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Collegial bodies in certain areas. Collegial governing body - what is it? Executive collegiate body

2. GOST R 6.30-2003 Unified documentation systems. Unified system of organizational and administrative documentation. Requirements for paperwork (put into effect by the Decree of the State Standard of Russia dated 03.03.2003 No. 65-st).

3. Regulations on the Unified Commission for placing orders. Approved by order of the Office of Roskomnadzor for the Astrakhan region dated February 1, 2010 No. 29.

4. Regulations on the commission for the acceptance and disposal of fixed assets, intangible assets, write-off of inventories of the Ministry of Finance Russian Federation. Approved Order No. 197 dated April 15, 2010.

5. Regulations on the Scientific and Technical Council of OAO Gazprom. Approved Order No. 58 dated August 6, 2004, as amended by Order No. 143 dated May 26, 2009.

6. Regulations on the Academic Council of the Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics ( technical university). Approved decision of the MIEM Academic Council on November 15, 2005, No. 3.

7. Decree of the Government of Moscow dated 06.05.2003 No. 322-PP (as amended on 07.26.2011) “On administrative commissions for cases of administrative offenses in the city of Moscow.

8. Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of October 14, 2009 No. 406 “On approval model provision about the performance evaluation committee scientific organizations performing scientific research, experimental design and technological work for civil purposes, and a standard methodology for assessing the performance of scientific organizations performing scientific research, experimental design and technological work for civil purposes.

9. Model regulation on the commission (authorized) for social insurance. Approved FSS RF 07/15/1994 No. 556a.

10. Model regulation on the committee (commission) for labor protection. Approved by order of the Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation of May 29, 2006 No. 413.

11. Federal Law No. 14-FZ of February 8, 1998 (as amended on December 6, 2011) “On Limited Liability Companies”.

12. Federal Law No. 208-FZ of December 26, 1995 (as amended on November 30, 2011) “On joint-stock companies».

To collegial management bodies (in terms of federal laws“On Joint Stock Companies” and “On Limited Liability Companies”) include: a general meeting of shareholders or participants, a board of directors (or supervisory board), a collegial executive body (management board, directorate).

When using various types of organizational structures, collegial forms of work become important. These are committees, target working groups, commissions, councils, boards. Of course, these forms do not represent any particular type of structure. They can be permanent or temporary, have different status, the level of authority granted and perform different tasks In the organisation. collegiate bodies are often empowered to make certain decisions, exercise leadership (or delegate authority to exercise leadership). There is a well-known practice of forming such bodies to perform advisory functions, that is, to present a reasonable opinion on a particular issue to the head of any level. Let us consider in more detail the issues of organizing their activities and the level of authority.

1. A collegial body of an information nature. At meetings of this body, contacts are made between the heads of departments. Their common leader informs the participants of the meeting about the current situation, about the adopted and planned decisions. As a result, methods for implementing solutions can be refined. Bodies of an informational nature are needed primarily at the highest levels of government. Their use at lower levels serves to improve mutual understanding, in particular between specialists (or employees of functional units) and line managers. The activity of such a body is designed to lead to strengthening of ties and improvement of personal relationships.

2. Collegial advisory body. Such a body (committee, expert council, etc.) may have the task of studying some problem and presenting an opinion on it. It does not replace, but complements the activities of existing experts in the organization. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the bodies involved in research and the bodies that use the conducted research to draw up their conclusions. An advisory body may act with the help of specialists or experts when it is possible to combine their knowledge on a particular complex problem. There are cases when the head of an organization gathers a certain number of specialists working in advisory and staff services for collegial work. At the same time, the issue under consideration is complex and requires the knowledge of various specialists, and the body can play some coordinating role.

3. A collegial body authorized to make decisions. This kind of body can be used in the absence of a line manager to perform this function, as well as to assist the line manager in making particularly important decisions. For example, there are committees to decide on the general policy of the organization. Such a body is chaired by the top manager of the organization, and the heads of critical departments and experts within it play a very active role.

4. Collegial body exercising control. Such an organizational link performs in relation to the leaders mainly the role of a body that gives permission to make decisions that meet certain requirements. He also oversees the implementation of these decisions. Activity collegiate bodies may cover various areas of the organization's activities: 1) decisions related to overall strategy and politics; 2) management acts and administrative actions; 3) direct executive activity that implements the decisions made.

The advantages of this organizational form are associated primarily with joint work groups of people. A special mutual understanding between people is achieved in groups whose members are characterized, as a rule, by the same behavior and even specific skills (line and functional managers, specialists in the field of technology, economics, commercial activity, etc.). At the same time, coordination of the work of various services or employees of the administrative apparatus is ensured. It is also significant that there is a clash of different points of view of people who usually engage in different types of activities, and most importantly, who have unequal training and experience. In many cases, this contributes to the emergence of new ideas. In addition, collegiate bodies contribute to the stability of the organization, since they enable a certain number of managers to be aware of the problems of related services, and also create conditions for the training of young leadership personnel.

Chapter 10 PROJECT AND MATRIX MANAGEMENT

Project management- is the management of important activities in the organization that require constant management in the face of strict restrictions on costs, timing and quality of work. At it is necessary to provide mechanisms for resolving interpersonal, intergroup and interorganizational conflicts related to the organization of interaction between vertical and horizontal management systems. If an organization needs to develop and implement a project of a complex nature, covering, on the one hand, the solution of a wide range of special technical, economic, social and other issues, and, on the other hand, the activities of various functional and linear divisions, then the most suitable, an effective organizational form for performing this task. There are three options for organizing work.

The first option is to form a task force, coordinating unit or ad hoc committee, since the current organizational structure, admittedly, will not be able to cope with the new complex task. However, experience shows that a single new body cannot solve the problem of making corporate decisions in the absence of its interaction with all functional and linear structures. This type of governance structure, with distribution of power and lack of individual responsibility, is not suitable for making decisions on complex issues.

The second option is to give authority and responsibility for solving various parts of a complex task to the head of one of the functional departments, without removing other duties from him. We are talking about the allocation of the so-called head department. However, a problem arises here: to resolve conflicts and ensure coordination of work, constant participation in the management of the project by senior management is required. This approach, which requires constant intervention and at the same time leads to the dispersion of responsibility, can be destructive.

The third option is to appoint a project manager, endowing him with full authority to solve problems related to the development and implementation of the project. The main idea is to transfer to one person - the project manager the authority and responsibility for planning, operational management, financing the implementation of all work on the project. His job is to ensure that the task (project) is completed on time with specified technical requirements and costs. This organizational mechanism is increasingly used in the aerospace, electronics, aviation industries, in the production of computer technology, etc.

Design structures. Under project structure is understood as a temporary organization created to solve a specific complex problem (project development and its implementation). One team gathers qualified workers of different professions, specialists, researchers to implement a specific project with a given level of quality and within the material, financial and labor resources allocated for this purpose. After the completion of the project and the solution of all related tasks, the employees involved in the team return to their departments for permanent work or move on to work on another project. The project manager is fully subordinate to all team members and all resources allocated for this purpose.

