Introduction

1. The concept of "social institution" and "social organization".

2.Views social institutions.

3. Functions and structure of social institutions.

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The term "social institution" is used in a wide variety of meanings. They talk about the institution of the family, the institution of education, health care, the institution of the state, etc. The first, most often used meaning of the term "social institution" is associated with the characteristics of any kind of ordering, formalization and standardization of social relations and relations. And the process of streamlining, formalization and standardization is called institutionalization.

The process of institutionalization includes a number of points: 1) One of the necessary conditions for the emergence of social institutions is the corresponding social need. Institutions are designed to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet certain social needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race and the upbringing of children, implements relations between the sexes, generations, etc. The Institute higher education provides training work force, enables a person to develop his abilities in order to realize them in subsequent activities and ensure his existence, etc. The emergence of certain social needs, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction, are the first necessary moments of institutionalization. 2) A social institution is formed on the basis of social ties, interactions and relationships of specific individuals, social groups and other communities. But it, like other social systems, cannot be reduced to the sum of these individuals and their interactions. Social institutions are supra-individual in nature and have their own systemic quality.

Consequently, a social institution is an independent public entity, which has its own logic of development. From this point of view, social institutions can be considered as organized social systems characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of their elements and a certain variability of their functions.

3) The third essential element of institutionalization

is the organizational design of a social institution. Outwardly, a social institution is a collection of individuals, institutions, equipped with certain material resources and performing a certain social function.

So, each social institution is characterized by the presence of a goal of its activity, specific functions that ensure the achievement of such a goal, a set of social positions and roles typical for this institution. Based on the foregoing, we can give the following definition of a social institution. Social institutions are organized associations of people performing certain socially significant functions that provide joint achievement goals on the basis of their social roles performed by members, set by social values, norms and patterns of behavior.

It is necessary to distinguish between such concepts as “social institution” and “organization”.

1. The concept of "social institution" and "social organization"

Social institutions (from Latin institutum - establishment, establishment) are historically established stable forms of organizing joint activities of people.

Social institutions govern the behavior of community members through a system of sanctions and rewards. In social management and control, institutions play a very important role. Their task is not only to coercion. In every society there are institutions that guarantee freedom in certain types of activity - freedom of creativity and innovation, freedom of speech, the right to receive a certain form and amount of income, housing and free medical care, etc. For example, writers and artists have guaranteed freedom creativity, search for new artistic forms; scientists and specialists are obliged to investigate new problems and search for new technical solutions, etc. Social institutions can be characterized in terms of both their external, formal (“material”) structure, and their internal, content.

Outwardly, a social institution looks like a collection of individuals, institutions, equipped with certain material resources and performing a specific social function. From the content side, it is a certain system of expediently oriented standards of behavior of certain individuals in specific situations. So, if there is justice as a social institution, it can outwardly be characterized as a set of persons, institutions and material means administering justice, then from a substantive point of view, it is a set of standardized patterns of behavior of eligible persons providing this social function. These standards of conduct are embodied in certain roles characteristic of the justice system (the role of a judge, prosecutor, lawyer, investigator, etc.).

The social institution thus determines the orientation social activities and social relations through a mutually agreed system of expediently oriented standards of behavior. Their emergence and grouping into a system depend on the content of the tasks solved by the social institution. Each such institution is characterized by the presence of an activity goal, specific functions that ensure its achievement, a set of social positions and roles, as well as a system of sanctions that ensure the promotion of desired and the suppression of deviant behavior.

Consequently, social institutions perform functions in society social management and social control as one of the elements of management. Social control enables society and its systems to enforce normative conditions, the violation of which is detrimental to the social system. The main objects of such control are legal and moral norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. The effect of social control is reduced, on the one hand, to the application of sanctions against behavior that violates social restrictions, on the other hand, to the approval of desirable behavior. The behavior of individuals is conditioned by their needs. These needs can be satisfied in various ways, and the choice of means to satisfy them depends on the value system adopted by a given social community or society as a whole. The adoption of a certain system of values ​​contributes to the identity of the behavior of members of the community. Education and socialization are aimed at conveying to individuals the patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given community.

Scientists understand a social institution as a complex, covering, on the one hand, a set of normatively value-conditioned roles and statuses designed to meet certain social needs, and on the other hand, a social entity created to use society's resources in the form of interaction to meet this need.

Social institutions and social organizations are closely linked. There is no consensus among sociologists about how they relate to each other. Some believe that there is no need to distinguish between these two concepts at all, they use them as synonyms, since many social phenomena, such as the social security system, education, the army, the court, the bank, can be simultaneously considered both as a social institution and as social organization, while others give a more or less clear distinction between them. The difficulty of drawing a clear “watershed” between these two concepts is due to the fact that social institutions in the process of their activity act as social organizations - they are structurally designed, institutionalized, have their own goals, functions, norms and rules. The difficulty lies in the fact that when trying to single out a social organization as an independent structural component or a social phenomenon, one has to repeat those properties and features that are also characteristic of a social institution.

It should also be noted that, as a rule, there are much more organizations than institutions. For the practical implementation of the functions, goals and objectives of one social institution, several specialized social organizations are often formed. For example, on the basis of the institute of religion, various church and religious organizations, churches and confessions (Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Islam, etc.)

2. Types of social institutions

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities: 1) Economic and social institutions - property, exchange, money, banks, business associations of various types - provide the entire set of production and distribution of social wealth, at the same time connecting economic life with other areas social life.

2) Political institutions - the state, parties, trade unions and other kinds of public organizations pursuing political goals aimed at establishing and maintaining a certain form of political power. Their totality constitutes the political system of a given society. Political institutions ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, stabilize the social class structures that dominate in society. 3) Sociocultural and educational institutions aim at the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of individuals in a certain subculture, as well as the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable sociocultural standards of behavior and, finally, the protection of certain values ​​and norms. 4) Normative-orienting - mechanisms of moral and ethical orientation and regulation of the behavior of individuals. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, an ethical basis. These institutions assert imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in the community. 5) Normative-sanctioning - social and social regulation of behavior on the basis of norms, rules and regulations enshrined in legal and administrative acts. The binding nature of the norms is ensured by the coercive power of the state and the system of appropriate sanctions. 6) Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on the more or less long-term adoption of conventional (by agreement) norms, their official and unofficial consolidation. These norms regulate everyday contacts, various acts of group and intergroup behavior. They determine the order and method of mutual behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc., the rules of meetings, meetings, the activities of some associations.

The foundation on which the whole society is built is social institutions. The term comes from the Latin "institutum" - "charter".

For the first time this concept was introduced into scientific circulation by the American sociologist T. Veblein in the book The Theory of the Leisure Class in 1899.

A social institution in the broad sense of the word is a system of values, norms and relationships that organize people to meet their needs.

Outwardly, a social institution looks like a collection of individuals, institutions, equipped with certain material resources and performing a specific social function.

Social institutions have a historical origin and are in constant change and development. Their formation is called institutionalization.

institutionalization- this is the process of defining and consolidating social norms, connections, statuses and roles, bringing them into a system that is able to act in the direction of satisfying some social need. This process consists of several stages:

1) the emergence of needs that can only be satisfied as a result of joint activities;

2) the emergence of norms and rules governing interaction to meet emerging needs;

3) adoption and implementation in practice of the emerging norms and rules;

4) creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute.

Institutes have their own distinctive features:

1) cultural symbols (flag, emblem, anthem);

3) ideology, philosophy (mission).

Social institutions in society perform a significant set of functions:

1) reproductive - consolidation and reproduction of social relations, ensuring the order and framework of activities;

2) regulatory - regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior;

3) socialization - the transfer of social experience;

4) integrative - cohesion, interconnection and mutual responsibility of group members under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and a system of roles;

5) communicative - dissemination of information within the institution and to the external environment, maintaining relationships with other institutions;

6) automation - the desire for independence.

The functions performed by the institution can be explicit or latent.

The existence of the latent functions of the institution allows us to talk about its ability to bring more benefits to society than originally stated. Social institutions perform the functions of social management and social control in society.

Social institutions govern the behavior of community members through a system of sanctions and rewards.

The formation of a system of sanctions is the main condition for institutionalization. Sanctions provide punishment for inaccurate, negligent and incorrect performance of official duties.

Positive sanctions (gratitude, material incentives, creation of favorable conditions) are aimed at encouraging and stimulating correct and proactive behavior.

The social institution thus determines the orientation of social activity and social relations through a mutually agreed system of expediently oriented standards of behavior. Their emergence and grouping into a system depend on the content of the tasks solved by the social institution.

