of the content of operations, the choice of technological bases and the preparation of a technological route (sequence) of processing.

4. Selection of technological equipment, equipment, means of automation and mechanization of the technological process. Clarification of the sequence of transitions.

5. Appointment and calculation of operation execution modes, standardization of transitions and TP operations, determination of professions and qualifications of performers, establishment of safety requirements.

6. Calculation of accuracy, productivity and economic efficiency of TP. Choice of optimal process.

7. Registration of working technological documentation.

The necessity of each stage, the composition of the tasks and the sequence of the solution is established depending on the type of production.

The TP typification makes it possible to eliminate their diversity with reasonable reduction to a limited number of types.

Typical technological process (TTP) is characterized by the unity of the content and sequence of most technological operations and transitions for groups of products with common design features.

Typification begins with the classification of products. class called a set of details characterized by a common technological tasks. Within the class, parts are divided into groups, subgroups, etc. to type. Almost one type includes parts for which one technological process can be compiled.

TPP is developed taking into account the latest achievements of science and technology, the experience of advanced workers, which can significantly shorten the production preparation cycle and increase productivity through the use of more advanced production methods.

Group workflow (GTP) is intended for the joint production or repair of groups of products with different design, but common technological features.

When grouping, one of the most complex parts is taken as a complex one. This part must have all the surfaces found in the parts of this group. They can be arranged in a different sequence than the complex part. If there is no such part in the group, a conditional complex part is created. According to this technological process, any part of the group can be processed without significant deviations from the general scheme.

Group technological processes are used for machining parts on universal equipment, for electrical installation, assembly and other operations, which makes it expedient to use high-performance automatic machines and semi-automatic machines in small-scale production.

Batch processes (for example, steel smelting, mold casting, heat treatment, etc.) are carried out on equipment that is loaded with raw materials or blanks at regular intervals; after their processing, the resulting product is unloaded. Periodic or discrete processes are characterized by the alternation of working and auxiliary operations in time; they are usually performed at one place. They are compact in space and extended in time. The main disadvantage of such processes is that during the loading and unloading of the product, the equipment does not work (idle) or does not work at full capacity. This leads to loss of working time and high labor costs. In addition, the inconsistency of the technological regime at the beginning and end of the process complicates maintenance, makes it difficult to automate and leads to an increase in the duration of the production cycle. All these reasons encourage replacing periodic processes with more rational ones, if there is an economic and technical feasibility.

Continuous Processes (for example, casting steel, rolling or drawing profiles from metals and alloys, oil refining, cement production) are carried out in apparatuses where the supply of raw materials and the unloading of final products are carried out continuously. However, all stages of the process can proceed simultaneously both in different parts of the apparatus (for example, the distillation of oil in distillation column), as well as in various devices that make up this installation. They are characterized by continuous and simultaneous performance of working and auxiliary technological actions, but at different places. Parallel execution of operations can significantly improve performance, but requires more space.

Combined processes are a combination of stages of periodic and continuous processes(for example, production lines for mechanical processing of parts, coal coking, operation of a blast furnace or a batch mill for metal profiles). Combined technological processes allow you to successfully combine the advantages of periodic and continuous operations and eliminate their disadvantages.

Compared to combined and batch processes, continuous processes are distinguished by the absence of equipment downtime, interruptions in the production of end products, the possibility of full automation and mechanization, the stability of the technological regime and, accordingly, the greater stability of the quality of the work performed, including finished products. For example, ingots of metals and alloys made in continuous casting plants differ more high quality and the absence of defects characteristic of ingots obtained in molds (conventional casting). The greater compactness of the equipment provides lower capital and operating costs for repairs and maintenance, reduces the need for labor force, increases labor productivity, allows fuller and more efficient use of energy resources. For these reasons, the main trend in industrial mass production is to replace batch processes with continuous ones. But, as a rule, technological equipment for continuous processes is more complex and expensive.

Now periodic processes retain their importance in relatively small-scale industries (including pilot ones) with a diverse range of products. There, the application of these processes allows to achieve greater flexibility in the use of equipment at lower cost.

2. According to the frequency of processing of raw materials process is distinguished: With open(open) scheme, in which the raw material or material is subjected to a single processing; With closed(circular, circulating or cyclic) scheme in which raw materials or auxiliary materials are repeatedly returned to the initial stage of the process for re-processing, and sometimes regeneration (restoration of lost properties); combined(with mixed scheme).

An example of a process with an open (open) circuit is a converter method for producing steel. An example of a closed circuit process is the circulation of a special liquid mixture to cool the cutter. lathe at high-speed machining of metals by cutting. In such a closed circuit, the coolant constantly circulates between the tank, cutter, fluid collector and a pump for pumping it into the tank. Another example of a closed cycle process can be the chemical processing of petroleum fractions, where, in order to continuously restore the activity of the catalyst, the latter constantly circulates between the cracking reaction zone and the calciner to burn carbon from its surface.

Closed-loop processes are more compact than open-loop processes and require, in comparison with them, less consumption of raw materials, auxiliary materials, and energy for the transportation of reagents. Cyclic (with a closed circuit) processes are widely used in many industries for multiple or partial return of heat or material flows to the initial stage of the process. This allows you to rationally and economically spend energy, raw materials, materials and water resources, to obtain high quality products. The most advanced technological processes - processes with a closed circuit - are the basis for the creation of waste-free, material- and energy-saving industries.

In industry, combined processes (mixed circuit) are often used, which are a combination of open and closed circuit processes (for example, the production of sulfuric acid by the nitrous method). In such processes, some intermediate products (sulfur oxides) are processed in an open circuit, passing through a series of apparatuses in series, while others (nitrogen oxides) circulate in a closed circuit.

3. Classification of technological processes according to ways of processing raw materials. The processing of raw materials is based on physical, mechanical, chemical and biological processes that differ in the nature of qualitative changes and transformations of matter.

Physical technological processes. Yes, use physical processes for the processing of raw materials is characterized by a change in state (solid, liquid gaseous), external form and physical properties. These TPs can be implemented by changing the parameters of the conditions surrounding the object of labor, for example, temperature, pressure, electromagnetic field, ionizing and radioactive radiation, etc. As a rule, physical technological processes in their pure form are rarely implemented, they often cause chemical transformations, then such processes turn into physical and chemical ones. Pure physical processes - the transformation of water into steam or ice and vice versa; the transformation of graphite under the influence of temperature and pressure into diamond, the melting or solidification of pure metals or substances. The physicochemical process is the melting of ore or scrap metal and the production of a liquid alloy, which, when solidified, not only turns into a solid body, but also undergoes a chemical transformation, the crystal lattice and structure of the alloy change.