Project structures differ from each other in terms of the scope of activities, the breadth of coverage of scientific and technical problems and production problems, the nature of relations with the linear and functional links of the organization, and the terms of reference for interacting with the external environment. One of the most common types of such an organization is matrix structure(Fig. 10.1), in which the members of the project team report not only to the project manager, but also to the heads of those functional units in which they constantly work. The organization develops simultaneously in two dimensions. Such, for example, are organizations based on a combination of functions performed with a territorial structure or orientation to a certain type of consumer or type of product. In this form of organization, the authority of the project manager can range from almost all-encompassing line authority to almost purely headquarters authority.

In a matrix organization, project managers are responsible for coordinating all activities and using resources related to a given project. To this end, all material and financial resources for this project are transferred to their disposal. Project managers are also responsible for the planning of the project and the progress of its implementation in all quantitative, qualitative and temporal terms. As for the heads of functional units, they delegate some of their responsibilities to the project manager, decide where and how this or that work should be done. Functional examination of products is carried out in all divisions of the company.

The matrix structure contributes to the collective expenditure of resources, which is essential when the output is associated with the need to use rare or expensive types of resources. At the same time, a certain flexibility is achieved, which, in essence, is absent in functional structures, since in them all employees are permanently assigned to certain functional units. Since employees in a matrix organization are recruited from different functional departments to work on a specific project, labor resources can be flexibly reallocated depending on the needs of each project. Along with flexibility, the matrix organization opens up great opportunities for effective coordination of work.

Figure 10.1 Matrix control structure

The introduction of project management is due to the fact that a linear-functional structure cannot ensure the implementation of many projects. In organizing units according to specialized functions, much effort goes into establishing and clarifying the relationship between differentiated roles. Since the line-functional structure continues to exist along with project management, the latter should rather be characterized as a mechanism for overcoming shortcomings and supplementing this structure, and not as its replacement.

Organizational conflicts and their resolution. For obvious reasons, the conflict associated with project management is inseparable from the more general organizational conflicts that often arise in line-functional organizations, since the project team is a subsystem of a larger organization. It is possible to conditionally divide organizational conflicts associated with project management into two categories: 1) conflicts associated with organizational changes; 2) conflicts associated with the concentration of specialists in various fields of knowledge in one group for the implementation of activities that have a limited duration.

The introduction of project management in line-functional organizations affects the hierarchy of authority and responsibility, organizational procedures, specialization of departments, incentive system, unity of leadership, scope of control, the allocation of resources and the establishment of relative priorities in the organization. Production goals are guided by cross-functional requirements, existing teams in departments are violated, staffing tends to duplicate. Functional leaders should interact in an environment where the main emphasis is on a cross-functional approach and mutual agreement on decisions. They are required to participate in the planning and organization of the activities of their units, which they previously carried out individually.

Changing the nature of the interaction of departments creates real organizational problems for both project and functional managers. They are faced with the need to constantly communicate and stimulate the work of specialists to achieve concrete results. The lines of interaction in project management cover specialists in one area, specialists in various areas, specialists and managers, heads of various departments, specialists from "local" and attracted from third-party organizations.

The project manager must organize the coordinated work of various specialists, who in this case are faced with the difficulties of adjusting to new working relationships in a dynamic project team. Often there are conflicts related to both the coordination of the work of project participants and the identification of their personal contribution to the overall results of the group's work. With the formation of project teams in the organization, there is a redistribution of powers and responsibilities. It is not uncommon for a project manager to be responsible for an important area of the organization's work, while the functional manager retains responsibility only for service functions. The pressure of the project team, whose members could only be subordinates in functional divisions, is increasing on the performing activities.

The source of the power of specialists is their competence rather than official position. This largely determines the motives for their transition to project teams. On the other hand, responsibility for specific results, especially at the development stage of a project, requires limiting the autonomy of project teams. According to research, a high degree of autonomy of specialists is not always associated with high productivity. To work effectively, different specialists require a different degree of independence.

At the same time, it is obvious that most specialists - project managers or members of project teams - are subject to some influence. They are not only associated with the performance of tasks that are important to the organization, but also interact closely with its top management. Under such conditions, the specialists who remained in the functional units experience some loss of their influence.

The introduction of project management leads to a change in control in the organization. The functional manager assumes responsibility for completing the tasks assigned by the project manager. As a result, multiple control is exercised, since the functional manager receives tasks from a person who is at the same level of the managerial hierarchy with him. The same person evaluates their implementation (often the decisions of project managers may not be in favor of certain functional units). At the same time, the functional manager is responsible to the line manager for the activities of the unit as a whole.

In project management, the main emphasis is on monitoring the implementation of specific tasks. Evaluation of work can be carried out collectively, although this is associated with certain difficulties. The project manager has certain advantages in the allocation of resources in the organization, especially with regard to the use of personnel. Given the importance of the project, it seeks to attract project team the best specialists. This has a dual effect: the project manager tends to use people from a particular functional unit to define tasks and evaluate the performance of that unit, and the functional manager's responsibility for the work of the unit is reduced due to the transfer of his specialists to the project team.

Although the staff of the functional unit continues to be under the administrative control of the head of that unit, many of the specialists in reality work exclusively in the interests of the project manager. These specialists, returning to the functional unit after the end of the project, may encounter certain difficulties, alienating themselves from the interests of their unit. The return to the previous work may be perceived by the specialist as temporary until he is included in the new project team.

The distribution of authority and responsibility between project managers and functional managers is a very complex issue. Where the project manager is given full power to solve problems related to the implementation of the project, the functional unit can become more of a passive supporting body than a dynamic force in the organization. In cases where the project manager is not sufficiently qualified to assist, the functional unit can become a body that constantly interferes with the success of the project and the entire decision-making process can be hampered by the resulting conflicts. At the other extreme, the project manager may have little power to act as a facilitator for the project team.

The simultaneous implementation of several projects makes it difficult to prioritize work in functional units, since the functional manager has, as a rule, limited influence on the establishment of such priorities. The situation is even more complicated in cases where priorities have not been set in advance for all projects. Project managers can put pressure on functional leaders according to their perception of the urgency and importance of their work.

Chapter 11 BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEMS

The discussion in the early 1990s about the nature and fate of the administrative-command system that dominated the former USSR for several decades and covered all levels of management - from the nationwide to the individual enterprise, stimulated comprehensive research and critical analysis of the bureaucratic organization of management. This is urgently required effective management economic entities in the post-privatization period, when on the basis of the liquidation of the centralized system, organizations are being reformed, restructured and transferred to market forms of economic management.

Decentralization, distribution of rights and responsibilities, effective and efficient organizational communications, coordination and implementation of decisions, adaptation of structures to the market almost everywhere remain disordered and unresolved problems. Moreover, inattention to them, the lack of progressive forms of organization adequate to the market lead to a sharp decrease in the efficiency of activity, a deepening of the economic crisis.

For many decades, bureaucratic management systems have become widespread in large companies and large organizations of various types. At first, their use was an organizational innovation, as a rational organization of work was introduced, management and decision-making became a profession. It created order, based on the use of a set of rules that allowed various specialists from all parts of the organization to coordinate their work. The bureaucratic system used the entire intellectual potential of the organization.