Each such institution is characterized by the presence of an activity goal, specific functions that ensure its achievement, a set of social positions and roles, as well as a system of sanctions that ensure the promotion of desired and the suppression of deviant behavior.

Social institutions always perform socially significant functions and ensure the achievement of relatively stable social ties and relationships within the framework of the social organization of society.

Social needs unsatisfied by the institution give rise to new forces and normatively unregulated activities. In practice, it is possible to implement the following ways out of this situation:

1) reorientation of old social institutions;

2) creation of new social institutions;

3) reorientation of public consciousness.

In sociology, there is a generally recognized system for classifying social institutions into five types, which is based on the needs realized through institutions:

1) family - reproduction of the genus and socialization of the individual;

2) political institutions - the need for security and public order, with their help political power is established and maintained;

3) economic institutions - production and livelihood, they ensure the process of production and distribution of goods and services;

4) institutions of education and science - the need for obtaining and transferring knowledge and socialization;

5) the institution of religion - the solution of spiritual problems, the search for the meaning of life.

2. Social control and deviant behavior

As already mentioned, one of the main functions of social institutions is to ensure social control. Social control is the normative regulation of people's behavior in social systems.

It is a maintenance mechanism public order, including norms and sanctions.

So, the main mechanisms of social control are norms and sanctions.

Norm- the rule that exists in a given society and is accepted by an individual, a standard, a pattern of behavior that determines how he should behave in a given situation. Norm - socially approved invariants of behavior.

Norm - the interval of permissible actions. Norms are formal and informal.

Sanctions- rewards and punishments associated with the implementation of norms. Sanctions can also be classified into several types:

1) formal;

2) informal;

3) positive;

4) negative.

Phenomena that do not fit into the framework of social norms are called deviation.

Deviant behavior is actions, human activities, social phenomena that do not correspond to the norms established in a given society.

In the sociological study of deviant behavior, the influence of value orientations personality, its attitudes, features of the formation of the social environment, the state of social relations, institutional forms of ownership.

As a rule, social deviations are associated with a persistent distortion of value orientations typical of society and social groups.

The main direction of the sociological study of the problem of deviation is aimed at identifying its causes.

Within the framework of sociology, the following theories have developed on this issue.

1. Charles Lombarzo, William Sheldon believed that certain physical personality traits predetermine the deviation of the personality from the norm.

So Sheldon divides people into 3 types:

1) endomorphs are overweight, not prone to deviant behavior;

2) mesomorphs - athletic physique, may be characterized by deviant behavior;

3) ectomorphs - thin, hardly prone to deviant behavior.

2. Z. Freud saw the cause of deviations in the fact that conflicts constantly occur within each personality.

It is the internal conflict that is the source of deviant behavior.

In any person there is an “I” (consciousness) and a “super-I” (unconscious). There are constant conflicts between them.

"I" tries to keep the unconscious in a person. If this fails, then the biological, animal essence breaks out.

3. Emile Durkheim. Deviation is determined by the process of socialization of the individual.

This process may or may not succeed.

Success or failure is associated with a person's ability to adapt to the system of social norms of society.

At the same time than more people shows creative activity, the more chances to live your life successfully. Success is influenced by social institutions (family, institute of education, fatherland).

4. R. Merton believed that deviant behavior is a consequence of the mismatch between the goals generated by the social structure and culture and the socially organized means of achieving them.

Goals are something to strive for, a basic component in the lives of all walks of life.

Means are evaluated in terms of the possibility of achieving the goal.

They must be portable and efficient. Based on this premise, deviant behavior occurs only if the balance between goals and means to achieve them is disturbed.

Thus, the main reason for the deviation is the gap between the goals and means of achieving these goals, which occurs due to unequal access to the means of different strata of groups.

On the basis of his theoretical developments, Merton identified five types of deviant behavior depending on the attitude towards goals and means to achieve them.

1. conformism- the agreement of the individual with the goals generally accepted in society and the means to achieve them. The assignment of this type to deviant is not accidental.

Psychologists use the term "conformity" to define a person's blind following of other people's opinions, so as not to create unnecessary difficulties in communicating with others, to achieve their goals, sometimes sinning against the truth.

On the other hand, conforming behavior makes it difficult to assert one's own independent behavior or opinion.

2. Innovation- acceptance by the individual of goals, but a preference to use non-standard means to achieve them.

3. ritualism- rejection of generally accepted goals, but the use of standard means for society.

4. retreatism- complete rejection of social attitudes.

5. rebellion- changing social goals and means in accordance with one's will and raising them to the rank of socially significant ones.

Within the framework of other sociological theories, the following types are distinguished as the main types of deviant behavior:

1) cultural and mental deviations - deviations from the norms of culture. May be hazardous or non-hazardous;

2) individual and group deviations - an individual, an individual rejects the norms of his subculture. Group - illusory world;

3) primary and secondary. Primary - prank, secondary - deviant deviation;

4) culturally acceptable deviations;

5) over-intellectuality, over-motivation;

6) culturally condemned deviations. Violation of moral standards and violation of the law.

The economy as a social institution is a set of institutionalized modes of activity, models of social actions that form various types of economic behavior of people and organizations to meet their needs.

The core of the economy is work. Work is the solution of problems associated with the expenditure of mental and physical effort, with the goal of producing goods and services that satisfy human needs. E. Giddens identifies six main characteristics of the work.

1. Money. Wages or salary for most people - the main source of satisfaction of their needs.

2. Activity level. Professional activity is often the basis for acquiring and implementing knowledge and capabilities.

Even if the work is routine, it offers some structured environment in which the energy of a given person can be realized.

Without work, the possibility of realizing knowledge and abilities may decrease.

3. Variety. Employment gives access to situations beyond the domestic environment. IN working environment, even when the tasks are relatively monotonous, the individual may derive satisfaction from the performance of duties that are not similar to domestic ones.

4. Structuring time. For people who have a regular job, the day is usually organized around the rhythm of work. Although it can sometimes be depressing, it gives a sense of direction in daily activities.

For those who are unemployed big problem represents boredom, such people develop an apathy towards time.

5. Social contacts. The work environment often engenders friendship and the opportunity to engage in collaborative activities with others.

In the absence of contacts at work, the circle of friends and acquaintances of a person decreases.

6. Personal identity. Employment is usually valued for the sense of personal social stability it provides.

In historical retrospect, the following main types are distinguished economic activity:

1) in a primitive society - hunting, fishing, gathering;

2) in slave-owning and feudal societies - farming;

3) in an industrial society - commodity-industrial production;

4) in a post-industrial society - information technology.

There are three sectors in the modern economy: primary, secondary and tertiary.

The primary sector of the economy includes Agriculture, mining and forestry, fishing, etc. The secondary sector includes enterprises that convert raw materials into manufactured goods.

Finally, the tertiary sector is associated with the service industry, with those activities that, without directly producing material goods, offer the rest of any services.

There are five primary types economic systems or types of economic activity.

The state economy is a set of public enterprises and organizations working for the benefit of the entire population.

Every modern society has government sector economy, although its share is different.

World practice shows that the total nationalization of the economy is ineffective, since it does not give the proper economic effect, as well as the general privatization of enterprises.

The private economy dominates in modern developed countries.

It arose as a result of the industrial revolution at the stage of industrial society.

Initially, the private economy developed independently of the state, but economic cataclysms raised the question of strengthening state regulation private sector in the economy.

barrack economy- this is the economic behavior of military personnel, prisoners and all other people living in a confined space, "barracks" form (hospitals, boarding schools, prisons, etc.).

All these forms are characterized by the “camp collectivity” of their life, the obligatory and compulsory performance of functions, dependence on funding, as a rule, from the state.

The shadow (criminal) economy exists in all countries of the world, although it refers to criminal activity. This type of economic behavior is deviant, but it is closely related to the private economy.

The English sociologist Duke Hobbes, in his book Bad Business, develops the idea that it is impossible to draw a clear line between professional economic behavior and everyday business activity.

In particular, banks are sometimes rated as "elegant robbers". Among the traditional forms of mafia economic activity: trafficking in weapons, drugs, live goods, etc.

A mixed (additional) economy is the work of a person outside the scope of his professional employment.

Sociologist E. Giddens calls it "informal", noting the "bifurcation" of labor into professional and "additional", for example, the work of a doctor on a personal plot, which is carried out at a non-professional level.

Additional work sometimes requires a huge investment of time and energy from a person, and the result is low.

The economy as a social institution is designed to satisfy primarily the material needs of man.

Politics as a social institution is a set of certain organizations (authorities and administrations, political parties, social movements) that regulate the political behavior of people in accordance with accepted norms, laws, and rules.