Often the use of physical technological processes in the manufacture of some products can significantly improve the quality and efficiency of work. In particular, in modern mechanical engineering, materials that are characterized by high hardness and toughness, which are difficult to respond to traditional processing methods, are becoming increasingly widespread. The ever-increasing number of dies and molds used is characterized by a high complexity of internal cavities. This served as the basis for the creation and introduction into production of highly efficient electrophysical (EP) and electrochemical (EC) processing methods, the essence of which is that processing is facilitated by weakening the bonds between the elementary volumes of the workpiece due to their heating, melting and removal from the processing zone or transfer alloy into an easily removable joint.

In electrophysical processing, a tool is used - an electrode, which can be made of an easily processed material (copper, graphite, copper-graphite composition, etc.). When the electrodes, the tool and the workpiece approach each other in a liquid dielectric, an electric discharge occurs, and an electric current begins to flow through the gap between them. Electrons, colliding with the anode (workpiece), intensively heat it up and melt microvolumes of the workpiece. The molten alloy particles are cooled by a liquid dielectric and removed from the gap between the tool and the workpiece. Electrophysical methods are distinguished by a high energy concentration (1000–100000000 W/cm2) in local areas of the workpiece being processed, material particles are removed from the surface in a molten or vapor state. On electroerosive machines, it is possible to make complex cavities in workpieces, cut and drill them, grind and polish them. When polishing, there is no need to use a tool; it is enough to provide a powerful discharge between the polished product and an aqueous solution of common salt.

ESP varieties are electroerosive, electrospark, electropulse, electrocontact and plasma processing.

A characteristic feature of electroerosive (electrodischarge) machining is that electrical breakdown occurs along the shortest path, which predetermines the destruction (melting) of the closest parts of the workpiece. Therefore, when making recesses (cavities) or holes, the machined surface of the workpiece takes the form of an electrode. It is known that the machining of the outer surfaces of the workpiece is much simpler, more productive and economical, can be performed with higher quality than the inner surfaces, while simple tools and universal equipment can be used.

Mechanical technological processes. In production, more than 80% of technological processes are mechanical, as a result of which the shape, surface quality, geometric dimensions and properties of the workpiece change. So, during plastic deformation of a metal workpiece, they give the required shape and geometric dimensions, and in parallel change and physical properties workpiece alloy (work hardening and hardening). Using mechanical technological processes, sheets, long products, forgings, pipes, wire and much more are obtained. When cutting by removing chips, the workpiece is given a certain shape and size, turning it into a future part, which, as a result of such processing, acquires a given accuracy of geometric dimensions with the corresponding surface roughness. With this processing, the material properties of the workpiece do not change.

When making detachable connections of parts and assemblies of the product, a typical mechanical technological process is implemented, most assembly TS are based on purely mechanical processes (turn a screw or nut, press in a bearing or bushing, make a riveted connection, flare, cotter, etc.), and the operations for connecting individual parts or assemblies do not require highly skilled performers and these operations can be easily automated, especially in mass production.

Mechanical technological processes are widely used in the mining industry, grinding, mixing, dosing, sorting, compacting, shaping, packaging of raw materials and materials.

Chemical processes , unlike physical and mechanical, are characterized by a change not only in physical properties, but also in the state of aggregation, chemical composition and internal structure of matter. For example, chemical processing of natural gas from methane produces hydrogen, ethylene, acetylene, methyl alcohol and other products; hydrolysis of wood - turpentine, tar, camphor, vanillin, alcohols, rosin.

Chemical processes underlie the life of living organisms. In industrial production technology, the term "chemical processes" should be understood in a broad sense and not be identified with the production of only chemicals. Chemical-technological processes are the basis for the production of many building materials, metals and food products; they are used in mechanical engineering, in the production of radio-electronic equipment, measuring equipment, and light industry products. Chemical technological processes play an important role in the development of electronics, biotechnology and the creation of new materials with unique properties, without which the modern production of many goods with high quality indicators is unthinkable.

Chemical technological processes. The basis of chemical TP is chemical reactions (simple complex, reversible and irreversible, exothermic and endothermic) of various substances when certain conditions are created. In this case, new substances are formed that already have completely different properties. As a rule, most of them represent the main product, and some are by-products and waste. TP consists of three stages: preparation of raw materials or materials, chemical reaction, separation (withdrawal) of the obtained substances from the reactor.

Depending on the raw materials used, TP can be divided into processes for the processing of plant, animal and mineral raw materials. Chemical technological processes (CTP) can be low-temperature, occurring at temperatures up to 500 °C and high-temperature (above 500 °C); catalytic and non-catalytic; occurring under vacuum, under high or atmospheric pressure, etc.

Thanks to the development chemical technology and improvement of CTP in the last 50 years, tens of thousands of new materials and substances with unique properties have appeared, these are various adhesives, fluoroplastics, polyurethanes, paints, varnishes, polyethylenes, polypropylenes, polyamides, epoxy resins, polycarbonates, vinyl plastics, polystyrenes, polyvinyl chlorides (PVC ), textolites, getinaks, etc. Help materials. CTPs have significantly changed the quality of human life and it is now difficult to imagine life without them. The production of clothing, footwear, residential buildings, household appliances, cars, appliances and much more has become more technologically advanced, productive, cost-effective and of high quality thanks to the CTP. The role of the chemical industry can hardly be overestimated, the gross domestic product of the Republic of Belarus is filled with more than 50% due to the production of KhTP.

Biological processes are associated either with the use of living microorganisms in order to obtain the required products (traditional biotechnology), or with the reproduction under artificial conditions of the processes occurring in a living cell (modern biotechnology).

Biological technological processes. Biological processes proceed due to microorganisms that process raw materials into useful materials (organic fertilizer, wine, alcohol, medications, metals, combustible gas, fermented milk products, vitamins, proteins, organic acids, etc.). The second half of the 20th century was marked by the intensive development of biotechnology. Biotechnology is an industrial technology for obtaining valuable products from raw materials with the help of microorganisms. Biotechnological processes have been known since ancient times: baking, making wine and beer, cheese, vinegar, lactic acid products, bio-purification of water, pest control of flora and fauna, processing of leather, plant fibers, obtaining organic fertilizers, etc. The scientific foundations were laid in the 19th century by the French scientist L. Pasteur (1822-1895), who laid the foundation for microbiology. This was facilitated, on the one hand, by the rapid development of molecular biology and genetics, biochemistry and biophysics, and, on the other hand, by the emergence of the problem of lack of food, mineral resources, energy, medicines, and environmental degradation. In the modern sense, the field of biotechnology includes genetic and cellular engineering, the purpose of which is to change the hereditary mechanisms of functioning of organisms to control the activities of living beings. Biotechnology is closely related to technical microbiology and biochemistry. It also uses many methods of chemical engineering, especially at the final stages of the production process, when isolating substances, for example, from the biomass of microorganisms.