Max Weber, who initiated the systematic study of bureaucracy, found that it is both the most efficient system and a threat to the essential elements of freedom. Drawing attention to the orderliness and potential efficiency of bureaucratic systems, Weber noted that the bureaucratic form of organization in terms of accuracy, constancy, rigor and reliability of its work surpasses all other forms of administrative organization.

During the 20th century, large bureaucratic organizations created systems that could effectively manage the flow of investment, the division of labor, and large-scale industrial production. The use of their organizational potential is associated with the development of industry, communications and communications, interactions of all kinds, consumer orientation. Sufficient organizations have been created to provide leadership in a wide variety of fields.

However, over time, the role and effectiveness of the bureaucratic organization declined. In the context of modern revolutionary changes in technology and production technology, the expansion of the volume, diversity and instability of the consumer market, the growth of uncertainty with an increase in the scale of investment, the possibilities for using bureaucratic systems are significantly reduced, and new difficulties arise in ensuring effective management.

It is no coincidence that in many cases the negative consequences of the activities of large organizations were associated with bureaucracy (excessive “clerical work”, useless activities, procedural delays, red tape, inefficient organizational ties, swelling of staff, etc.). Especially a lot of criticism was caused by the centralization brought to the point of absurdity in decision-making on minor issues, the suppression of the initiative and freedom of creativity of workers, the multi-stage and thoughtless subordination, the unjustified command of incompetent leaders, their appropriation of the absolute “right to be right”.

Cyril N. Parkinson, a well-known English scientist in the field of management, wrote sarcastically about such bureaucracy - the author of the famous "Parkinson's Laws". “Since any work, and especially paperwork,” he noted, “is extensible in time, it becomes obvious that the number of people involved in its implementation does not (or almost in any way) depend on its volume.” Or such a postulate about the two main forces of the bureaucracy: 1) an official is interested in multiplying subordinates, but not rivals; 2) officials provide work for each other. And here is the recommended formula for determining the states of any administrative institution:

X = (2K m + 1) / n

where X- the number of new employees recruited each year; TO - the number of officials who recruit subordinates for the sake of promotion; I- the interval between entering the service and retiring; T - the number of man-hours spent on settling cases in the institution; P - the number of active units.

“Everywhere you can find institutions (administrative, commercial and scientific,” wrote Parkinson, “where top management is exhausted from idleness, smaller bosses are active only in mutual intrigues, and ordinary employees are sad or gossip. Claims - the most modest. Achievements - none at all. He called this disease administrative paralysis, or "necozavism." And at the same time he argued that this kind of complicated inferiority syndrome is much more common than it might seem, and it is much easier to recognize it than to cure it.

Scholars agree on six characteristics of bureaucracy originally described by Weber: 1) a hierarchical chain of command; 2) specialization of official duties; 3) a unified policy in the field of rights and obligations; 4) standardized operations in each area of work; 5) career based professional competence; 6) impersonal relationships. To these characteristics, we can add that the coordination of activities is carried out at the highest levels of the organization. Let's take a closer look at each of these characteristics.

Hierarchical command chain. A bureaucratic organization has a pyramid structure with a top leader at the top who distributes the entire scope of the organization's work and delegates responsibility for each part of the overall task to his deputies. The latter, in turn, delegate responsibility to lower levels of management along a chain of commands that reaches each employee. In a number large companies in the past, there were ten or more levels of management between the top manager and the worker.

The introduction of chain of command has been a powerful factor in bringing order to large departments in enterprises. The chain of command resolved potential conflicts by clearly allocating duties, powers, and responsibilities for Possible Solution. Each leader and his deputies in the chain of command were given full authority to solve problems or perform a separate function, as well as responsibility for its performance. This greatly simplified the task of the leader and gave confidence in the execution of the team.

Disadvantages of pre-bureaucratic autocracy. Autocratic organizations without a clear chain of command have exhausted their development opportunities with a staff of about 100 people. Many entrepreneurs have taken on the role of a one-man executive who presides over a growing organization like an artisan with numerous assistants. Instead of creating an effective chain of command, he tries to be everywhere at once, making decisions throughout the organization, hesitant to hand it over to a group of assistants.

Such entrepreneurs may attribute their ups and downs to market changes, but in fact they suffer from the disadvantages of a pre-bureaucratic form of autocracy. An entrepreneur can be a leader with unlimited rights until the moment when he is able to manage the amount of activity that can be controlled by one omnipresent leader. Some entrepreneurs, who limit themselves to the role of an artisan, appoint their deputies, but by constantly canceling their orders, they lose confidence in the chain of command they have formed. In fact, deputies are deprived of the powers granted to them.

Delegation and granting of powers. Successful entrepreneurs typically implement a chain-of-command structure. Powers are delegated to subordinates and thereby the intellectual potential of the organization is enhanced. Activities can expand when middle managers are given limited but sufficient authority to make the necessary decisions and regulate the production process. Post-bureaucratic entrepreneurs successfully develop their activities by working with a decentralized team and a horizontal management scheme that has replaced the chain of command. Nevertheless, the innovations of the bureaucracy, including the transfer of certain rights to dispose of property to the lower levels of the management hierarchy, were the source of growth in production and, accordingly, organizations in the early period of the creation of bureaucratic systems.

Specialization official duties. Bureaucracy has become efficient due to the specialization of labor. In fact, the organizational structure of the bureaucracy is created on the basis of dividing all tasks into a series of well-defined job responsibilities or functions. Each function is given responsibility for performing a specific task and provided with the necessary management tools. The manager issues and distributes tasks in such a way that all their components are part of the overall task of the organization: specialized engineering staff studies the reasons for the decline in efficiency at all stages of the production process, designs equipment and simulates processes that would ensure an increase in labor productivity; the responsibilities of those who are engaged in the sale of products, financiers, labor specialists, etc. are determined. Specialization leads to more effective ways of fulfilling each part of the overall task of the organization.

Prior to the introduction of specialization into bureaucratic organizations, each craftsman learned everything about his work and did the entire amount of work from start to finish. Handicraft production can often be fruitful and have artistic merit, but during the Industrial Revolution, it became a brake on mechanization and the development of a large-scale economy. As organizations moved from handicraft to division of labor, a rigid hierarchy of bureaucracy provided what was needed to overcome craft traditions, each innovation becoming part of the organization's operating standards and processes.

Uniform norms and rules. The bureaucracy is managed with the help of uniform fixed norms and rules, which are established by the management of the organization, regardless of whether it is commercial or non-commercial. These norms provide for the rights and obligations of employees and managers. The most basic regulations relate to the issue of defining rights, powers and responsibilities. In a bureaucratic organization, the leader is responsible for the activities of all subordinates and has the right to give them orders, to which they must unquestioningly obey. The main responsibility of the employee is not to do what is right or necessary, but to follow exactly the instructions of the immediate supervisor. The established norms of the bureaucracy guarantee that workers are paid for as long as they are at work, and often receive a pension for years of service. Fixed rights and obligations establish certain frameworks for management processes and, to a certain extent, limit the possible willfulness of the leader.

Standardization of procedures that define each type of work. Uniform norms and processes are the basis for the standardization of actions, their sequence and stages. They are preliminary studied by the performers, are mandatory and predetermine strict order and accountability in the organization.