Each of the political institutions carries out a certain type of political activity and includes a social community, layer, group, specializing in the implementation of political activities to manage society. These institutions are characterized by:

1) political norms governing relations within and between political institutions, and between political and non-political institutions of society;

2) material resources necessary to achieve the goals.

Political institutions ensure the reproduction, stability and regulation of political activity, the preservation of the identity of the political community even with a change in composition, strengthen social ties and intra-group cohesion, exercise control over political behavior.

The focus of politics is power and control in society.

The main carrier of political power is the state, which, relying on law and law, carries out compulsory regulation and control over social processes in order to ensure the normal and stable functioning of society.

The universal structure of state power is:

1) legislative bodies (parliaments, councils, congresses, etc.);

2) executive bodies(government, ministries, state committees, law enforcement agencies, etc.);

3) judicial authorities;

4) army and state security agencies;

5) state information system, etc.

The sociological nature of the activities of the state and other political organizations is associated with the functioning of society as a whole.

Politics should contribute to the solution of social problems, at the same time, politicians tend to use state power and representative bodies to satisfy certain pressure groups.

The state as the core of the sociological system provides:

1) social integration of society;

2) safety of life of people and society as a whole;

3) distribution of resources and social benefits;

4) cultural and educational activities;

5) social control over deviant behavior.

The basis of politics is power associated with the use of force, coercion in relation to all members of society, organizations, movements.

The subordination of power is based on:

1) traditions and customs (traditional domination, for example, the power of a slave owner over a slave);

2) devotion to a person endowed with some higher power (the charismatic power of leaders, for example, Moses, Buddha);

3) conscious conviction in the correctness of formal rules and the need to comply with them (this type of subordination is characteristic of most modern states).

The complexity of sociopolitical activity is associated with differences in social status, interests, positions of people and political forces.

They influence the differences in the types of political power. N. Smelser cites the following types of states: democratic and non-democratic (totalitarian, authoritarian).

In democratic societies, all political institutions are autonomous (power is divided into independent branches - executive, legislative, judicial).

All political institutions influence the formation of state and power structures, form the political direction of the development of society.

Democratic states are associated with representative democracy, when the people for a certain period of time transfer power to their representatives in the elections.

These states, mostly Western, are characterized by the following features:

1) individualism;

2) constitutional form of government;

3) the general agreement of those who are controlled;

4) loyal opposition.

In totalitarian states, leaders seek to retain power, keeping the people under complete control, using a unified mono-party system, control over the economy, the media, and the family, conducting terror against the opposition. In authoritarian states, approximately the same measures are carried out in milder forms, in the conditions of the existence of the private sector and other parties.

The sociopolitical subsystem of society is a spectrum of different vectors of power, control, and political activity.

In an integral system of society, they are in a state of constant struggle, but without the victory of any one line. Crossing the border of measure in the struggle leads to deviant forms of power in society:

1) totalitarian, in which the military-administrative method of government dominates;

2) spontaneous market, where power passes to corporate groups that merge with the mafia and wage war with each other;

3) stagnant, when a relative and temporary balance of opposing forces and control methods is established.

in the Soviet and Russian society one can find a manifestation of all these deviations, but totalitarianism under Stalin and stagnation under Brezhnev were especially pronounced.

The education system is one of the most important social institutions. It ensures the socialization of individuals, through which they develop the qualities necessary for indispensable life processes and transformations.

The Institute of Education has a long history from primary forms transfer of knowledge from parents to children.

Education serves the development of the individual, contributes to its self-realization.

At the same time, education is of crucial importance for the society itself, ensuring the fulfillment of the most important tasks of a practical and symbolic nature.

The education system contributes significant contribution in the integration of society and contributes to the formation of a sense of common historical destiny, belonging to this single society.

But the education system has other functions as well. Sorokin notes that education (especially higher education) is a kind of channel (elevator) through which people improve their social status. At the same time, education exercises social control over the behavior and worldview of children and adolescents.

The education system as an institution includes the following components:

1) educational authorities and institutions and organizations subordinate to them;

2) network educational institutions(schools, colleges, gymnasiums, lyceums, universities, academies, etc.), including institutes for advanced training and retraining of teachers;

3) creative unions, professional associations, scientific and methodological councils and other associations;

4) educational and scientific infrastructure institutions, design, production, clinical, medical and preventive, pharmacological, cultural and educational enterprises, printing houses, etc.;

5) textbooks and teaching aids for teachers and students;

6) periodicals, including journals and yearbooks reflecting the latest achievements of scientific thought.

The institution of education includes a certain area of ​​activity, groups of persons authorized to perform certain managerial and other functions on the basis of established rights and obligations, organizational norms and principles of relations between officials.

The set of norms that regulate the interaction of people about learning indicates that education is a social institution.

A harmonious and balanced education system that meets the modern needs of society is the most important condition for the preservation and development of society.

Science, along with education, can be regarded as a social macro-institution.

Science, like the education system, is a central social institution in all modern societies and is the most complex area of ​​human intellectual activity.

More and more, the very existence of society depends on advanced scientific knowledge. Not only the material conditions for the existence of society, but also the ideas of its members about the world depend on the development of science.

The main function of science is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality. Target scientific activity- acquisition of new knowledge.

Purpose of education- transfer of new knowledge to new generations, i.e. youth.

If there is no first, then there is no second. That is why these institutions are considered in close relationship and as a single system.

In turn, the existence of science without education is also impossible, since it is in the process of education that new scientific personnel are formed.

The formulation of the principles of science has been proposed Robert Merton in 1942

Among them: universalism, communalism, disinterest and organizational skepticism.

The principle of universalism means that science and its discoveries are of a single, universal (universal) character. No personal characteristics of individual scientists (gender, age, religion, etc.) matter in assessing the value of their work.

Research results should be judged solely on their scientific merit.

According to the principle of communalism, no scientific knowledge can become the personal property of a scientist, but should be available to any member of the scientific community.

The principle of disinterest means that the pursuit of personal interests does not meet the requirements for the professional role of a scientist.

The principle of organized skepticism means that the scientist must refrain from formulating conclusions until the facts are fully consistent.

A religious institution belongs to a non-secular culture, but plays a very important role in the lives of many people as a system of norms of cultural behavior, that is, serving God.

The social significance of religion in the world is evidenced by the following statistics on the number of believers at the beginning of the 21st century: out of 6 billion of the world's population, more than 4 billion are believers. And about 2 billion profess Christianity.

Orthodoxy within Christianity ranks third after Catholicism and Protestantism. Islam is practiced by a little more than 1 billion, Judaism - more than 650 million, Buddhism - more than 300 million, Confucianism - about 200 million, Zionism - 18 million, the rest profess other religions.

Among the main functions of religion as a social institution are the following:

1) an explanation of the past, present and future of man;

2) regulation of moral behavior from birth to death of a person;

3) approval or criticism of social orders in society;

4) uniting people and support in difficult times.

The sociology of religion pays great attention elucidation of the social functions that religion performs in society. As a result, sociologists have formulated different points of view on religion as a social institution.

So, E. Durkheim believed that religion- the product of a person or social group, necessary for moral unity, an expression of a collective ideal.

God is a reflection of this ideal. Functions of religious ceremonies Durkheim sees in:

1) rallying people - a meeting to express common interests;

2) revitalization - revival of the past, connection of the present with the past;

3) euphoria - general acceptance life, distraction from the unpleasant;

4) order and training - self-discipline and preparation for life.

M. Weber paid special attention to the study of Protestantism and highlighted its positive impact on the development of capitalism, which determined its values ​​such as:

1) hard work, self-discipline and self-restraint;

2) multiplying money without waste;

3) personal success as the key to salvation.

The religious factor affects the economy, politics, the state, interethnic relations, the family, the area of ​​culture through the activities of believing individuals, groups, organizations in these areas.

There is an "imposition" of religious relations on other social relations.

The core of the religious institution is the church. The Church is an organization that uses a variety of means, including religious morality, rites and rituals, with the help of which it obliges, makes people act accordingly.

Society needs the Church, as it is a spiritual support for millions of people, including those seeking justice, distinguishing between good and evil, gives them guidelines in the form of moral norms, behavior and values.

In Russian society, the majority of the population professes Orthodoxy (70%), a significant number of Muslim believers (25%), the rest are representatives of other religious denominations (5%).

Almost all types of beliefs are represented in Russia, and there are many sects.

It should be noted that in the 1990s, the religiosity of the adult population had a positive trend due to the socio-economic transformations in the country.

However, at the beginning of the third millennium, a decrease in the rating of trust in relation to religious organizations, including the Russian Orthodox Church which is the most trusted.