Biotechnology is based on microbiological synthesis, i.e. cultivation of selected microorganisms in a nutrient medium of a certain composition. The world of microorganisms - the smallest, predominantly unicellular organisms (bacteria, microscopic fungi, algae, etc.) - is extremely vast and diverse. They reproduce most often by simple cell division, sometimes by budding or other asexual means.

Microorganisms are characterized by a wide variety of physiological and biochemical properties. For some of them, the so-called anaerobes, air oxygen is not needed, others grow well on the ocean floor in sulfide springs at a temperature of 250 ° C, others have chosen as their habitat nuclear reactors. There are microorganisms that remain viable in a deep vacuum, and there are those that do not care about pressure of 1000–1400 atm. The extraordinary stability of microorganisms allows them to occupy the extreme boundaries of the biosphere: they are found in the ocean soil at a depth of 11 km, in the atmosphere at a height of more than 20 km. Microorganisms are widespread in nature; a gram of soil can contain up to 2–3 billion of them. In microorganisms, many processes of biosynthesis and energy metabolism, for example, electron transport and protein synthesis, proceed similarly to the same processes as in the cells of higher plants and animals.

However, microorganisms also have specific enzymatic and biochemical reactions, on which their ability to decompose cellulose, lingin, oil hydrocarbons, wax, and other substances is based. There are microorganisms capable of assimilating molecular nitrogen, synthesizing protein, and producing many biologically active substances (antibiotics, enzymes, vitamins, etc.). This is the basis for the use of microorganisms to obtain a wide variety of products. Moreover, in modern biotechnology, not whole organisms, but their components are increasingly being used: living cells, various structures that are their parts, and biological molecules.

Now, with the help of biotechnology, antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids, proteins, alcohols, feed additives for animals, fermented milk products and much more are obtained. Interest in the use of biotechnologies is constantly growing in various fields of human activity: energy, food industry, medicine, agriculture, chemical industry, etc. This is primarily due to the possibility of using renewable resources (biomass) as raw materials, as well as energy savings . For example, substances such as ammonia, glycerin, methanol, phenol are more profitable to produce by biotechnology than by chemical methods.

A promising direction in the development of biotechnology is the development and introduction into practice of microbiological methods for obtaining various metals. As you know, microorganisms play an important role in the cycle of substances in nature. It has been established that they are involved in the process of formation of ore minerals. So at the beginning of the twentieth century, in an old spent copper mine, a huge amount of copper was found in the aqueous solution pumped out of the mine, which was produced by bacteria from copper sulfide compounds. Oxidizing water-insoluble copper sulfides, bacteria convert them into easily soluble compounds, and the process proceeds very quickly. Microorganisms are able to process not only copper compounds, but also extract iron, zinc, nickel, cobalt, titanium, aluminum, lead, bismuth, uranium, gold, germanium, rhenium and many others from ore. The use of bacteria is especially effective at the final stage of mine operation, during waste processing. The introduction of geomicrobiological technology will make it possible to involve in industrial use hard-to-reach, deep deposits of minerals. After the appropriate preparatory work, it will be enough to immerse the pipes to the desired depth and bring the biological solution through them to the ore rock. Passing through the rock, the solution is enriched with certain metals, and raised to the surface will carry the necessary natural resources. There is no need to build expensive mines, the undesirable burden on the environmental situation will decrease, large areas of land occupied by mines, dumps and processing enterprises will be freed up, the costs of cleaning the atmosphere, land and wastewater will be reduced, and the cost of extracted minerals will be significantly reduced.

Intensive development and expansion of the use of biological processes in the production of medicines, proteins and feed, organic fertilizers, food products based on fermentation, combustible gases and liquids, microorganisms for cleaning the liquid and air habitat of the living world is a very relevant and highly effective task of the economy of the Republic of Belarus. The possibility of using biotechnologies in the development of non-traditional methods for obtaining energy resources cannot be neglected. The conversion of biomass into biogas makes it possible to obtain 50-80% of potential energy without polluting the environment.

Biotechnology today has the following areas: 1) industrial biotechnology (microbiological synthesis); 2) genetic and cellular engineering; 3) engineering enzymology (protein engineering). Industrial biotechnology implements processes that are carried out in artificial production conditions in order to obtain baker's, wine and fodder yeast, vaccines, protein and vitamin concentrates (PVC), plant protection products, starters for fermented milk products and forage silage, soil fertilizers, antibiotics, hormones, enzymes, amino acids, vitamins, alcohols, organic acids, solvents. In addition, these processes make it possible to utilize waste, cellulose and produce biogas.

Genetic engineering allows you to create artificial genetic structures by influencing the material carriers of heredity (DNA), with its help you can form completely new organisms and produce physiologically active substances of a protein nature for medical and agricultural needs (to produce interferon, insulin, growth hormone of living organisms). Genetic engineering is considered the most promising area of ​​modern biotechnology, with its help it is possible to correct human hereditary diseases, create tissue regeneration stimulators for the treatment of wounds, burns, and fractures.

Engineering enzymology is a promising direction in the development of industrial biotechnology, it is a science that develops the foundations for creating highly efficient enzymes for the industrial intensification of technological processes with significant savings in material and energy resources. Enzymes are used in the production of sugar for diabetics, hormonal preparations, leather processing, obtaining fabrics, paper, synthetic materials, glucose, improving the quality of dairy products, etc.

Conclusion: The division of raw material processing processes into physical, mechanical, chemical and biological is often conditional due to the impossibility of drawing a clear line between them. So, for example, changing the shape and appearance material is accompanied by chemical processes (electrochemical and electroerosive surface treatment, metallurgical processes for obtaining metals and alloys, thermomechanical hardening of materials, etc.), and chemical processes in almost all industries are accompanied by mechanical ones. But, despite the conventionality of such a classification, the division of processes into physical, biological, chemical and mechanical contributes to the typification of industrial production processes and facilitates the choice of the most effective method of processing raw materials. The choice of a technological process depends on many factors: the availability of raw materials, the type of energy used, the degree of complexity of instrumentation, the cost of industrial buildings, structures, equipment, their installation and operation, as well as the quality and cost of the finished product.

08.09.2010

The 21st century burst into our lives very quickly and brought with it the rapid development of computer technology and everything connected with them. We are used to the fact that all our phones and important contacts are recorded in phones, computers, laptops and other portable gadgets. We completely rely on technology, we are dependent on it. Count how many computers, monitors, phones you have at home! Lot? There are probably more phones than the number of people in your family, and everyone probably has their own computer.

Why are we so dependent on modern technologies and everything connected with them?

Problem

Development of addiction

Did you know that certain video games trigger the release of dopamine in the brain? Recall that dopamine is also released during sex and food, things that are considered necessary for the survival of man as a species. It turns out vicious circle- games give an impulse for the release of dopamine, and dopamine is something like a pleasure hormone (its narcotic analogues are amphetamine, methamphetamine, ephedrine), so later we want to get high from the game again and we sit down to play again.