Professional career. The bureaucratic organization creates conditions for the professional growth of employees, their promotion to higher levels of the chain of command. Promotion gives both power and authority, and a higher status in the organization. The increase is achieved by improving the skills in some area of activity and the ability to perform the prescribed amount of work. A professional career is based on a kind of contract between the employee and the organization: the employee dedicates his activity to the organization in exchange for a guaranteed job, often a lifetime, stable or increased wages, a pension, and the possibility of promotion.

Before the bureaucracy, favoritism and nepotism undermined the effectiveness of the organization. The bureaucracy adheres to the policy of promotion of employees on the basis of their qualification growth. This allows the organization to hire, train and retain highly qualified people. The employee's desire for promotion and the security of a professional career were an important element in the success of the bureaucratic system, provided that there was a strong motivation for long-term loyalty to the organization. However, the capabilities of the majority of workers cannot be realized in a bureaucratic system, since the main indicator of success is promotion through the hierarchical ladder; as you move up, the pyramid of power narrows, and only some employees can take higher positions.

impersonal relationships. In the bureaucratic system, there is a relationship not of a person with a person, but of a role with a role. The organizational structure and job descriptions dictate what is expected of each individual. An employee who performs some specific duties should only exercise them rationally. This, in essence, gave rise to a certain automatism and impersonal relationships, opposed to personal sympathy, favoritism, the manifestation of feelings and emotions.

Coordination is carried out from top to bottom. In a bureaucratic system, employees are not taught to coordinate work at their level. The manager divides the entire amount of work between certain performers in such a way as to get the output of the product for which he is responsible. Then the head of a higher rank coordinates the work between departments that do not need to contact each other on an operational basis. Communication is carried out only with a higher manager. Employees must remain within the limits defined by their job description and standard practices. Each employee should report to only one manager. If this rule is violated, the leader loses authority. The coordination of work from above worked successfully in the early period of the industrial revolution, when it became necessary to include in production a huge number of workers who did not have technical qualifications. Currently, strictly bureaucratic systems have proved to be ineffective or completely incapacitated.

In table. 11.1 in a systematic way shows the fundamental changes in organizational systems that characterize both the reasons for the inefficiency of bureaucratic organizations in modern conditions and the main features of the organizations that come to replace them.

Modern production and its infrastructure do not need bureaucratic organizations. There is a growing need for mobile and intellectual organizations whose activities correspond to the revolutionary changes in the very nature of work that have occurred over the past decades (Table 11.2). Let's take a closer look at each of these areas.

End of work -

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Organization is a complex organism

Every person throughout his life is somehow connected with organizations in organizations or with their assistance, people grow up and learn .. an organization is a complex organism, interests are intertwined and coexist in it .. it is difficult to overestimate the importance of the scientific substantiation of all aspects of the functioning of organizations in modern conditions. .

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Intergroup conflict usually occurs when one or more members of a group become frustrated when faced with obstacles to achieving group goals. V individual cases source pr

Ways to overcome intergroup conflicts
Intergroup conflict is always dysfunctional, at least for large organizations and sometimes even for individual groups and their members. It should also be kept in mind that n

Stages and methods of decision making
Key steps in the decision-making process Information Organization Methods and models used for decision-making

Ranking decision conditions
State Simple terms Difficult conditions Static Weakly felt uncertainty 1) small number

Types of activities and productivity of the management apparatus
Any management apparatus (office, office) is an "information factory". Its main role is to process information like an industrial enterprise itself,

Reasons for interest in business information
No. p, p Business information Reliability of business partners Sources of business information

The evolution of the management apparatus and methods of its work
The evolution of the administrative apparatus can be traced back to ancient civilizations. For example, the ancient Assyrians used cuneiform to record the amount produced, sold and for

Development of information technology
The modern base of the industrial revolution of the second half of the 20th century is characterized by the development and widespread use of computers that process information, as machines used to process information.

The main trends of modern changes
Modern technical equipment for the activities of the control apparatus may include: office blocks equipped with microcomputers located at workplaces

Issues for discussion
1. How can you classify management decisions in a generalized way? 2. Name the options for individual decision making. 3. What are the options for organizing a group pr

Adaptation to the market
Chapter 18. FORMS OF PROPERTY AND ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT

Ownership and control functions
As part of the key factors of economic development, one should distinguish between the status of management and the status of ownership. The management status includes the whole complex of structures, connections and

Trends in organizational change
The transition from state ownership to its other forms is incompatible with a stereotyped approach to the organizational structure of business entities. Fundamental changes in

Directions for the restructuring of organizations
The transition from narrow specialization to integration causes changes in the content and nature of management activities. There is a clear trend towards a decrease in stiffness

Organizational Conversion Problems
In the ongoing economic reforms in Russia and the restructuring of the management system, an important role is played by the reorganization of the activities of enterprises in the military-industrial complex. This is without prejudice

The structure of employment in enterprises of various sizes
(in % of the total number of employees) Country Less than 20 people. 20-99 people 100-499 people 500 people and more

Small businesses in Russia
As of October 1, 1998, thousand units In % of the total Total in Russia 867.6 100.0

Organizational isolation of enterprises
An independent business entity operating under conditions market economy, is an enterprise. The enterprise is created for the production of products, you

Types of organization of business entities
In accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, in force since the beginning of 1995, legal entities, which are commercial organizations, can be created in various forms

Adaptation of structures to market conditions
In connection with the transition to a market economy, the tasks and nature of the management activities of enterprises are radically changing. The goal of maximizing profits, increasing p

Joint-stock property, its formation and organization
A joint stock company is an organizational and legal form of entrepreneurial activity. The capital of a joint-stock company is divided into a certain number of shares, acquired

Meeting of shareholders
The General Meeting of Shareholders is the supreme governing body of a joint stock company. However, it cannot consider matters falling within the jurisdiction of the board of directors or the executive body.

Executive agency
All issues of managing the current activities of the joint-stock company (except for those referred by law to the exclusive competence general meeting and the Board of Directors) decides the executive

Personnel of managers in joint-stock companies
Before the transition to market relations in the economy, in the conditions of the centralization of management that had been in effect for many decades, government bodies established common requirements

Modern forms of state regulation
In a transitional economy, the state acts, firstly, as a power structure that establishes the "rules of the game" in the market and determines the conditions for the functioning of market

Principles of organization and functions of federal bodies
V transition economy Russia as the basic principles for organizing the activities of sectoral and intersectoral bodies of the federal government in relation to entrepreneurship

State and market infrastructure
The formation of market relations in Russia is largely hindered by the underdevelopment of the market infrastructure. The most important duty of the state is to exercise decisive influence

Issues for discussion
1. What impact does the change in ownership have on the organizational structure? 2. How the external environment and entrepreneurial infrastructure affect organizational

Integration
Chapter 24. CORPORATE ORGANIZATIONS Changes in the organization and methods of functioning of the enterprise as business entities

Corporate Governance Orientation
Periods Dominant issues 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Organization and basis

holding
Holding (holding, or holding company) is an organization that owns controlling stakes in other companies for the purpose of carrying out

Consortium
A consortium is one of the forms of associations created on the basis of an agreement between several banks, enterprises, companies, firms, scientific

Conglomerate
The conglomerate is organizational form a business combination that results from the merger of different firms, regardless of their

Cartel
Over the past decades, a very common form of association of a number of enterprises in the same industry has been a cartel. When a cartel is formed, its members

Syndicate
A syndicate is an organizational form of association, a distinctive feature of which is the conclusion of an agreement between enterprises of the same industry to control

The role of the corporate link in the global economy
· There are more than 40 thousand parent TNCs in the world, which control about 250 thousand subsidiaries and branches

Issues for discussion
1. Name the global trends in the organizational development of corporate structures. 2. Name the main features of a corporation as an organizational form of enterprise integration.