This decline is in line with the decline in confidence in other public institutions as a reaction to unfulfilled hopes for reforms.

He prays every day, visits the temple (mosque) at least once a month, about a fifth, that is, about a third of those who consider themselves believers.

At present, the problem with the unification of all Christian denominations, which was vigorously discussed during the celebration of the 2000th anniversary of Christianity, has not been resolved.

The Orthodox Church believes that this is possible only on the basis of the faith of the ancient, indivisible Church, of which Orthodoxy feels itself to be the successor.

Other branches of Christianity, on the contrary, believe that Orthodoxy needs to be reformed.

Various points of view testify to the impossibility of uniting Christianity on a world scale, at least at the present time.

The Orthodox Church is loyal to the state and maintains friendly relations with other confessions in order to overcome interethnic tensions.

Religious institutions and society should be in a state of harmony, interacting with each other in the formation of universal values, preventing social problems from developing into inter-ethnic conflicts on religious grounds.

Family is a social-biological system of society that ensures the reproduction of members of the community. This definition contains the main goal of the family as a social institution. In addition, the family is called upon to perform the following functions:

1) socio-biological - satisfaction of sexual needs and needs for procreation;

2) upbringing, socialization of children;

3) economic, which is manifested in the organization of the household life of all family members, including the provision of housing and the necessary infrastructure;

4) political, which is associated with power in the family and the management of its life;

5) sociocultural - regulation of the entire spiritual life of the family.

The above functions testify to the need for a family for all its members and the inevitability of uniting people living outside the family.

The selection of types of families and their classification can be carried out for various reasons:

1) according to the form of marriage:

a) monogamous (marriage of one man with one woman);

b) polyandry (a woman has several spouses);

c) polygyny (marriage of one man with two or more wives);

2) by composition:

a) nuclear (simple) - consist of a husband, wife and children (full) or with the absence of one of the parents (incomplete);

b) complex - include representatives of several generations;

3) by number of children:

a) childless;

b) one-child;

c) small children;

d) large families (from three or more children);

4) by stages of civilizational evolution:

a) patriarchal family traditional society with the authoritarian power of the father, in whose hands is the solution of all issues;

b) egalitarian-democratic, based on equality in relations between husband and wife, on mutual respect and social partnership.

According to the forecasts of American sociologists E. Giddens And N. Smelzer in a post-industrial society, the institution of the family is undergoing significant changes.

According to Smelser, there will be no return to the traditional family. The modern family will change, partially losing or changing some functions, although the family's monopoly on the regulation of intimate relationships, childbearing and caring for young children will continue into the future.

At the same time, even relatively stable functions will partially decay.

Thus, the function of childbearing will be carried out by unmarried women.

Centers for the upbringing of children will be more involved in socialization.

Friendship and emotional support can be obtained not only in the family.

E. Giddens notes a steady trend of weakening the regulatory function of the family in relation to sexual life, but believes that marriage and the family will remain strong institutions.

The family as a socio-biological system is analyzed from the standpoint of functionalism and conflict theory. The family, on the one hand, is closely connected with society through its functions, and on the other hand, all family members are interconnected by consanguinity and social relations.

It should also be noted that the family is a carrier of contradictions, both with society and between its members.

The life of a family is connected with the solution of contradictions between husband, wife, children, relatives, surrounding people regarding the performance of functions, even if it is based on love and respect.

In the family, as in society, there is not only unity, integrity and harmony, but also a struggle of interests.

The nature of conflicts can be understood from the standpoint of the exchange theory, which implies that all family members should strive for an equal exchange in their relationship. Tensions and conflicts arise from the fact that someone does not receive the expected "reward".

The source of the conflict may be low wage one of the family members, drunkenness, sexual dissatisfaction, etc.

The strong severity of violations in metabolic processes leads to the disintegration of the family.

In 1916, Sorokin identified the trend of the crisis of the modern family, which is characterized by: an increase in the number of divorces, a decrease in the number of marriages, an increase in civil marriages, an increase in prostitution, a drop in the birth rate, the release of wives from the custody of their husbands and a change in their relationship, the destruction of the religious basis of marriage, weakening the protection of the institution of marriage by the state.

The problems of the modern Russian family as a whole coincide with the global ones.

All these reasons allow us to talk about a certain family crisis.

Causes of the crisis include:

1) reduced dependence of wives on husbands in the economic sense;

2) increased mobility, especially migration;

3) changes in family functions under the influence of social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, as well as a new technical and environmental situation;

4) cohabitation of a man and a woman without registration of marriage;

5) a decrease in the number of children in a family, as a result of which even a simple reproduction of the population does not occur;

6) the process of nuclearization of families leads to a weakening of ties between generations;

7) the number of women in the labor market is increasing;

8) the growth of the public consciousness of women.

The most acute problem is dysfunctional families that arise for socio-economic, psychological or biological reasons. The following types of dysfunctional families are distinguished:

1) conflict - the most common (about 60%);

2) immoral - oblivion of moral standards (mostly drunkenness, drug use, fights, foul language);

3) pedagogically untenable - a low level of general culture and the absence of a psychological and pedagogical culture;

4) antisocial family - an environment of disregard for generally accepted social norms and requirements.

Dysfunctional families deform the personality of children, causing anomalies both in the psyche and in behavior, for example, early alcoholization, drug addiction, prostitution, vagrancy and other forms of deviant behavior.

To support the family, the state forms a family policy, which includes a set of practical measures that give families and children certain social guarantees in order to ensure the functioning of the family in the interests of society. Thus, in a number of countries, family planning is carried out, special marriage and family consultations are created to reconcile conflicting couples, the conditions of the marriage contract are changed (if before the spouses had to take care of each other, now they must love each other, and failure to comply with this condition is one of most compelling reasons for divorce).

To solve the existing problems of the institution of the family, it is necessary to increase spending on social support for families, increase the efficiency of their use, improve legislation to protect the rights of the family, women, children and youth.

History of the term

Basic information

The peculiarities of its word usage are further complicated by the fact that in the English language, traditionally, an institution is understood as any well-established practice of people that has the sign of self-reproducibility. In such a broad, not highly specialized, sense, an institution can be an ordinary human queue or English language as a centuries-old social practice.

Therefore, a social institution is often given a different name - “institution” (from Latin institutio - custom, instruction, instruction, order), understanding by it the totality of social customs, the embodiment of certain habits of behavior, way of thinking and life, transmitted from generation to generation, changing depending on the circumstances and serving as an instrument of adaptation to them, and under the "institution" - the consolidation of customs and procedures in the form of a law or institution. The term "social institution" has absorbed both "institution" (customs) and the "institution" itself (institutions, laws), as it combines both formal and informal "rules of the game".

A social institution is a mechanism that provides a set of constantly repeating and reproducing social relations and social practices of people (for example: the institution of marriage, the institution of the family). E. Durkheim figuratively called social institutions "factories for the reproduction of social relations." These mechanisms are based on both codified codes of laws and non-thematized rules (non-formalized “hidden” ones that are revealed when they are violated), social norms, values ​​and ideals that are historically inherent in a particular society. According to the authors of the Russian textbook for universities, “these are the strongest, most powerful ropes that decisively determine the viability [ social system]»

Spheres of life of society

There are 4 spheres of the life of society, each of which includes various social institutions and various social relations arise:

• Economic- relations in the production process (production, distribution, consumption of material goods). Institutions related to the economic sphere: private property, material production, market, etc.
• Social- relations between different social and age groups; activities to ensure social guarantee. Institutions related to the social sphere: education, family, health care, social security, leisure, etc.
• Political- relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties, as well as between states. Institutions related to the political sphere: state, law, parliament, government, judicial system, political parties, army, etc.
• Spiritual- relations that arise in the process of creating and preserving spiritual values, creating the dissemination and consumption of information. Institutions related to the spiritual sphere: education, science, religion, art, media, etc.

institutionalization

The first, most commonly used meaning of the term "social institution" is associated with the characteristics of any kind of ordering, formalization and standardization of social ties and relations. And the process of streamlining, formalization and standardization is called institutionalization. The process of institutionalization, that is, the formation of a social institution, consists of several successive stages:

1. the emergence of a need, the satisfaction of which requires joint organized action;
2. formation of common goals;
3. the emergence of social norms and rules in the course of spontaneous social interaction carried out by trial and error;
4. the emergence of procedures related to rules and regulations;
5. institutionalization of norms and rules, procedures, that is, their adoption, practical application;
6. the establishment of a system of sanctions to maintain norms and rules, the differentiation of their application in individual cases;
7. creation of a system of statuses and roles covering all members of the institute without exception;

So, the end of the institutionalization process can be considered the creation, in accordance with the norms and rules, of a clear status-role structure, socially approved by the majority of participants in this social process.