But dopamine isn't only released when we play video games. Checking e-mail has exactly the same effect. Count how many times a day you check your inbox, even if there is nothing particularly important there? This is especially true of the sound signals that accompany the receipt of a new letter. You don't know if this message is important, but it's still itching to see what's in there, even if it's just another spam. It turns out directly dependence on signals, and Pavlov's experiments with dogs come to mind.

As long as there were only desktop computers, the problem was not so big. But as soon as laptops, netbooks, smartphones and various gadgets like the iPad appeared, everything became much worse, because now you check your mail (twitter, facebook, VKontakte - underline as necessary) not only at home, but also in transport, in cafes, on picnic, wherever there is access to the Internet. And now you can add here Mobile Internet and WiFi.

Information overload

We process three times as much information today as we did 50 years ago. And it becomes more and more. If earlier it took a lot of effort and time to print a book, now it is enough to sit down at a computer and put it on the net. Only now not only writers, journalists and various public figures write, but everyone who can write and read. Accordingly, now it is necessary to filter even more carefully and much larger amounts of information. And despite all this, we can't even spend three days without reading news (especially related to the world of technology), because we are afraid that we will miss something and we won't catch up. As the black queen from "Through the Looking Glass" said - "In our world, my dear, to stay in place, you need to run, and to move, you need to run even faster."

Technology etiquette

In the past few years, "pocket" devices have been updated at a tremendous speed. Is it right to scribble even a short post on twitter while driving? I think no. But some do it anyway. In the same way, it will not be very polite, sitting in the company of friends, to bury your head on your smartphone and read the news feed there or check your mail. Please note that you are not required to respond to all messages immediately. Yes, there are cases when it is urgent, but all the same, hands reach out to check and answer. It's great when this is good news - share the positive with your friends, but if all this is not very pleasant, then you not only do not take a break from work, but also spoil the mood of the people around you.

Solution

So what can we do to stop constantly staring at screens and not spending weekends and evenings behind the console, and finally begin to see and hear the world around us and people?

Out of sight, out of mind

The usual scenario: you take your phone out of your pocket to check the time, at the same time you start checking your e-mail, this leads to a response to letters, etc. As a result, a simple and short operation “check the time” turns into a whole set of operations that takes 5 times more time. If you pulled out your phone to check the time, try to do just that and no more. If it is very difficult to resist checking your mail, wear a watch on your hand.

You are not a multi-tasking machine

This does not mean that now all things need to be done separately. Listening to your favorite tracks while running can also be attributed to multitasking, but this is welcome. But an attempt to simultaneously watch a TV show or a movie and perform work at this time is not very welcome. You will not be able to properly concentrate on work and miss the most interesting part of the program. In the end, the constant combination of things will lead to the fact that you simply can no longer concentrate normally on only one thing. As a result, the work will not be done as well in a longer time. This also includes working on a computer on a project and simultaneously checking messages in instant messengers, twitter and in social networks. For an experiment, try to turn off everything unnecessary and focus only on work. I think it will take you two times less time than with the included instant messengers and open social networks.

never apologize

How often do you apologize for not being able to pick up the phone because you were riding the subway/walking with your child/working out at the gym? First, you don't have to apologize for being unavailable at not work time . Second, it shows your addiction to responding to messages immediately. Stop apologizing. You are human and just might not be able to do everything right now. Allow yourself the luxury of replying to a message when you have the opportunity and the mood to do so. Of course, this does not mean that you can safely ignore emails from clients during business hours. Otherwise, people may get the not-so-true feeling that you can answer calls and emails at any day and time of the day.

Organize your time

We usually talk more about organizing our time than we actually do it. Start with mail! Many email clients offer you very handy tools for this business (folders, shortcuts, etc.). Google's "Priority Inbox" comes in handy for separating your messages into just "important" and "very important". At the moment there is only a beta version, not available to everyone.

In any case, breaking the habit of always and everywhere being inseparable from your devices and staying without communication for a long time does not go painlessly. Get ready, you're going to have a breakdown anyway and a little panic that you've missed something. But it's worth it. You will feel much freer and the state of "always connected" gives only visible freedom, actually tying us tightly to the technology and places of "residence" of the Internet.

Dissertation abstract on the topic "Technological dependence of developing countries and the possibilities of overcoming it"

Oh o ■> g

ROS / DONATE FINANCIAL ACADEMY

As a manuscript BEK 65 .011.6

SANNIKOVA Irina Alexandrovna

TECHNOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THE OPPORTUNITIES FOR OVERCOMING IT

Specialty 08. 00.01 - "Political Economy"

Moscow - 1991

The dissertation was completed at the Department of Political Economy of the State Financial Academy.

scientific adviser

doctor of economic sciences, professor Motylev Veniamin Volfovich

Official opponents:

Doctor of Economic Sciences, Professor Livshits Alexander Yakovlevich

Candidate of Economic Sciences, Lecturer Efremova Tatyana Gerbertovna

Lead organization

State Academy of Management

problematic scientific laboratory integration of science, education and production

The defense will take place in 1991 at ^ hours on

sedanii of the specialized council K 053.10.01. State Financial Academy at the address: 129848, Moscow, st. Kibalchicha, d. 1. aud.<20/

The dissertation can be found in the library of the State Financial Academy.

Scientific "Secretary of the Specialized Council, Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor

V. I. Petrov

1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WORK.

Relevance of the research topic. The defining feature of the modern world economy is the growing "interdependence of states associated with the internationalization of production and exchange. The scientific and technological revolution has a stimulating effect on the expansion" and intensification of world economic relations. Developing countries are also increasingly involved in the global reproduction cycle. The solution of a number of vital tasks of these countries becomes possible only through the inclusion and integration of their economies into the system of the world capitalist economy. Overcoming economic backwardness, changing the unequal position of developing countries in the international division of labor, the state of the world economy will largely depend on the nature of the economic relations that develop between the industrial center and the periphery of the world economy. Therefore, the economic contradictions that arise in the relationship between these two parts of the world system capitalism and their further development are of particular interest and require in-depth study.

The structure of economic relations consists of several components, but at the present stage of economic development, when science has become the "leading factor of social production," determining the economic development "of any country, the technological factor began to play a dominant role. The exchange of scientific and technological achievements is growing extremely rapidly. Transfer of technology has become a large independent sphere of international relations.The development of the domestic scientific and technical base largely depends on access to foreign developments in the field of science and technology.Ensuring the accelerated modernization of the economies of the third world countries, adapting it to world requirements, involves attracting a significant

tabah of foreign equipment, technology, qualified specialists. At the same time, foreign technology has a complex and contradictory effect on the forms and rates of development of the economy of the host states, their place in the international capitalist division of labor. On the one hand, the scientific and technical knowledge of Western firms acts as a catalyst for the industrial growth of these countries, and on the other hand, when the need for imports significantly exceeds the possibilities of their own exports, they exacerbate many problems. national economy. The creation of an industrial basis in these countries takes place under conditions of deep dependence. (asymmetric interdependence) from the developed capitalist states. As a result of the development of the process of internationalization of the capitalist economy, the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the aggravation of environmental problems, as well as the achievement of political independence and the strengthening of the economic positions of individual developing countries, there are significant changes in the relationship between the developed capitalist and the newly-free countries. This causes the urgent need for their theoretical analysis from the standpoint of political economy. . .