Significance and tasks of organizational design
Without the development of methods for designing management structures, it is difficult to improve management and increase production efficiency, since: firstly, new

The process of forming an organizational structure
The content of the process of forming an organizational structure is largely universal. It includes the formulation of goals and objectives, the definition of the composition and place of the subsection

Evaluation of the effectiveness of organizational projects
Efficiency assessment is an important element in the development of design and planning solutions, which allows you to determine the level of progressiveness of the current structure, developed projects

Adjustment of organizational structures
Bringing the structure of the organization in line with the changed conditions is one of the most important tasks of management. In most cases, decisions to adjust structures are made by

The influence of enterprise size on the nature of organizational problems
Number of employees when a problem occurs Organizational problem Possible actions or solutions Any size &

The impact of innovations on changing the organizational structure
No. Intensity and scale of innovations Corresponding organizational changes Earned product

Stage one: preparation
Fundamental to the successful implementation of the reorganization program and ensuring its effectiveness in practice are the mobilization of workers who will implement it, and

Measures to ensure support for organizational change
Measures Prerequisites for application Advantages Disadvantages Training and provision of information

Management methods at the stage of reorganization preparation
Tasks Methods used Identification of the need for reorganization Analysis of changes (market, technological, external

Step Two: Gathering Information and Identifying Problems
The task of this stage is to identify consumer-oriented products and services. For this purpose, long-term and current consumer needs are identified, and measures are determined that are necessary to

Management methods at the stage of collecting information and identifying problems
Tasks Methods used Identification of current and future interests of consumers Modeling consumer behavior

Management methods at the stage of developing a common and complete understanding of the problems being solved
Task Management methods Understanding the structure of the process Analysis of the work process Understanding the

Stage four: organizational and technical design
The purpose of this step is to give a technical description of the reorganization process. A description of the technology, standards, procedures, systems and types of control used in the reorganization process is given.

Management methods at the stage of organizational and technical design
Task Management methods Model of relationships between subjects and objects Information design

Stage five: social design
The purpose of this stage is to identify social aspects reorganization process. At the stage social design a description of the company, its personnel, character

Management methods at the stage of social design
Task Management methods Possibility of contacts between the consumer and personnel Granting authority to personnel Qualification

Stage Six: Transformations
The purpose of this stage is the development of an experimental version and a complete production reorganization project. Some of the tasks in this step can be repeated. Key questions

Management methods at the transformation stage
Task Management methods Completion of the development of the model of the organization's activities Modeling the process

Issues for discussion
1. What is the basis of organizational design methodology? 2. What is a systematic approach to organizational design? 3. List the stages

Future
Chapter 31. PERSPECTIVE DIRECTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZATIONS

Essence and evolution of network organizations
The functional organization that appeared at the end of the 19th century was actively developed at the beginning of the 20th century. It allowed many firms to achieve the required size and efficiency,

Characteristics of the properties of different organizations
Key factors Models Hierarchy Network organization Normative base Service Relations

stable network
This form is fundamentally close to a functional organization. It is designed to serve a predictable market by pooling the specialized resources of partners (subsection

Main characteristics of network organizations
Type of network Features of the organization Application areas Disadvantages associated with network expansion Disadvantages associated with

Internal network
The logic of the internal network, or internal market, requires the creation of a market economy within the firm. In it, organizational units sell and buy goods and services from each other at a price

Multidimensional structure of large organizations
If the number of departments of the same type is too large to report directly to the executive director, then individual managers may be involved in coordinating their work.

Conditions for building an intellectual organization
Freedom of choice Shared responsibility Wide access to information Business freedom Liberalization of working groups

learning methods
Supporting Rolling Predictive Universal System for receiving proposals from employees &n

Issues for discussion
1. Name and characterize the promising areas for the development of organizations. 2. What is the essence and significance of organizations with "internal markets"? 3. List

When using various types of organizational structures, collegial forms of work become important. These are committees, target working groups, commissions, councils, boards. Of course, these forms do not represent any particular type of structure. Οʜᴎ are permanent or temporary, have different status, the level of authority granted and perform different tasks in the organization. collegiate bodies they are often given the authority to make certain decisions, to exercise leadership (or to delegate authority to exercise leadership). There is a well-known practice of forming such bodies to perform advisory functions, that is, to present a reasonable opinion on a particular issue to the head of any level. Let us consider in more detail the issues of organizing their activities and the level of authority.

1. Collegial body of information character. At the meetings of this body, contacts are made between the heads of departments. Their common leader informs the participants of the meeting about the current situation, about the adopted and planned decisions. As a result, methods for implementing solutions are refined. Informational bodies are needed primarily at the highest levels of government. Their use at lower levels serves to improve mutual understanding, in particular between specialists (or employees of functional units) and line managers. The activity of such a body is designed to lead to strengthening of ties and improvement of personal relationships.

2. collegiate advisory body. Such body (committee, expert advice etc.) may have the task of studying a problem and presenting a conclusion about it. It does not replace, but complements the activities of existing experts in the organization. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the bodies involved in research and the bodies that use the conducted research to draw up their conclusions. An advisory body may operate with the help of specialists or experts when it is possible to combine their knowledge on a specific complex problem. There are cases when the head of an organization gathers a small number of specialists working in advisory and staff services for collegial work. At the same time, the issue under consideration is complex and requires the knowledge of various specialists, and the body can play some coordinating role.

3. A collegial body authorized to make decisions. This kind of body can be used in the absence of a line manager to perform this function, as well as to assist the line manager in making particularly important decisions. For example, there are committees to decide on the general policy of the organization. Such a body is headed by the top manager of the organization, and the heads of critical departments and experts that make up it play a very active role.

4. Collective body exercising control. In relation to the leaders, such an organizational link mainly plays the role of a body that gives permission to make decisions that meet certain requirements. He also oversees the implementation of these decisions. The activities of collegiate bodies may cover various areas of the organization's activities: 1) decisions related to the overall strategy and policy; 2) management acts and administrative actions; 3) direct executive activity that implements the decisions made.

The advantages of this organizational form are primarily associated with the joint work of a group of people. A special mutual understanding between people is achieved in groups whose members are characterized, as a rule, by the same behavior and even specific skills (linear and functional managers, specialists in the field of technology, economics, commercial activity, etc.). At the same time, coordination of the work of various services or employees of the administrative apparatus is ensured. It is also significant that there is a clash of different points of view of people who usually engage in different types of activities, and most importantly, who have unequal training and experience. In many cases, this contributes to the emergence of new ideas. At the same time, collegiate bodies contribute to the stability of the organization, since they enable a certain number of managers to be aware of the problems of related services, and also create conditions for the training of young leadership personnel.