The process of institutionalization thus involves a number of points.

• One of the necessary conditions for the emergence of social institutions is the corresponding social need. Institutions are designed to organize the joint activities of people in order to meet certain social needs. Thus, the institution of the family satisfies the need for the reproduction of the human race and the upbringing of children, implements relations between the sexes, generations, etc. The institution of higher education provides training for the workforce, enables a person to develop his abilities in order to realize them in subsequent activities and ensure his own existence, etc. The emergence of certain social needs, as well as the conditions for their satisfaction, are the first necessary moments of institutionalization.

• A social institution is formed on the basis of social ties, interactions and relationships of specific individuals, social groups and communities. But it, like other social systems, cannot be reduced to the sum of these individuals and their interactions. Social institutions are supra-individual in nature, have their own systemic quality. Consequently, a social institution is an independent public entity, which has its own logic of development. From this point of view, social institutions can be considered as organized social systems characterized by the stability of the structure, the integration of their elements and a certain variability of their functions.

First of all, we are talking about a system of values, norms, ideals, as well as patterns of activity and behavior of people and other elements of the sociocultural process. This system guarantees similar behavior of people, coordinates and directs their certain aspirations, establishes ways to satisfy their needs, resolves conflicts that arise in the process of everyday life, provides a state of balance and stability within a particular social community and society as a whole.

In itself, the presence of these socio-cultural elements does not yet ensure the functioning of a social institution. In order for it to work, it is necessary that they become the property of the inner world of the individual, be internalized by them in the process of socialization, embodied in the form of social roles and statuses. The internalization by individuals of all sociocultural elements, the formation on their basis of a system of personality needs, value orientations and expectations is the second most important element of institutionalization.

• The third most important element of institutionalization is the organizational design of a social institution. Outwardly, a social institution is a set of organizations, institutions, persons provided with certain material resources and performing a certain social function. Thus, the institute of higher education is put into action by the social corps of teachers, service personnel, officials who operate within the framework of such institutions as universities, the ministry or the State Committee for high school etc., which for their activities have certain material values(buildings, finances, etc.).

Thus, social institutions are social mechanisms, stable value-normative complexes that regulate various areas of social life (marriage, family, property, religion), which are not very susceptible to changes in people's personal characteristics. But they are set in motion by people who carry out their activities, "play" by their rules. Thus, the concept of "the institution of a monogamous family" does not mean a separate family, but a set of norms that is realized in an innumerable set of families of a certain type.

Institutionalization, as shown by P. Berger and T. Lukman, is preceded by the process of habitualization, or "accustoming" of everyday actions, leading to the formation of patterns of activity that are later perceived as natural and normal for a given occupation or solving problems typical in these situations. Action patterns, in turn, serve as the basis for the formation of social institutions, which are described in the form of objective social facts and are perceived by the observer as a "social reality" (or social structure). These trends are accompanied by signification procedures (the process of creating, using signs and fixing meanings and meanings in them) and form a system of social meanings, which, forming into semantic connections, are fixed in natural language. Signification serves the purposes of legitimation (recognition as legitimate, socially recognized, legal) of the social order, that is, justification and justification habitual ways overcoming the chaos of destructive forces that threaten to undermine the stable idealizations of everyday life.

With the emergence and existence of social institutions, the formation in each individual of a special set of sociocultural dispositions (habitus), practical schemes of action that have become for the individual his internal "natural" need is connected. Thanks to habitus, individuals are included in the activities of social institutions. Therefore, social institutions are not just mechanisms, but "a kind of" factory of meanings "that set not only patterns of human interactions, but also ways of comprehending, understanding social reality and the people themselves" .

Structure and functions of social institutions

Structure

concept social institution suggests:

• the presence of a need in society and its satisfaction by the mechanism of reproduction of social practices and relations;
• these mechanisms, being supra-individual formations, act in the form of value-normative complexes that regulate social life as a whole or its separate sphere, but for the benefit of the whole;

Their structure includes:

• role models of behavior and statuses (prescriptions for their execution);
• their justification (theoretical, ideological, religious, mythological) in the form of a categorical grid that defines a "natural" vision of the world;
• means of transmitting social experience (material, ideal and symbolic), as well as measures that stimulate one behavior and repress another, tools to maintain institutional order;
• social positions - the institutions themselves represent a social position (“empty” social positions do not exist, so the question of the subjects of social institutions disappears).

In addition, they assume the existence of a certain social position of "professionals" who are able to put this mechanism into action, playing by its rules, including a whole system of their preparation, reproduction and maintenance.

In order not to denote the same concepts by different terms and to avoid terminological confusion, social institutions should be understood not as collective subjects, not social groups and not organizations, but as special social mechanisms that ensure the reproduction of certain social practices and social relations. And collective subjects should still be called " social communities”, “social groups” and “social organizations”.

Functions

Each social institution has a main function that determines its "face", associated with its main function. social role to consolidate and reproduce certain social practices and relationships. If this army, then its role is to ensure the military-political security of the country by participating in hostilities and demonstrating its military power. In addition to it, there are other explicit functions, to some extent characteristic of all social institutions, ensuring the implementation of the main one.

Along with explicit, there are also implicit - latent (hidden) functions. Thus, the Soviet Army at one time carried out a number of hidden state tasks unusual for it - national economic, penitentiary, fraternal assistance to "third countries", pacification and suppression of riots, popular discontent and counter-revolutionary coups both within the country and in the countries of the socialist camp. The explicit functions of institutions are necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. Latent functions are expressed in unforeseen results of the activities of institutions or persons representing them. Thus, the democratic state that was established in Russia in the early 1990s, through the parliament, government and president, sought to improve the lives of the people, create civilized relations in society and inspire citizens with respect for the law. Those were the clear goals and objectives. In fact, the crime rate has increased in the country, and the standard of living of the population has fallen. These are the results of the latent functions of the institutions of power. Explicit functions testify to what people wanted to achieve within the framework of this or that institution, and latent ones indicate what came of it.

The identification of the latent functions of social institutions allows not only to create an objective picture of social life, but also makes it possible to minimize their negative and enhance their positive impact in order to control and manage the processes taking place in it.

Social institutions in public life perform the following functions or tasks:

The totality of these social functions is formed into general social functions social institutions as certain types of social system. These features are very versatile. Sociologists different directions sought to somehow classify them, to present them in the form of a certain ordered system. The most complete and interesting classification was presented by the so-called. "institutional school". Representatives of the institutional school in sociology (S. Lipset, D. Landberg and others) identified four main functions of social institutions:

• Reproduction of members of society. The main institution that performs this function is the family, but other social institutions, such as the state, are also involved in it.
• Socialization is the transfer to individuals of patterns of behavior and methods of activity established in a given society - the institutions of the family, education, religion, etc.
• Production and distribution. Provided by the economic and social institutions of management and control - the authorities.
• The functions of management and control are carried out through a system of social norms and regulations that implement the appropriate types of behavior: moral and legal norms, customs, administrative decisions, etc. Social institutions control the individual's behavior through a system of sanctions.

In addition to solving its specific tasks, each social institution performs universal functions inherent in all of them. The functions common to all social institutions include the following:

1. The function of fixing and reproducing social relations. Each institution has a set of norms and rules of conduct, fixed, standardizing the behavior of its members and making this behavior predictable. Social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the structure of society. The Code of the Institute of the Family assumes that members of society are divided into stable small groups - families. Social control provides a state of stability for each family, limits the possibility of its collapse.
2. Regulatory function. It ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns and patterns of behavior. All human life takes place with the participation of various social institutions, but each social institution regulates activities. Consequently, a person, with the help of social institutions, demonstrates predictability and standard behavior, fulfills role requirements and expectations.
3. Integrative function. This function ensures cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of the members. This happens under the influence of institutionalized norms, values, rules, a system of roles and sanctions. It streamlines the system of interactions, which leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure.
4. Broadcasting function. Society cannot develop without the transfer of social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people who have learned its rules. This happens by changing the social boundaries of the institution and changing generations. Consequently, each institution provides a mechanism for socialization to its values, norms, roles.
5. Communication functions. The information produced by the institution should be disseminated both within the institution (for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with social norms) and in interaction between institutions. This function has its own specifics - formal connections. At the Institute of Funds mass media is the main function. Scientific institutions actively perceive information. The commutative possibilities of institutions are not the same: some have them to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent.