Finally, an objective analysis of the problems and contradictions of transferring technology to developing countries is of great practical ... value - for. USSR.. .Studying the specific experience of various countries in attracting foreign capital, in the first place. vyh, shows that the accelerated modernization. of the economy in modern conditions. presupposes. along with internal, the widespread use of international factors of production - the search for new diverse forms of economic cooperation with foreign branches. Secondly, it provides an opportunity to "take a fresh look at. economic relations with developing countries, especially with the "new industrial" states, which, in terms of a number of economic indicators, have already approached the developed capitalist states.

A study of the issues of technological dependence and its consequences for the economies of developing countries showed that in

Considerable research has already been carried out in this direction by Soviet specialists. Important aspects of this problem have been developed in the scientific works of such scientists as A. Z. Astapovich, T. Ya. Belous, A. V. Bereznoy, M. K. Bunkina, R. I. Zimenkov, I. S. I. Dinkevich, E. A. Karagodin, L. L. Klochkovsky, A. B. Nikolaev, E. E. Obminsky, E. E. Petrov, E. K. Polypikov, V. M. Sokolinsky, S. I. Tyulpanov, V. L. Tyagunenko, V. L. Sheinis, A. Ya. and prospects" (1974), "Developing countries in the modern world. 1 unity and diversity ^ 1983)," Developing countries in the modern world - a new force in world politics and economics "and others.

Despite the fact that serious research has been devoted to this topic, it cannot be said that the study of the problems of economic and scientific-technical interrelations between developing and industrialized countries has been exhausted. They require close attention, the search for new approaches, ideas and concepts for an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of the ongoing changes in modern world development. In the conditions of interdependence and interconnectedness of the modern world system of capitalism, changes in one part of it cannot but be reflected in another.

The ongoing process of democratization of our society presupposes a rethinking of the economic, scientific and technical relations between the center and the periphery of the world capitalist economy. Until recently (and sometimes even today) a black-and-white vision of the world prevailed. The extraordinarily complex, diverse relationships that take place between the two parts of the capitalist "economy" were interpreted - extremely one-sidedly, only as exploitative. Many saw the main source "of all the socio-economic problems and contradictions of the developing countries mainly in the" predatory nature of capitalism ". The author sought a realistic and objective approach to the study of economic "interrelations between industrialized and

developing countries, and to understand the true, contradictory impact of foreign technology on the economies of host countries.

The relevance of these issues, the lack of elaboration and debatability of certain aspects led to the choice of the topic and purpose of the dissertation.

Goals and objectives of the study. The purpose of this dissertation is to conduct a political economic analysis of the characteristics of the technological dependence of developing countries and to identify opportunities for changing their place in the international division of labor.

The implementation of the intended goal requires the solution of the following tasks:

Determine the position of the developing countries in the world capitalist economy, stating the preservation of their technological dependence on the centers of industrial development;

Reveal the specifics of technology transfer to the liberated states;

Assess the prospects for economic development of the countries of the "third world" in conditions of deep technological dependence (asymmetric interdependence);

Track current trends in international technological flows to developing countries;

Identify the positive and negative aspects of technology transfer on the example of the main forms of foreign economic activity of TNCs;

To reveal the features of the main forms of technology export to developing countries.

The methodological and theoretical basis of the thesis was the works of the classics of Marxism-Leninism on the issues of the world capitalist economy, documents and materials of the Soviet state. While working on the dissertation, the author relied on the results of studies by leading Soviet and foreign economists, close to the topic of this study.

The information base of the dissertation work was compiled by the faculty

the theoretical material contained in the statistical and reference publications of international economic organizations, in Soviet and foreign periodicals.

The scientific novelty of the presented dissertation research is as follows:

Clarified understanding of the causes of technological dependence, the prospects for its weakening;

Specific patterns, features and contradictions of the transfer of scientific and technological achievements to developing countries are revealed;

The one-sided approach, which took place until recently, in the study of complex, contradictory relationships between industrialized and developing countries, when the analysis was mainly reduced to identifying the negative impact on the economy of the latter, was overcome;

The possibility of changing by individual developing countries of their position in the international division of labor due to the use of international factors of production and active support from state bodies has been proved;

A critical analysis of the concept of "intermediate technology" is given. The transfer to developing countries of morally and sometimes even physically obsolete technology still contributes to the strengthening of the scientific and technological potential of the newly-free states.

The practical significance of the work. The results of the dissertation research can be applied in scientific institutions involved in the study of the economy of developing countries, international economic relations. The theoretical and methodological provisions of the dissertation can be used in teaching the course of political economy on the topic: "Export of capital, economic and territorial division of the world. The system of the world capitalist economy and the international division of labor", "The collapse of the colonial system of imperialism. Features of the economy of developing countries", in the development of special courses on the development of capitalism in the

liberated states. The conclusions of the dissertation research can serve as a theoretical basis for the institutions and organizations of the USSR engaged in foreign economic activity in the development and improvement of cooperation with companies in the newly-free countries.

The results of the study contain information that is interesting from the point of view of the practical experience of joint ventures with the participation of foreign capital.

Approbation of work. The study was carried out within the framework of the complex topic "Financial capital and developing countries" (state registration number 01.86.0071815 dated 05.27.86), developed at the MFI in accordance with the state plan for scientific research for 1981-1990. ,

The main provisions of the dissertation were presented in abstracts of speeches and received approval at scientific conferences: "Lenin's theory of imperialism and developing countries" (Moscow, MFI, May 1987); / "Positive and negative experience of scientific and technological revolution abroad" (Moscow, Moscow State University, March 1988); "Modern trends of the world capitalist market and developing countries" (Moscow, MFI, October 1989).

Work structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of references and applications.

Introduction.

Chapter 1. Developing countries in the system of economic and technological dependence.

1.1. Some aspects of industrial interdependence. developed and developing countries.

1. 2. Transfer of technology: essence and main forms.

Chapter P. Import of technology: positive and negative aspects.

2.1. New trends in international technology flows to developing countries.

2. 2. Impact of foreign direct investment on technology transfer to developing countries.

2. 3. The degree of impact of foreign technology coming under inter-company "contracts" on the scientific and technological potential of developing countries.

Conclusion. :

Application." ■

List of used literature. ¡;

The problems studied in the dissertation can be divided into two groups. ;, ■■

The first group of problems is related to determining the place of developing countries in the system of economic and scientific and technical dependence.