Chapter 10

Project management- ϶ᴛᴏ management of important activities in the organization that require constant management in the face of strict restrictions on costs, terms and quality of work. At the same time, it is extremely important to provide mechanisms for resolving interpersonal, intergroup and interorganizational conflicts related to the organization of interaction between vertical and horizontal management systems. If it becomes extremely important for an organization to develop and implement a project of a complex nature, covering, on the one hand, the solution of a wide range of special technical, economic, social and other issues, and, on the other hand, the activities of various functional and linear divisions , then you should find the most appropriate, effective organizational form for performing this task. There are three options for organizing work.

The first option is to form a task force, coordinating unit, or ad hoc committee, since the current organizational structure, admittedly, will not be able to cope with the new complex task. At the same time, experience shows that a single new body cannot solve the problem of making corporate decisions in the absence of its interaction with all functional and linear structures. This type of governance structure with the distribution of power and the lack individual responsibility not suitable for making decisions on complex problems.

The third option is to appoint a project manager, giving him full authority to solve problems related to the development and implementation of the project. The main idea is to transfer to one person - the project manager the authority and responsibility for planning, operational management, financing the implementation of all project work. His job is to ensure that the task (project) is completed at the set time with the given technical requirements and costs. This organizational mechanism is increasingly used in the aerospace, electronics, aviation industries, in the production of computer technology, etc.

Design structures. Under project structure commonly understood temporary organization, created to solve a specific complex problem (project development and its implementation). One team gathers qualified workers of different professions, specialists, researchers to implement a specific project with a given level of quality and within the material, financial and labor resources allocated for this purpose. After the completion of the project and the solution of all related tasks, the employees involved in the team return to their departments for permanent work or move on to work on another project. The project manager is fully subordinate to all team members and all resources allocated for this purpose.

Project structures differ among themselves in terms of the scale of activity, the breadth of coverage of scientific and technical problems and production problems, the nature of relations with the linear and functional links of the organization, the terms of reference for interacting with the external environment. One of the most common types of such an organization is matrix structure(Fig. 10.1), in which the members of the project team report not only to the project manager, but also to the heads of those functional units in which they constantly work. The organization develops simultaneously in two dimensions. Such, for example, are organizations based on a combination of functions performed with a territorial structure or orientation towards a certain type of consumer or type of product. In this form of organization, the authority of the project manager can vary from almost overarching line authority to almost purely headquarters authority.

In a matrix organization, project managers are responsible for coordinating all activities and using resources related to a given project. To this end, all material and financial resources under this project are transferred to their disposal. Project managers are also responsible for the planning of the project and the progress of its implementation in all quantitative, qualitative and temporal terms. As for the heads of functional units, they delegate some of their responsibilities to the project manager, decide where and how this or that work should be done. Functional examination of products is carried out in all divisions of the company.

The matrix structure promotes the collective expenditure of resources, which is essential when output is associated with the critical importance of using rare or expensive types of resources. At the same time, a certain flexibility is achieved, which, in essence, is absent in functional structures, since in them all employees are permanently assigned to certain functional units. Since in a matrix organization employees are recruited from various functional departments to work on a specific project, labor resources can be flexibly redistributed depending on the needs of each project. Along with flexibility, the matrix organization opens up great opportunities for effective coordination of work.

The introduction of project management is due to the fact that a linear-functional structure cannot ensure the implementation of many projects. When organizing units according to specialized functions, a lot of effort is spent on establishing and clarifying the relationship between differentiated roles. Since the linear-functional structure continues to exist along with project management, the latter should rather be characterized as a mechanism for overcoming shortcomings and supplementing this structure, and not as its replacement.

Organizational conflicts and their resolution. For obvious reasons, the conflict associated with project management is inseparable from the more general organizational inconsistencies that often arise in line-functional organizations, since the project team is a subsystem of a larger organization. It is possible to conditionally divide organizational conflicts associated with project management into two categories: 1) conflicts associated with organizational changes; 2) conflicts associated with the concentration of specialists in various fields of knowledge in one group for the implementation of activities that have a limited duration.

The introduction of project management in linear functional organizations affects the hierarchy of authority and responsibility, organizational procedures, specialization of divisions, the incentive system, the unity of leadership, the amount of control, the distribution of resources and the establishment of relative priorities in the organization. Production goals are guided by cross-functional requirements, established teams in departments are violated, staffing tends to overlap. Functional leaders should interact in an environment where the main emphasis is on a cross-functional approach and mutual agreement on decisions. They are required to participate in the planning and organization of the activities of their units, which they previously carried out individually.

The change in the nature of interaction between departments creates real organizational problems for both project and functional managers. Οʜᴎ face the utmost importance of constantly communicating and stimulating the work of specialists to achieve concrete results. The lines of interaction in project management cover specialists in one field, specialists in various fields, specialists and managers, heads of different departments, specialists from "local" and attracted from third-party organizations.

The project manager must organize the coordinated work of various specialists, who in this case are faced with the difficulties of adjusting to new working relationships in a dynamic project team. Often there are conflicts related to both the coordination of the work of project participants and the identification of their personal contribution to the overall results of the group's work. With the formation of project teams in the organization, there is a redistribution of powers and responsibilities. It is not uncommon for a project manager to be responsible for an important area of the organization's work, while the functional manager retains responsibility only for service functions. The pressure of the project team, whose members before that could only be subordinates in functional divisions, is increasing on the performing activities.

At the same time, it is obvious that most specialists - project managers or members of project teams - are subject to a certain influence. Οʜᴎ are not only related to the performance of tasks that are important to the organization, but also interact closely with its top management. Under such conditions, the specialists who remained in the functional units experience some loss of their influence.

The introduction of project management leads to a change in control in the organization. The functional manager assumes responsibility for completing the tasks assigned by the project manager. As a result, multiple control is exercised, since the functional manager receives tasks from a person who is at the same level of the managerial hierarchy with him. The same person evaluates their implementation (often the decisions of project managers are not in favor of certain functional units). At the same time, the functional manager is responsible to the line manager for the activities of the unit as a whole.

In project management, the main emphasis is on monitoring the implementation of specific tasks. Evaluation of work can be carried out collectively, although this is associated with certain difficulties. The project manager has certain advantages in the allocation of resources in the organization, especially with regard to the use of personnel. Given the importance of the project, he seeks to attract the best specialists to the project team. This has a double effect: the project manager, as a rule, uses people from a particular functional unit to define tasks and evaluate the performance of this unit, and the responsibility of the functional manager for the work of the unit decreases due to the transfer of his specialists to the project group.

Although the staff of the functional unit continues to be administratively subordinate to the head of this unit, many of the specialists in reality work exclusively in the interests of the project manager. These specialists, returning to the functional unit after the end of the project, may encounter certain difficulties, alienating themselves from the interests of their unit. The return to the previous work may be perceived by the specialist as temporary until he is included in the new project team.