Functional qualities

Social institutions differ from each other in their functional qualities:

• Political institutions - the state, parties, trade unions and other kinds of public organizations pursuing political goals, aimed at establishing and maintaining a certain form of political power. Their totality constitutes the political system of a given society. Political institutions ensure the reproduction and sustainable preservation of ideological values, and stabilize the social class structures that dominate in society.
• Sociocultural and educational institutions aim at the development and subsequent reproduction of cultural and social values, the inclusion of individuals in a particular subculture, as well as the socialization of individuals through the assimilation of stable sociocultural standards of behavior and, finally, the protection of certain values ​​and norms.
• Normative-orienting - mechanisms of moral and ethical orientation and regulation of the behavior of individuals. Their goal is to give behavior and motivation a moral argument, an ethical basis. These institutions assert imperative universal human values, special codes and ethics of behavior in the community.
• Normative-sanctioning - social and social regulation of behavior on the basis of norms, rules and regulations enshrined in legal and administrative acts. The binding nature of the norms is ensured by the coercive power of the state and the system of appropriate sanctions.
• Ceremonial-symbolic and situational-conventional institutions. These institutions are based on the more or less long-term adoption of conventional (by agreement) norms, their official and unofficial consolidation. These norms regulate everyday contacts, various acts of group and intergroup behavior. They determine the order and method of mutual behavior, regulate the methods of transmission and exchange of information, greetings, addresses, etc., the rules of meetings, sessions, and the activities of associations.

Dysfunction of a social institution

Violation of normative interaction with the social environment, which is a society or community, is called a dysfunction of a social institution. As noted earlier, the basis for the formation and functioning of a particular social institution is the satisfaction of a particular social need. Under the conditions of intensive social processes, the acceleration of the pace of social change, a situation may arise when the changed social needs are not adequately reflected in the structure and functions of the relevant social institutions. As a result, dysfunction may occur in their activities. From a substantive point of view, dysfunction is expressed in the ambiguity of the goals of the institution, the uncertainty of functions, in the fall of its social prestige and authority, the degeneration of its individual functions into “symbolic”, ritual activity, that is, activity not aimed at achieving a rational goal.

One of the clear expressions of the dysfunction of a social institution is the personalization of its activities. A social institution, as you know, functions according to its own, objectively operating mechanisms, where each person, on the basis of norms and patterns of behavior, in accordance with his status, plays certain roles. The personalization of a social institution means that it ceases to act in accordance with objective needs and objectively established goals, changing its functions depending on the interests of individuals, their personal qualities and properties.

An unsatisfied social need can bring to life the spontaneous emergence of normatively unregulated activities that seek to make up for the dysfunction of the institution, but at the expense of violating existing norms and rules. In its extreme forms, activity of this kind can be expressed in illegal activities. Thus, the dysfunction of some economic institutions is the reason for the existence of the so-called "shadow economy", resulting in speculation, bribery, theft, etc. The correction of dysfunction can be achieved by changing the social institution itself or by creating a new social institution that satisfies this social need.

Formal and informal social institutions

social institutions as well as social relations that they reproduce and regulate may be formal or informal.

Role in the development of society

According to American researchers Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (English) Russian it is the nature of the social institutions that exist in a given country that determines the success or failure of the development of a given country.

Having considered examples of many countries of the world, scientists came to the conclusion that the defining and necessary condition development of any country is the presence of public institutions, which they called public (eng. Inclusive institutions). Examples of such countries are all developed democratic countries of the world. Conversely, countries where public institutions are closed are doomed to fall behind and decline. Public institutions in such countries, according to researchers, they serve only to enrich the elites that control access to these institutions - this is the so-called. "privileged institutions" extractive institutions). According to the authors, the economic development of society is impossible without anticipatory political development, that is, without the formation public political institutions. .

see also

Literature

• Andreev Yu. P., Korzhevskaya N. M., Kostina N. B. Social institutions: content, functions, structure. - Sverdlovsk: Ural Publishing House. un-ta, 1989.
• Anikevich A. G. Political power: Questions of research methodology, Krasnoyarsk. 1986.
• Power: Essays on modern political philosophy of the West. M., 1989.
• Vouchel E.F. Family and kinship // American Sociology. M., 1972. S. 163-173.
• Zemsky M. Family and personality. M., 1986.
• Cohen J. Structure sociological theory. M., 1985.
• Leiman II Science as a social institution. L., 1971.
• Novikova S. S. Sociology: history, foundations, institutionalization in Russia, ch. 4. Types and forms of social connections in the system. M., 1983.
• Titmonas A. On the issue of the prerequisites for the institutionalization of science // Sociological problems of science. M., 1974.
• Trotz M. Sociology of Education // American Sociology. M., 1972. S. 174-187.
• Kharchev G. G. Marriage and family in the USSR. M., 1974.
• Kharchev A. G., Matskovsky M. S. Modern family and its problems. M., 1978.
• Daron Acemoglu, James Robinson= Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. - First. - Crown Business; 1 edition (March 20, 2012), 2012. - 544 p. - ISBN 978-0-307-71921-8

Footnotes and notes

1. Social Institutions // Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
2. Spencer H. First principles. N.Y., 1898. S.46.
3. Marx K. P. V. Annenkov, December 28, 1846 // Marx K., Engels F. Works. Ed. 2nd. T. 27.S. 406.
4. Marx K. To the criticism of the Hegelian philosophy of law // Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Ed. 2nd. T.9. S. 263.
5. see: Durkheim E. Les forms elementaires de la vie religieuse. Le systeme totemique en Australie.Paris, 1960
6. Veblen T. Theory of an idle class. - M., 1984. S. 200-201.
7. Scott, Richard, 2001, Institutions and Organizations, London: Sage.
8. See ibid.
9. Fundamentals of Sociology: A Course of Lectures / [A. I. Antolov, V. Ya. Nechaev, L. V. Pikovsky et al.]: Ed. ed. \.G.Efendiev. - M, 1993. P.130
10. Acemoglu, Robinson
11. Theory of institutional matrices: in search of a new paradigm. // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. No. 1, 2001.
12. Frolov S. S. Sociology. Textbook. For higher educational institutions. Section III. Social relationships. Chapter 3. Social institutions. Moscow: Nauka, 1994.
13. Gritsanov A. A. Encyclopedia of sociology. Publishing House "Book House", 2003. -.p. 125.
14. See more: Berger P., Lukman T. The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on the Sociology of Knowledge. M.: Medium, 1995.
15. Kozhevnikov S. B. Society in the structures of the life world: methodological research tools // Sociological journal. 2008. No. 2. S. 81-82.
16. Bourdieu P. Structure, habitus, practice // Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology. - Volume I, 1998. - No. 2.
17. Collection "Knowledge in the connections of sociality. 2003" : Internet source / Lektorsky V. A. Foreword -

Society is a complex social formation, and the forces operating within it are so interconnected that it is impossible to foresee the consequences of each individual action. In this regard, institutions have overt functions that are easily recognized as part of the recognized purposes of the institution, and latent functions that are carried out inadvertently and may not be recognized or, if recognized, are considered a by-product.

People with significant and high institutional roles often do not realize enough latent effects that can affect their activities and the activities of people associated with them. As a positive example of the use of latent functions in American textbooks, the activities of Henry Ford, the founder of the campaign that bears his name, are most often cited. He sincerely hated labor unions, big cities, large loans and installment purchases, but as he advanced in society, he stimulated their development more than anyone else, realizing that the latent, hidden, side functions of these institutions work for him, for him. business. However, the latent functions of institutions can both support recognized goals and turn them into irrelevant ones. They can even lead to significant damage to the norms of the institution.

How does a social institution function? What is its role in the processes taking place in society? Let's consider these questions.