The analysis of specific problems of the impact of Western firms' technology on the economy of the liberated states in the dissertation is preceded by consideration of methodological aspects, clarification of concepts, - definition and classification of forms51 - dependencies between various elements of the world capitalist economy. "V" "to

Huge differences in economic potentials,7 a qualitatively different level of socio-economic relations determine the abyss that separates developing countries from industrialized countries and serves as the basis for economic dependence (asymmetric interdependence). Within its "framework, technological dependence is part of the whole. The problems associated with the transfer of technology and technological dependence acquire special significance at the present stage due to the unfolding scientific and technological revolution. ^

The process of evolution of world economic relations is characterized as a process of striving for the unity and integrity of the "modern world, which consists in a high degree of integration

economies of various states into the world capitalist economy on the basis of their deep involvement in the international division of labor. Despite all the contradictions, unifying tendencies, the search for compromises, and coordination of actions are gaining the upper hand in economic relations between countries. This trend is accelerating primarily due to the impact of the scientific and technological revolution. The very logic of scientific and technical progress brings the production process to the international level. Until recently, aid agreements for newly-free countries were seen as a sign of their weakness or a consequence of government restrictions. There is now a growing number of corporations participating in one way or another in alliances with various partners. Interest in the development of such relations is associated primarily with the technological process. Foreign economic activity becomes an organic part of the general economic practice of modern enterprises.

The developing countries are an important component of the world capitalist system. However, the interdependence between the center of the capitalist economy and the periphery differs significantly from that which develops within the region of developed capitalist countries. The emergence of the economic ties of the latter on the world level was a logical continuation of the previous socio-economic development, since "... the development of capitalism breaks down national barriers more and more, destroys national isolation." * At the same time, the role of the world market for developing countries is completely different. These states were faced with the need to move from an economy based on early capitalist and even pre-capitalist relations with antediluvian technology to modern industrial production. The inconsistency of this problem lies in the fact that the surplus product of such a society cannot ensure the growth of the pace and scale of industrial production.

Developing countries could have no other, alternative solution to the problem of a speedy transition to an expanded

> *Lenin V. I. Poly. coll. op. - T. 26. - S. 75.

reproduction and adaptation to the modern structure and world standards, except for attracting economic resources from outside. The entry of many of these states into the foreign market was not only the result of the evolution of their domestic productive forces and production relations; world economic relations became the catalyst that stimulated the spread of the laws of commodity production, accelerated the improvement of tools, etc. However, the use of foreign technology is associated with the emergence of new difficulties. - The export opportunities of many developing countries are extremely small, they cannot compensate for the costs that are required to obtain foreign productive capital. While TNCs, possessing ■ all the necessary factors of economic development, occupy a leading position in the development and application of the latest technologies, are the true masters of the situation. They have a huge degree of freedom in their activities. Because of this, the "influence of TNCs on the economy of the host countries is great. Liberated states are forced to accept the conditions, obey the requirements of a stronger partner ■ :■

As a result of the limited "Internal resources, the backwardness of the economic and scientific and technical potential of the countries of the" Third World ", a dependent type of economic development has formed, when the creation of an industrial base occurs under the control of foreign capital. Such development is inevitable, objectively determined for most developing countries.

However, it seems that the increase in technological dependence does not exclude the possibility of progressive development of the economy of the recipient country of scientific and technical knowledge.

The impact of technology transfer from Western firms has been highly controversial. It would be wrong to dwell only on the negative aspects of this phenomenon and even more so to evaluate it only as "a new method of exploitation and oppression of economically backward countries, a means of economic enslavement." It is necessary to objectively assess the situation, to see

only cons, but also possible pluses.

The main task of TNCs is not the development of the liberated states." They are interested in the growth and prosperity of their company, its competitiveness. TNCs organize production on an international scale in accordance with reality, with the strict laws of the society in which they live, with the laws of the market. They they cannot be altruists and transfer production factors on a gratuitous basis.The main incentive for investing capital remains profit, since the only source of development of any production is profit.Of course, the activity of foreign capital is not always consistent with the desires of the host countries, often runs counter to them "Using their dominant position, TNCs in the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge can dictate harsh, not always justified conditions to their partners, limiting the freedom of economic activity and thereby reducing the effect expected by the buyer. As a result, conflicts inevitably arise. However, such Contradictions also occur within industrialized countries. International corporations sometimes have a destructive effect not only on the economic structure of developing countries, but also on industrial centers. The high degree of vulnerability of the "Third World" economy is primarily due to the extremely low socio-economic level, the lack of highly qualified specialists, and the passivity of state bodies.

The presence of negative consequences when using foreign capital and technology would be wrong to regard as an indicator of their inefficiency and unsuitability for developing countries. The liberated states must be clearly aware of the realization of what goals, the solution of what tasks they entrust to Western technology. For them there is no question whether or not to use foreign capital. The problem is as follows: how to attract investment capital from international companies, despite all the disadvantages, and what forms, directions and mechanisms are needed for the most effective

its use.

Foreign technology should be given its due, it contributes to the acceleration of the overall rate of economic growth, the transition to expanded reproduction of the host country, and contributes to the renewal of the technological basis of production, primarily in industries that serve the social needs of the population: mass production of consumer goods and services, as well as export-oriented. The greatest positive effect is the revival of entrepreneurial activity and the private sector of the national economy, thanks to the establishment of cooperative ties.

General long-term trends taking shape in the world capitalist economy contribute to a gradual change in the position of the developing countries in the international division of labor. Opportunities for economic maneuver and choice of economic solutions in developing countries are increasing.

The deployment of labour-, material- and energy-intensive production in the "liberated" states inevitably forms the objective conditions for the transfer to these countries in the future of relatively modern production processes.

As a result of the acceleration of scientific and technological progress, the aggravation of environmental problems, the interest of the largest corporations in a wider and deeper inclusion of developing countries in the world reproduction cycle is growing. TNCs are forced to help the countries of the "third world" in their industrial development, and not to perpetuate backwardness. The profitability of investing capital in a relatively developed economy is much higher,

than investing it in an underdeveloped economic structure.

Modification of relations between the center and the periphery is also facilitated by the intensified competition in the world technology market between the largest TNCs in the USA, Japan and Western Europe. Developing countries have more and more opportunities to diversify scientific and technical ties in order to reduce dependence. The largest international corporations

states of highly developed capitalism cease to be the only source of technology. Small and medium-sized enterprises, as well as companies from individual developing countries, are increasingly entering the world market.

With all the importance of external factors in the process of industrialization of the newly-free states, their role should not be overestimated! "Only a healthy economic mechanism is capable of adapting foreign innovations. Among internal factors, [a determining. place is occupied by state policy in the field, (economy. ......