Chapter 11

The discussion in the early 1990s about the nature and fate of the administrative-command system that dominated the former USSR for several decades and covered all levels of management - from the nationwide to the individual enterprise, stimulated comprehensive research and critical analysis of the bureaucratic organization of management. This is strongly required by the extreme importance of effective management of economic entities in the post-privatization period, when, on the basis of liquidation centralized system organizations are being reformed, their restructuring and the transition to market forms of economic management.

Max Weber, who initiated the systematic study of bureaucracy, found that it is both the most efficient system and a threat to the basic elements of freedom. Drawing attention to the orderliness and potential efficiency of bureaucratic systems, Weber noted that the bureaucratic form of organization in terms of accuracy, constancy, rigor, and reliability of its work surpasses all other forms of administrative organization.

During the 20th century, large bureaucratic organizations created systems capable of effectively managing investment flows, the division of labor, and large-scale industrial production. The use of their organizational potential is associated with the development of industry, communications and communications, interactions of all kinds, consumer orientation. Sufficient organizations have been created to provide leadership in a wide variety of fields.

However, over time, the role and effectiveness of the bureaucratic organization declined. In the context of modern revolutionary changes in engineering and production technology, the expansion of the volume, diversity and instability of the consumer market, the growth of uncertainty with an increase in the scale of investment, the possibilities for using bureaucratic systems are significantly reduced, new difficulties arise in ensuring effective management.

It is no coincidence that in many cases the bureaucracy was contacted Negative consequences the activities of large organizations (excessive “clerical work”, useless activities, procedural delays, red tape, inefficient organizational connections, staff swelling, etc.). Especially a lot of criticism was caused by the centralization brought to the point of absurdity in decision-making on minor issues, the suppression of the initiative and freedom of creativity of workers, the multi-stage and thoughtless subordination, the unjustified command of incompetent leaders, their appropriation of the absolute "right to be right."

Cyril N. Parkinson, the well-known English management scientist, the author of the famous "Parkinson's Laws," wrote sarcastically about such bureaucracy. “Since any work, and especially paperwork,” he pointed out, “is extensible in time, it becomes obvious that the number of people involved in its implementation does not (or almost in any way) depend on its volume.” Or such a postulate about the two basic forces of the bureaucracy: 1) an official is interested in multiplying subordinates, but not rivals; 2) officials provide work for each other. And here is the recommended formula for determining the states of any administrative institution:

where X is the number of new employees hired each year; K is the number of officials who, for the sake of promotion, recruit subordinates; l is the interval between entering the service and retiring; m - the number of man-hours spent on settling cases in the institution; n is the number of capable units.

“Everywhere you can find institutions (administrative, commercial and scientific,” wrote Parkinson, “where the top management is exhausted from idleness, the smaller bosses are active only in mutual intrigues, and the rank-and-file employees are sad or gossip. Claims are the most modest. Achievements - none at all. He called this disease administrative paralysis, or "necozavism." And at the same time he argued that this kind of complicated inferiority syndrome is much more common than it might seem, and it is much easier to recognize it than to cure *.

* Parkinson S. N. Parkinson's laws. - M.: Grand, 1998. S. 7-8.17, 89.

Scholars agree on six characteristics of bureaucracy originally described by Weber: 1) a hierarchical chain of command; 2) specialization of official duties; 3) a unified policy in the field of rights and obligations; 4) standardized operations in each area of work; 5) a career based on professional competence; 6) impersonal relationships. To these characteristics, we can add that the coordination of activities is carried out at the highest levels of the organization. Let's take a closer look at each of these characteristics.

Hierarchical command chain. The bureaucratic organization has a pyramid structure with a top manager at the top, who distributes the entire scope of the organization's work and delegates responsibility for each part of the overall task to his deputies. The latter, in turn, delegate responsibility to lower levels of management along a chain of commands that reaches each employee. In a number of large companies in the past, there were ten or more levels of management between the top manager and the worker.

The introduction of chain of command has been a powerful factor in bringing order to large divisions in enterprises. The chain of command resolved potential conflicts by clearly assigning responsibilities, powers, and responsibilities for a possible solution. Each leader and his deputies in the chain of command were given full authority to solve problems or perform a separate function, as well as responsibility for its performance. This greatly simplified the task of the leader and gave confidence in the execution of the team.

Such entrepreneurs may attribute their ups and downs to market changes, but in reality they suffer from the disadvantages of a pre-bureaucratic form of autocracy. An entrepreneur can be a leader with unlimited rights until the moment when he is able to manage the amount of activity that can be controlled by one omnipresent leader. Some entrepreneurs, who limit themselves to the role of an artisan, appoint their deputies, but by constantly canceling their orders, they lose confidence in the chain of command they have formed. In fact, deputies are deprived of the powers granted to them.

Delegation and empowerment. Successful entrepreneurs typically implement a chain-of-command structure. Powers are delegated to subordinates and thereby the intellectual potential of the organization is enhanced. Activities can expand when middle management is given limited but sufficient authority to make the necessary decisions and regulate the production process. Post-bureaucratic entrepreneurs successfully develop their activities by working with a decentralized team and a horizontal management scheme that has replaced the chain of command. Nevertheless, the innovations of the bureaucracy, including the transfer of certain rights of disposal of property to the lower levels of the management hierarchy, were the source of growth in production and, accordingly, organizations in the early period of the creation of bureaucratic systems.

Job specialization. Bureaucracy has become efficient due to the specialization of labor. In fact, the organizational structure of the bureaucracy is created on the basis of dividing all tasks into a series of clearly defined job responsibilities or functions. Each function is given responsibility for performing a specific task and the necessary management tools are provided. The manager issues and distributes tasks in such a way that all their components are parts of the overall task of the organization: specialized engineering staff studies the reasons for the drop in efficiency at all stages production process, designs equipment and models processes that would ensure the growth of labor productivity; the responsibilities of those who are engaged in the sale of products, financiers, labor specialists, etc. are determined. Specialization leads to more effective ways of fulfilling each part of the overall task of the organization.

Prior to the introduction of specialization into bureaucratic organizations, each craftsman learned everything about his work and performed the entire amount of work from start to finish. Handicraft production can often be fruitful and have artistic merit, but during the industrial revolution, it became a brake on mechanization and the development of a large-scale economy. As organizations moved from handicraft to division of labor, a rigid hierarchy of bureaucracy provided for everything essential to overcome craft traditions, each innovation became part of the current standards and processes of the organization.

Uniform norms and rules. The bureaucracy is managed with the help of uniform fixed norms and rules, which are established by the management of the organization, regardless of whether it is commercial or non-commercial. These norms provide for the rights and obligations of employees and managers. The most basic standards relate to the issue of defining rights, powers and responsibilities. In a bureaucratic organization, the leader is responsible for the activities of all subordinates and has the right to give them orders, to which they must unquestioningly obey. The main responsibility of the employee is not to do what is right or extremely important, but to follow exactly the instructions of the immediate supervisor. The established norms of the bureaucracy guarantee that workers are paid for as long as they are at work, and often receive a pension for years of service. Fixed rights and obligations establish a certain framework for management processes and, to a certain extent, limit the possible willfulness of the leader.