Explicit functions of social institutions. If considered in the general view activity of any social institution, then we can assume that its main function is to satisfy social needs, for which it was created and exists. However, in order to perform this function, each institution performs functions in relation to its participants that ensure the joint activities of people striving to meet needs. These are primarily the following functions.
1. The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Each institution has a system of rules and norms of behavior that fixes, standardizes the behavior of its members and makes this behavior predictable. Appropriate social control provides the order and framework in which the activities of each member of the institution must proceed. Thus, the institution ensures the stability of the social structure of society. Indeed, the code of the institution of the family, for example, implies that members of society should be divided into sufficiently stable small groups - families. With the help of social control, the institution of the family seeks to ensure the stability of each individual family, and limits the possibility of its disintegration. The destruction of the family institution is, first of all, the appearance of chaos and uncertainty, the collapse of many groups, the violation of traditions, the impossibility of ensuring a normal sexual life and high-quality education of the younger generation.
2. The regulatory function is that the functioning of social institutions ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior. The whole cultural life of a person proceeds with his participation in various institutions. Whatever type of activity an individual is engaged in, he always encounters an institution that regulates his behavior in this area. Even if some kind of activity is not ordered and regulated, people immediately begin to institutionalize it. Thus, with the help of institutions, a person exhibits predictable and standardized behavior in social life. He fulfills the role requirements-expectations and knows what to expect from the people around him. Such regulation is necessary for joint activities.
3. Integrative function. This function includes the processes of cohesion, interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups, occurring under the influence of institutional norms, rules, sanctions and systems of roles. The integration of people in the institute is accompanied by the streamlining of the system of interactions, an increase in the volume and frequency of contacts. All this leads to an increase in the stability and integrity of the elements of the social structure, especially social organizations.
Any integration in an institution consists of three main elements or necessary requirements: 1) consolidation or combination of efforts; 2) mobilization, when each member of the group invests its resources in achieving goals; 3) the conformity of the personal goals of individuals with the goals of others or the goals of the group. Integrative processes carried out with the help of institutions are necessary for the coordinated activities of people, the exercise of power, and the creation of complex organizations. Integration is one of the conditions for the survival of organizations, as well as one of the ways to correlate the goals of its participants.
4. Broadcasting function. Society could not develop if it were not possible to transfer social experience. Each institution for its normal functioning needs the arrival of new people. This can happen both by expanding the social boundaries of the institution and by changing generations. In this regard, each institution provides a mechanism that allows individuals to socialize to its values, norms and roles. For example, a family, raising a child, seeks to orient him to the values ​​of family life that his parents adhere to. Government agencies seek to influence citizens in order to instill in them the norms of obedience and loyalty, and the church tries to accustom as many members of society to the faith as possible.
5. Communicative function. Information produced in an institution should be disseminated both within the institution for the purpose of managing and monitoring compliance with regulations, and in interactions between institutions. Moreover, the nature of the institute's communicative links has its own specifics - these are formal links carried out in a system of institutionalized roles. As the researchers note, the communicative capabilities of institutions are not the same: some are specifically designed to transmit information (mass media), others have very limited opportunities for this; some actively perceive information (scientific institutions), others passively (publishing houses).

The explicit functions of institutions are both expected and necessary. They are formed and declared in codes and fixed in the system of statuses and roles. When an institution fails to fulfill its explicit functions, it is bound to face disorganization and change: these explicit, necessary functions can be appropriated by other institutions.

latent functions. Along with the direct results of the actions of social institutions, there are other results that are outside the immediate goals of a person, not planned in advance. These results can be of great importance to society. Thus, the church seeks to consolidate its influence to the greatest extent through ideology, the introduction of faith, and often achieves success in this. However, regardless of the goals of the church, there are people who leave production activities for the sake of religion. Fanatics begin to persecute non-believers, and there may be the possibility of major social conflicts on religious grounds. The family seeks to socialize the child to the accepted norms of family life, but it often happens that family education leads to a conflict between the individual and the cultural group and serves to protect the interests of certain social strata.

The existence of the latent functions of institutions is most prominently shown by T. Veblen, who wrote that it would be naive to say that people eat black caviar because they want to satisfy their hunger and buy a luxurious Cadillac because they want to buy a good car. Obviously, these things are not acquired for the sake of satisfying obvious urgent needs. T. Veblen concludes from this that the production of consumer goods performs a hidden, latent function - it satisfies the needs of people to increase their own prestige. Such an understanding of the actions of the institute for the production of consumer goods radically changes the opinion about its activities, tasks and conditions of functioning.

Thus, it is obvious that only by studying the latent functions of institutions can we determine the true picture of social life. For example, very often sociologists are faced with a phenomenon that is incomprehensible at first glance, when an institution continues to successfully exist, even if it not only does not fulfill its functions, but also prevents their implementation. Such an institution obviously has hidden functions by which it satisfies the needs of certain social groups. A similar phenomenon can be observed especially often among political institutions, in which latent functions are developed to the greatest extent.

Latent functions, therefore, are the subject that should primarily interest the researcher. social structures. The difficulty in recognizing them is compensated by the creation of a reliable picture of social connections and features of social objects, as well as the ability to control their development and control the social processes that take place in them.

Relationships between institutions. There is no social institution that would operate in a vacuum, in isolation from other social institutions. The action of any social institution cannot be understood until all of its interrelations and relationships are explained from the standpoint of the general culture and subcultures of groups. Religion, government, education, production and consumption, trade, family - all these institutions are in multiple interaction. Thus, the conditions of production must take into account the formation of new families in order to meet their needs for new apartments, household items, childcare facilities, etc. At the same time, the education system largely depends on the activities of government institutions that maintain the prestige and possible prospects for the development of educational institutions. Religion can also affect the development of education or government agencies. The teacher, the father of the family, the priest or the functionary of a voluntary organization are all affected by the government, since the actions of the latter (for example, issuing regulations) can lead to both success and failure in achieving vital goals.

An analysis of the numerous interconnections of institutions can explain why institutions are rarely able to fully control the behavior of their members, to combine their actions and attitudes with institutional ideas and norms. For example, schools may apply standard curricula to all students, but student response to them depends on many factors beyond the teacher's control. Children whose families encourage and carry out interesting conversations and who join the reading of books that develop them acquire intellectual interests more easily and to a greater extent than those children whose families prefer watching TV and reading entertainment literature. Churches preach high ethical ideals, but parishioners often feel the need to neglect them under the influence of business ideas, political allegiances, or the desire to leave the family. Patriotism glorifies self-sacrifice for the good of the state, but it is often inconsistent with the many individual desires of those raised in families, business institutions, or some political institutions.

The need to harmonize the system of roles assigned to individuals can often be satisfied by agreement between individual institutions. Industry and commerce in any civilized country depend on the support of the government, which regulates taxes and arranges exchange between the individual institutions of industry and commerce. In turn, the government depends on industry and trade, which economically support regulations and other government actions.

In addition, given the importance of some social institutions in public life, other institutions are trying to seize control over their activities. Since, for example, education plays a very significant role in society, attempts to fight for influence on the institution of education are observed among political organizations, industrial organizations, churches, etc. Politicians, for example, contribute to the development of the school, confident that by doing so they support attitudes towards patriotism and national identity. Church institutions are trying, with the help of the education system, to instill in students loyalty to church doctrines and a deep faith in God. Manufacturing organizations they are trying to orient students from childhood to the development of industrial professions, and the military - to raise people who can successfully serve in the army.

The same can be said about the influence of other institutions on the institution of the family. The state is trying to regulate the number of marriages and divorces, as well as the birth rate. In addition, it establishes minimum standards for the care of children. Schools are looking for cooperation with the family by creating teachers' councils with the participation of parents and parents' committees. Churches create ideals for family life and try to hold family ceremonies within a religious framework.

Many institutional roles begin to conflict because the person who performs them belongs to several institutions. An example is the well-known conflict between career and family orientations. In this case, we are dealing with clashes of norms and rules of several institutions. Sociological research shows that each institution seeks to the greatest extent possible to “disconnect” the individuals included in it from playing roles in other institutions. Enterprises try to include the activities of the wives of their employees in their sphere of influence (a system of benefits, orders, family vacations, etc.). Army institutional rules can also be bad for family life. And here they find ways to include wives in army life, so that the husband and wife are related to uniform institutional norms. Most definitely, the problem of fulfillment by a person of the exclusively role of this institution is solved in some institutions of the Christian church, where the clergy are released from family responsibilities by taking a vow of celibacy.

The appearance of institutions is constantly adapting to changes in society. Changes in one institution tend to lead to changes in others. After changing family customs, traditions and rules of conduct, a new system social security of such changes involving many institutions. When peasants come from the countryside to the city and create their own subculture there, the actions of political institutions must change, legal organizations etc. We are accustomed to the fact that any change in the political organization affects all aspects of our daily lives. There are no institutions that would be transformed without change into other institutions or would exist separately from them.

institutional autonomy. The fact that institutions are interdependent in their activities does not mean that they are ready to give up internal ideological and structural control. One of their main goals is to exclude the influence of the leaders of other institutions and to keep their institutional norms, rules, codes and ideologies intact. All major institutions develop patterns of behavior that help maintain a certain degree of independence and resist the dominance of people grouped in other institutions. Enterprises and businesses strive for independence from the state; educational institutions also try to achieve the greatest independence and prevent the penetration of the norms and rules of foreign institutions. Even the institution of courtship achieves independence in relation to the institution of the family, which leads to some mystery and secrecy in its rituals. Each institution tries to carefully sort the attitudes and rules brought in from other institutions in order to select those attitudes and rules that can least affect the independence of this institution. Social order is a successful combination of the interaction of institutions and their respect for independence in relation to each other. This combination avoids serious and destructive institutional conflicts.