„ . V. (80s there is a reassessment of the role of state intervention in the economy. There is a departure from the situation in which the state acted as a monopolist and tried to: control .. all economic relations between producers. In all countries, steel be aware that effective

l C ■! . "I"

Operation is possible.only through the use of.the.market.mechanism, Legalization.of.private property, denationalization.of.a certain part.of.production links.

Such phenomena "do not imply the curtailment of the economic activities of the state. If a firm state power is necessary, economic" policy should be based primarily on objective economic laws, the laws of the market, and be based on proven economic calculations. An optimal combination of state regulation and market incentives must be found, when administrative intervention will not replace the market, but will operate with the help of flexible forms and methods of economic management, leaving the necessary scope for individual entrepreneurs to show initiative and stimulating healthy competition between them.

The state today occupies a significant place in the socio-economic life of developing countries. In connection with non-

By the sufficiency of private accumulation, it takes care of the primitive accumulation of capital and stimulates the formation and development of large national capital. State bodies, widely using their financial capabilities, create favorable conditions for national firms to operate in modern industries and support them in competition with foreign corporations. In addition, the state retains ownership in the most capital-intensive industries with a long capital turnover period and a high degree of commercial risk.

Thus, as a result of the analysis, the author came to the conclusion about the possibility of dynamic and often progressive development of the newly-free states in conditions of deep technological dependence on the industrial centers of the world capitalist economy, as evidenced by the experience of the so-called "new industrial countries". The attraction of foreign capital, technology and experience is a necessary condition for the accelerated development of capitalist production relations in developing countries.

The second group of dissertation problems is related to the study of the features and contradictions of technology transfer to developing countries. The center of gravity is shifted to the specific plane of the problems being solved, an analysis was made of the quality of the transferred technology, the mechanism, directions, possibilities and limits of the impact of foreign technology on the economy of the host states.

Trade in scientific and technical knowledge, as before, is concentrated in industrialized countries. The share of royalties coming from developing countries ranges from 16.4% in 1985 to 24.8% in 1981.* Considering the structure of consumers of foreign technology among the developing countries, it can be established that not all of them are equally attractive to the Western capital. The export of technology is growing most rapidly to the countries of East and Southeast Asia, which have a relatively high industrial potential and developed infrastructure. While the meaning

The value of Latin America and the Caribbean declined slightly, primarily due to the debt crisis.

The transfer of technology to developing countries is accompanied by a whole series of contradictions that invariably arise both within these countries and in the world capitalist economy. In the literature, there are certain disagreements on the question: what should take the leading place in the system of priorities when importing technology.. Preference should be given to advanced developments that ... meet modern requirements of scientific and technological revolution or actively use morally, and in some cases, physically obsolete ( dismantled) equipment and technology. Another opinion is put forward about the need to create a special technology that takes into account the specific features of these countries. ^ Such issues are considered in the context of an analysis of the impact of TNCs on the economy of host states. International corporations, allegedly seeking to increase technological dependence , transfer development to developing countries, ordinary developments that have already become widespread. #

In this regard, it should be noted, firstly, modern, promising developments, as a rule, are not subject to sale and purchase. They are used at first exclusively for the organization of own production by the owner of this invention. The terms of sale are postponed to later stages of the life of the innovation. Secondly, it is necessary to understand the extent to which developing countries themselves are able to adapt advanced developments. The specificity of such a commodity as technology lies in the fact that, being one of the forms of productive capital, its use value is manifested only in the production process; "The effective use of foreign scientific and technological achievements becomes possible if there is a certain infrastructure. Technology transferred by TNCs , is designed for the Western model of production and consumption.It assumes a high level of development of commodity production, expensive

* See R. I. Zimenkov. American neo-colonialism and technology transfer. - M. - Science. , 1982, - S. 147.

highly skilled workforce, relatively "cheap capital, capacious market. Developing countries are able to" introduce only those developments that somehow correspond to their internal socio-economic structure. - Based on the limited financial capabilities of most "third world" countries, we should not forget about the high prices "for advanced technology. L

The liberated states should actively use in their production scientific and technical developments, including those of "yesterday". Of course, such innovations will not be able to provide a breakthrough in any industry, but ~ such goals are not set before them ~. The technology, "already" widely used, has its advantages for the economies of developing countries, and at a certain stage of development, its use may be more effective in solving certain priorities of the countries of the "third world"! It presents no difficulty in adapting to local conditions" and "in!," at the same time it gives the necessary scope for the development of creative initiative, improvement of one's own technological "base. In addition, there is a diversification of the market for ""-" products that were not previously manufactured by the local industry. Of course, this technology has its drawbacks. Products manufactured with its help may not be competitive in the world market, but at the same time, the internal "market" is saturated and the possibility of exporting these goods to other developing countries is not ruled out.

The use of "second-rate" technology in no way excludes the need to obtain developments in the field of science and technology that correspond to the world level, which "are designed to ensure the formation and development of industries in priority sectors of the economy from the point of view of tomorrow".

Thus, the development of the national economy of the countries of the "third world" requires a reasonable combination in the use of modern and ordinary technologies. They solve different problems and each of them has a specific scope.

The level and quality of technology entering developing countries and the possibilities of its use are largely determined by the channel for the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge.

In international practice, various organizational forms are used in the process of technology transfer. This is, first of all, the export of scientific and technical knowledge within the framework of direct foreign capital investments of monopolies in fully controlled branches. Along with the traditional ones, new forms and channels of technology transfer are becoming more and more widespread: joint ventures and numerous contractual agreements without. .shareholding (international subcontracts, licensing, engineering and consulting agreements, know-how transfer agreements and others). Available statistics show that, despite the high growth in contractual arrangements, the bulk of TNC transfer income is directly related to direct investment. The main buyers are controlled foreign affiliates, and not domestic firms in developing countries. Thus, the proceeds of royalties in the United States from branches located in developing countries in 1985 amounted to 81.0% of the total receipts of the countries of the "third world", Germany - 90.4%, Japan - 61.6% (1980) .*

Which of these forms of attracting foreign technology is most acceptable from the point of view of developing countries, provides access to modern developments in the field of science and technology, contributes to the most rapid adaptation of Western firms' technology to local conditions, and leads to the formation of an export sector? It seems that such a universal channel for the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge in international practice does not exist, each has its own positive and negative sides.

The use of one or another organizational form of technology transfer depends on many factors, firstly, on the propensity inherent in individual suppliers of innovations, and secondly, on the content of the technology itself, its level, degree

* Transnational corporations in world development: Trends and prospects. - N. Y., 1988. - P. 17 7 .

uniqueness, thirdly, from the existing technological level of the host country, specific participants in the transaction.