Standardization of procedures that define each type of work. Uniform norms and processes are the basis for the standardization of actions, their sequence and stages. Οʜᴎ are preliminarily studied by the performers, are mandatory and predetermine strict order and accountability in the organization.

Before the bureaucracy, favoritism and nepotism undermined the effectiveness of the organization. The bureaucracy adheres to the policy of promotion of employees on the basis of their qualification growth. This allows the organization to hire, train and retain highly qualified people. The employee's desire for promotion and the security of a professional career were an important element in the success of the bureaucratic system, provided that there was a strong motivation for long-term loyalty to the organization. At the same time, the capabilities of the majority of employees are not realized in the bureaucratic system, since the main indicator of success is ϶ᴛᴏ promotion along the hierarchical ladder; as you move up, the pyramid of power narrows, and only some employees can take higher positions.

impersonal relationships. In the bureaucratic system, there is a relationship not of a person with a person, but of a role with a role. Organizational structure and job descriptions prescribe what is expected of each individual. An employee who performs some specific duties should only exercise them rationally. This, in essence, gave rise to a certain automatism and impersonal relationships, opposed to personal sympathy, favoritism, the manifestation of feelings and emotions.

Coordination is carried out from top to bottom. In a bureaucratic system, employees are not taught to coordinate work at their level. The head divides the entire amount of work between certain performers in such a way as to get the output of the product for which he is responsible. Then a higher-ranking manager coordinates work between departments for which it is not extremely important to contact each other promptly. Communication is carried out only with a higher manager. Employees must remain within the limits defined by their job description and standard practices. Each employee should report to only one manager. If this rule is violated, the leader loses authority. Top-down coordination worked well in the early days of the Industrial Revolution, when it became critical to include vast numbers of non-technical workers in production. Today, strictly bureaucratic systems have proved to be ineffective or completely incapacitated.

In table. 11.1 in a systematic way shows fundamental changes in organizational systems, characterizing as the reasons for the inefficiency of bureaucratic organizations in modern conditions, and the main features of the organizations that come to replace them.

From unskilled to intellectual work. In modern conditions, an increasing number of works (technical and non-technical) are based on knowledge. In factories, it is no longer essential to have a large unskilled workforce for assembly lines; most of the work requires technical knowledge and trained workers. Moreover, a smaller number of workers are employed directly in the production of products. The bulk of the organization's employees perform activities such as marketing, design, engineering, technical and economic analysis, accounting, management. This requires professional experience and knowledge. A similar trend is observed in the service sector, in commercial and other organizations. According to estimates, 1/3 of all jobs are already occupied by highly productive teams, whose representatives can be called knowledge workers.

nature itself mental labor, which includes information gathering, creative exploration, experimentation, etc., means that managers cannot give constant instructions to employees engaged in this kind of activity. An integral part of mental work is the development of the employee, and under certain conditions, remote control by the manager interferes with work.

From template tasks to innovation and attention. Since the days of handicrafts, the task of management has been to organize people for the productive performance of monotonous and laborious work. P

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Advantages of this type of control

A collegial body is a fairly common way of managing various companies or government agencies. The advantages of using this method include the fact that several specialists work together, which allows you to make really correct and rational decisions.

It is necessary to understand not only what a collegial body is, but also what types of it exist, as well as what features they have.

This management method is considered the most effective if the members of such an organization have the same education, similar thinking, and they are approximately the same age. Therefore, economists and managers, as well as employees of various services with relevant work experience, are united in groups.

Often, on the contrary, a collegial body is formed, which is based on an association of people who have different points of view on a particular issue. This leads to disputes, on the basis of which the most correct and effective decisions can be made.

There are several types of such advice, and all of them have their own purpose and features.

Deliberative

Such a collegial body is a variety of collegiums, or commissions. They are most commonly found in public institutions. Numerous questions are being considered by experts:

options for making various management decisions;
discussion of all issues related to the work of a particular organization;
the knowledge of various specialists is accumulated, as well as numerous opinions are collected, which allows, through collective experience, to find the best solution to any problem;
the interests of each group are taken into account.

The advisory boards do not make any decisions, as their task is only to discuss various issues, as well as to provide advice or recommendations. The head of the existing institution makes a decision based on the information received.

Manager

Such a collegial body is a special council designed to manage the institution. All decisions that he makes are binding, but they must not violate the Charter of the organization.

Most often, such governing boards are formed in numerous public educational institutions.

informational nature

Such a collegial body consists in the formation of special councils, where the heads of different departments share information. At meetings, the heads of numerous departments of one company contact.

The head of the firm informs the rest of the participants about various difficulties, specific issues, decisions made or important events. It is allowed to specify measures for solving various problems.

This advice is usually used in the presence of large companies with a large number of diverse divisions.

controlling

This organizational link usually acts as a body that allows the adoption of certain decisions, and it is preliminary assessed whether they correspond to the requirements and capabilities of the entire organization.

Control can be exercised over different directions of the firm's operations, so it may refer to decisions pertaining to general policies of operation, to acts of management, to administrative actions, or to executive activities.

Executive

The collegial executive body is a special council with directive functions. It can be used in a commercial or non-commercial field. The procedure and features of its functioning should be regulated in the Charter of the company, but at the same time they should not violate the law in any way.

Often, the founding documentation indicates the need to form an executive collegiate council, and in this case it is elected at a meeting of the founders.

Collegiate meetings are usually represented by executive meetings. At the same time, a Chairman is certainly appointed for them.

Collegiate authorities perform various functions, which include:

management of a specific organization, which may be commercial, non-profit or government;
protecting the interests of the company;
making various transactions based on the data contained in the statutory documentation;
issuance of powers of attorney;
issuing orders, on the basis of which employees can be fired or specialists can be hired, and various sanctions can be applied, and they can be not only negative, but also positive.

Other functions may be performed if they are provided for by the Charter of the organization.

How are decisions made?

The collegial executive body is a special council consisting of several specialists, so decisions are made by them jointly.

To this end, relevant meetings are held, and the period during which they are held is determined by the board of directors. All members of one body have one vote, and it is not allowed to transfer it to other persons.

How many participants can there be?

Collegial can consist of a different number of members, and it depends on the number of employees in the organization.

How more workers in a firm, the more members the board can consist of. If the company employs approximately 50 specialists, then the collegiate body includes 6 people.

Only major executives of the company, represented by directors or managers, can become members of these bodies, and the general director himself is also necessarily included here.

The nuances of the work of state bodies

Various state organizations in most cases are represented by collegiate bodies. They work on the basis of various principles, which include:

taking into account the content of the Constitution;
the rights of citizens are a priority, therefore all decisions must be made in such a way that they are not infringed in any way;
the principle of publicity implies that all decisions made are open to the public;
by all means, only qualified and experienced professionals in various fields act as members of such a body;
in the work of such organizations, unanimous decision-making is combined with collegiality;
the principle of hierarchy assumes that such bodies can be located at different levels of state power.

Thus, collegiate bodies are represented by special councils with numerous functions. They are divided into several varieties, and each type has its own purpose and features. All decisions are made exclusively by voting, therefore, due to the difference in opinions of various specialists, it is possible to achieve high and necessary results.