The dual function of intellectuals in relation to institutions. In all complex societies, institutions require constant ideological and organizational support and strengthening the ideology, the system of norms and rules on which the institution relies. This is carried out by two role groups of members of the institution: 1) bureaucrats who monitor institutional behavior; 2) intellectuals who explain and comment on the ideology, norms and rules of behavior of social institutions. In our case, intellectuals are those who, regardless of education or occupation, devote themselves to the serious analysis of ideas. The importance of ideology lies in maintaining loyalty to institutional norms, through which the heterogeneous attitudes of those people who are able to manipulate ideas are developed. Intellectuals Are Called to Satisfy Urgent Needs for Explanation social development and to do so in terms consistent with institutional norms.

For example, intellectuals associated with the political communist institutions set themselves the task of showing that modern history really develops in accordance with the predictions of K. Marx and V. Lenin. At the same time, intellectuals who study US political institutions argue that real history is built on the development of the ideas of free enterprise and democracy. At the same time, the leaders of the institutions understand that intellectuals cannot be completely trusted, since in studying the basic foundations of the ideology they support, they also analyze its imperfections. In this regard, intellectuals can begin to develop a competitive ideology that is more suited to the needs of the times. Such intellectuals become revolutionary and attack traditional institutions. That is why in the course of the formation of totalitarian institutions, first of all, they seek to protect ideology from the actions of intellectuals.

The 1966 campaign in China, which destroyed the influence of the intellectuals, confirmed Mao Zedong's fear that the intellectuals would refuse to support the revolutionary regime. Something similar happened in our country in the prewar years. If we turn to history, we will undoubtedly see that any power based on faith in the ability of leaders (charismatic power), as well as power that uses violence, non-democratic methods, seeks to protect the actions of the institution of power from the participation of intellectuals or completely subordinate them to its influence. . Exceptions only emphasize this rule.

So, it is often difficult to use the activities of intellectuals, because if today they can support institutional norms, then tomorrow they become their critics. Nevertheless, there are no institutions in the modern world that have escaped the constant influence of intellectual criticism, and there are no features of institutions that can continue to exist for a long time without intellectual protection. It becomes clear why some totalitarian political regimes are torn between a certain freedom and the repression of intellectuals. The intellectual most capable of defending fundamental institutions is the person who does so out of a desire for truth, regardless of obligations to institutions. Such a person is both useful and dangerous for the well-being of the institution - useful because he skillfully achieves the protection of institutional values, respect for the institution, and dangerous because, in search of truth, he is able to become an opponent of this institution. This dual role forces fundamental institutions to deal with the problem of ensuring discipline in society and the problem of conflict and loyalty for intellectuals.

A social institution in the sociological interpretation is considered as historically established, stable forms of organizing the joint activities of people; in a narrower sense, it is an organized system of social ties and norms designed to satisfy the basic needs of society, social groups and individuals.

Social institutions (insitutum - institution) - value-normative complexes (values, rules, norms, attitudes, models, standards of behavior in certain situations), as well as bodies and organizations that ensure their implementation and approval in the life of society.

All elements of society are interconnected by social relations - connections that arise between social groups and within them in the process of material (economic) and spiritual (political, legal, cultural) activities.

In the process of the development of society, some ties may die off, others may appear. Relationships that have proven to be beneficial to society are streamlined, become universally valid patterns, and are then repeated from generation to generation. The more stable these ties that are useful for society, the more stable the society itself.

Social institutions (from lat. institutum - device) are called elements of society, representing stable forms of organization and regulation of social life. Such institutions of society as the state, education, family, etc., streamline social relations, regulate the activities of people and their behavior in society.

The main social institutions traditionally include family, state, education, church, science, and law. Below is a brief description of these institutions and their main functions.

Family- the most important social institution of kinship, connecting individuals with a common life and mutual moral responsibility. The family performs a number of functions: economic (housekeeping), reproductive (childbirth), educational (transfer of values, norms, samples), etc.

State- the main political institution that manages society and ensures its security. The state performs internal functions, including economic (regulation of the economy), stabilization (maintaining stability in society), coordination (ensuring public harmony), ensuring the protection of the population (protection of rights, legality, social security) and many others. There are also external functions: defense (in case of war) and international cooperation (to protect the country's interests in the international arena).

Education is a social institution of culture that ensures the reproduction and development of society through the organized transfer of social experience in the form of knowledge, skills and abilities. The main functions of education include adaptation (preparation for life and work in society), professional (training of specialists), civil (training of a citizen), general cultural (introduction to cultural values), humanistic (disclosure of personal potential), etc.

The Church is a religious institution formed on the basis of a single religion. Church members share common norms, dogmas, rules of conduct and are divided into priesthood and laity. The Church performs the following functions: ideological (defines views on the world), compensatory (offers consolation and reconciliation), integrating (unites believers), general cultural (attaches to cultural values), and so on.

TYPES OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The activity of a social institution is determined by:

 firstly, a set of specific norms and regulations governing the relevant types of behavior;

 secondly, the integration of a social institution into the socio-political, ideological and value structures of society;

 thirdly, the availability of material resources and conditions that ensure the successful implementation of regulatory requirements and the exercise of social control.

The most important social institutions are:

 state and family;

 economics and politics;

 production;

 culture and science;

 education;

 Mass media and public opinion;

 law and education.

Social institutions contribute to the consolidation and reproduction of certain social relations that are especially important for society, as well as the stability of the system in all the main areas of its life - economic, political, spiritual and social.

Types of social institutions depending on their field of activity:

 relational;

 Regulatory.

Relational institutions (for example, insurance, labor, production) determine the role structure of society based on a certain set of features. The objects of these social institutions are role groups (insurers and insurers, manufacturers and employees, etc.).

Regulatory institutions define the boundaries of the independence of the individual (se independent actions) to achieve their own goals. This group includes institutions of the state, government, social protection, business, health care.

In the process of development, the social institution of the economy changes its form and can belong to the group of either endogenous or exogenous institutions.

Endogenous (or internal) social institutions characterize the state of moral obsolescence of an institution, requiring its reorganization or in-depth specialization of activities, for example, institutions of credit, money, which become obsolete over time and need to introduce new forms of development.

Exogenous institutions reflect the impact on the social institution of external factors, elements of culture or the nature of the personality of the head (leader) of the organization, for example, changes occurring in the social institution of taxes under the influence of the level of tax culture of taxpayers, the level of business and professional culture of the leaders of this social institution.

FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

The purpose of social institutions is to satisfy the most important needs and interests of society.

Economic needs in society are simultaneously satisfied by several social institutions, and each institution, through its activities, satisfies a variety of needs, among which are vital (physiological, material) and social (personal needs for work, self-realization, creative activity and social justice). A special place among social needs is occupied by the need of the individual to achieve - an attainable need. It is based on McLelland's concept, according to which each individual shows a desire to express, to manifest himself in specific social conditions.

In the course of their activities, social institutions perform both general and individual functions that correspond to the specifics of the institution.

General Features:

 The function of consolidation and reproduction of social relations. Any institution consolidates, standardizes the behavior of members of society through its rules, norms of behavior.

 Regulatory function ensures the regulation of relationships between members of society by developing patterns of behavior, regulation of their actions.

 The integrative function includes the process of interdependence and mutual responsibility of members of social groups.

 Broadcasting function (socialization). Its content is the transfer of social experience, familiarization with the values, norms, roles of this society.

Individual functions:

 The social institution of marriage and the family implements the function of reproducing members of society together with the relevant departments of the state and private enterprises (antenatal clinics, maternity hospitals, a network of children's medical institutions, family support and strengthening agencies, etc.).

 The social institution of health is responsible for maintaining the health of the population (polyclinics, hospitals and other medical institutions, as well as state bodies organizing the process of maintaining and strengthening health).

 Social institution for the production of means of subsistence, which performs the most important creative function.

 Political institutions in charge of organizing political life.

 Social institution of law, which performs the function of developing legal documents and in charge of compliance with laws and regulations.

 Social institution of education and norms with the corresponding function of education, socialization of members of society, familiarization with its values, norms, laws.

 Social institution of religion, helping people in solving spiritual problems.

Social institutions realize all their positive qualities only under the condition of their legitimacy, i.e., recognition of the expediency of their actions by the majority of the population. Sharp shifts in class consciousness, reassessment of fundamental values ​​can seriously undermine the population's trust in the existing governing and managing bodies, disrupt the mechanism of regulatory influence on people.