A distinctive feature of the development of international flows of scientific and technical developments in the 80s is that the circle of technology investors has significantly increased." This happened due to increased competition in the modern technology market between the main rivals: transnational corporations of the USA, Western Europe and Japan The activity of new international companies of the most developed among the newly-free states and small and medium-sized enterprises of the industrial powers also intensified on the world stage.For example, in France, the value of technological flows of small and medium-sized enterprises to developing countries increased 3-4 times from 1976 to 1985. The same trend is observed in a number of other developed countries, especially Germany, Italy and Japan.*

The main advantage of new technology providers is related to the similarity of socio-economic conditions. The limited resource base of new investors and their very status as newcomers forces them to penetrate deeper into the production structure and look for closer relationships with national firms in order to reduce risk and minimize capital costs. They, as a rule, shy away from direct foreign investments and tend to create joint ventures, conclude various types of contract agreements without equity participation. The deals provide for greater freedom and flexibility in the use of technology. They are more often a standardized, labor-intensive, easy-to-handle technology for organizing small-scale multi-purpose production using local raw materials and materials. The activities of new exporters are concentrated mainly in traditional sectors of the economy.

Leading TNCs, on the contrary, are less likely to resort to close contacts with local firms. They gravitate mainly towards the organization of controlled branches, within which

* TD/V/S. 6/138 "Trends in Technology Transfer to Developing Countries by Small and Medium Enterprises". - p.8

export of scientific and technical knowledge. This situation can be partially explained by the requirements imposed by the parent company on the quality and technical characteristics of branded products. The degree of complexity of the transferred innovations is also important.

"h. Consequently, the national strategy in this matter involves a combination of the most diverse ways of attracting scientific knowledge and experience of foreign firms to solving economic problems. The choice of them should be flexible enough, the predominance of one or another is largely determined by the real possibilities and goals of a single country and can change as it develops.,. New and traditional forms and methods of transfer, technologies do not replace, but complement each other, coexist and develop simultaneously. Each of them, satisfying different types of technological needs host countries, has a fairly .. clearly defined scope of activity.If foreign direct investment is most widespread in advanced, export sectors of the economy, then "new forms"!, investments - in the traditional sector of industry, with relatively stable technology.

With all the variety of factors influencing the transfer of scientific and technical knowledge, ■ a necessary condition for their most complete and rapid development is the level of economic maturity of the host country, a properly developed legal and economic policy of the state, capable of ensuring the interest of individual national firms in the creation of knowledge-intensive industries.

Within the framework of this analysis, a significant place is given to the mechanism of distribution among national firms of scientific and technical.developments received in the form of intra-company ♦ trade. foreign firms,

whether national companies are involved in the production of complex products, whether it is possible to redirect foreign investment from labor- and resource-intensive industries to "capital- and science-intensive ones", whether the local workforce is being trained. - ¡^h

One of the most important ways of technology transfer and,■ ¡. probably the most effective of these is the establishment of direct industrial relations on the basis of subcontracting contracts with local enterprises acting as suppliers of semi-finished products, parts, assemblies and components. Enterprises controlled by TNCs impose strict requirements on the quality of purchased goods to sub-suppliers. They must comply with the specifications of the technological process used in the branch. To ensure that these requirements can actually be met, the branches are forced to assist in the organization of production, the "mastery of technology" and technology, and quality control. International monopolies are forced to supply suppliers with specifications, drawings and other documentation, as well as provide samples of the necessary "parts, components and assemblies. National firms, in the course of cooperating production, master new products and processes, the use of which further contributes to the modernization and -acceleration of the growth rate of material technical base of the industry.Governments in developing countries enact laws that require the use of locally produced components.For example, in the early 1970s in Brazil and Mexico, the share of local production in the total cost of parts and materials used by subsidiaries of the American automobile corporations was, respectively, 76. and 90%, by the mid-70s in Brazil it reached ■ 100%. and "Spare Parts!" increasing the share of locally produced components in the automotive

* Karagodin R Developing States and TNCs: Some Aspects of Relations // MEiMO, N 2, 1988. - P. 94.

** JNIDO Industry and Development: Global Report 1989/90. Vienna, 1989, P. 75.

tripling led to the separation of the production of parts, assemblies and parts into an independent branch of Brazilian engineering. Such a process may contribute to the exclusion of foreign capital from certain sectors of industry. Thus, by 1984, foreign companies had almost completely lost their positions to national Brazilian enterprises in the production of mini- and microcomputers, as well as peripheral equipment.

The distribution of foreign developments among local firms can also be carried out due to the transition to the national sector of scientists and engineers who have worked for a certain time in laboratories and at enterprises of international Western companies. However, there are certain factors hindering the spread of this channel - for example, associated with low staff turnover.

Thus, with the accumulation of experience, increase in financial and technological power, strengthening of their economic positions in a number of traditional industries, some states successfully began to master science-intensive industries in the 80s, primarily in the electronics industry, automotive industry and organize research laboratories and centers.

These states are everything. to an increasing extent, they turn from passive observers into competitors and intractable partners. They get the opportunity to widely use the benefits from the organization of foreign production, direct the activities of foreign companies in such a way that it complements and stimulates the efforts of national companies. The reproductive processes of the relatively developed emerging countries and the industrial powers "are closely interconnected. The share of these countries in the exports and imports of industrialized states occupies a significant place, they turned out to be deeply included in the intra-industry division of labor, specialization. In terms of parts, components and components products.

The study allows us to conclude that the export of scientific and technical knowledge from the leading industrial centers to the countries of the "third world" is a natural phenomenon that has become widespread under the influence of scientific and technological

Czech revolution. It seems that in the long term the scale of this phenomenon and its role in the world capitalist economy will increase. The consequences of technology transfer on the economies of developing countries are diverse and contradictory. A number of newly-free states, primarily the "new industrial" states and the "new exporting countries," now have all the necessary conditions for establishing more equal, mutually beneficial relations with TNCs. They have rebuilt their industrial structure and are included in the international division of labor, specializing in the production of individual high-tech goods. This became possible thanks to the effective use of foreign scientific and technological achievements, as well as the implementation of active economic, organizational and regulatory activities of the ruling circles of the host states.

Other countries of the developing world (and most of them) will be in conditions of growing unilateral dependence for a long time to come due to their deep economic underdevelopment and the inability of state bodies to develop a national economic strategy that promotes a shift away from raw material orientation and the development of non-traditional exports.

1. Military-technological neo-colonialism and its socio-economic consequences // The role of financial capital in exacerbating the contradictions between imperialist and developing countries / MFI. - M., 1986. - 0.5 p. l. (co-authored with Zalesskaya O. Yu.).

2. The development of high technology industries in "new industrial countries" (on the example of South Korea and Taiwan) // Robbery under the flag of democracy (financial and credit aspect) / MFI. - M., 1987. - 0.5 p. l.

3. Experience in the development of microelectronics in the developing countries of Southeast Asia (on the example of South Korea and Taiwan) // Positive and negative experience of a new stage of scientific and technological revolution abroad / deposited in INION USSR Academy of Sciences N. 36962 dated February 17, 1989 - M. - 0.48 p. l.

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