The group will be able to more or less effectively go towards achieving its goals, depending on the influence of the following factors: size, composition, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status and functional role its members.

THE SIZE... Management theorists have spent a lot of time figuring out the ideal group size. The authors of the School of Administration believed that the formal group should be relatively small. According to Ralph K. Davis, the ideal group should be 3-9 people. Keith Davis, a modern theorist who has devoted many years to the study of groups, is inclined to share his opinion. He believes that the preferred number of group members is 5 people. Research shows that in fact, 5 to 8 people come to a group meeting.

Some studies suggest that groups of 5 to 11 members tend to make better decisions than those outside this size. Research has also shown that groups of 5 people tend to experience greater satisfaction than larger or smaller groups. The explanation for this seems to lie in the fact that in groups of 2 or 3 people, its members may be worried that their personal responsibility for the decisions they make is too obvious. On the other hand, in groups of more than 5 people, its members may experience difficulty, shyness in expressing their opinions in front of others.

In general, as the size of the group increases, communication between members becomes more difficult and it becomes more difficult to reach agreement on issues related to the activities of the group and the fulfillment of its tasks. Increasing group size also reinforces the tendency to informally divide groups into subgroups, which can lead to inconsistent goals and cliques.

COMPOUND... Composition here is understood as the degree of similarity of personalities and points of view, approaches that they show when solving problems. An important reason for bringing the issue to the group is the use of different positions to find the optimal solution. Therefore, it is not surprising that research suggests that the group should be composed of dissimilar personalities, as this promises greater effectiveness than if the members of the group had similar points of view. Some people pay more attention to important details of projects and problems, while others want to look at the big picture, some people want to approach the problem from a systemic point of view and consider the relationship of various aspects. According to Miner, when “groups are selected in such a way that they include either very similar or very different people, then groups with different points of view come up with more quality solutions. A multitude of points of view and perceptions of perspectives bear fruit. "

GROUP STANDARDS... As it was revealed by the first researchers of groups in work collectives, the norms adopted by the group have a strong influence on the behavior of the individual and on the direction in which the group will work: to achieve the goals of the organization or to oppose them. Standards are designed to tell group members what behavior and work is expected of them. Norms are so powerful because only if their actions conform to these norms can an individual count on belonging to a group, its recognition and support. This applies to both informal and formal organizations.

From the standpoint of the organization, it can be said that norms can be positive and negative. Positive norms are those that support the goals and objectives of the organization and encourage behavior aimed at achieving those goals. Negative rates have the opposite effect; they encourage behavior that is not conducive to the achievement of the goals of the organizations. Standards that reward employee diligence, commitment to the organization, concern for product quality, or concern for customer satisfaction are positive norms. Examples of negative norms are norms that encourage non-constructive criticism of the company, theft, absenteeism, and low productivity.

One of the researchers carried out a classification of group norms:

1) pride in the organization;

2) achievement of goals;

3) profitability;

4) collective work;

5) planning;

6) control;

7) professional training of personnel;

8) innovations;

9) relationship with the customer;

10) protecting honesty.

Leaders should exercise caution in their judgments about group norms. For example, a group of grassroots leaders who believe it is right to always agree with their superiors may seem to be showing a high degree of loyalty. However, in reality, such a rule will lead to the suppression of very beneficial initiatives and opinions for the organization. Such suppression of important information is fraught with a decrease in the effectiveness of decisions.

COHESION... Group cohesion is a measure of how group members gravitate towards each other and towards the group. A highly bonded group is a group whose members have a strong attraction to each other and see themselves as similar. Because a close-knit group works well in a team, a high level of cohesion can increase the effectiveness of the entire organization if the goals of both are consistent. High-knit groups tend to have fewer communication problems, and those that do have less serious problems than others. They have less misunderstandings, tensions, hostility and mistrust, and their productivity is higher than in non-cohesive groups. But if the goals of the group and the entire organization are not aligned, then a high degree of cohesion will negatively affect the productivity of the entire organization. This was demonstrated in an experiment at the bank signaling site at the Hawthorne plant.

Leadership can find an opportunity to increase the positive effect of cohesion by holding periodic meetings and emphasizing the global goals of the group, as well as allowing each member to see his or her contribution to achieving these goals. Management can also build cohesion by allowing subordinates to meet periodically to discuss potential or current issues, the impact of upcoming changes on operations, and future projects and priorities.

A potential negative consequence of a high degree of cohesion is group like-mindedness.

GROUP UNANITY- this is the tendency of an individual to suppress his real views on some phenomenon in order not to violate the harmony of the group. Group members feel that disagreement undermines their sense of belonging and therefore should be avoided. In order to preserve what is understood as harmony and harmony among the group members, the group member decides that it is better not to voice his opinion. In an atmosphere of group like-mindedness, the primary task for an individual is to keep the same line in the discussion, even if he or she has different information or belief. This trend is self-reinforcing.

Since no one expresses opinions different from others, and does not offer a different, opposite information or point of view, everyone believes that everyone else thinks the same way. Since no one speaks up, no one knows that other members may also be skeptical or worried. As a result, the problem is solved with less efficiency, since all the necessary information and alternative solutions are not discussed or evaluated. When there is group consensus, the likelihood of a mediocre solution that will not hurt anyone increases.

CONFLICT... It was mentioned earlier that differences of opinion usually lead to more effective group work. However, it also increases the likelihood of conflict. While active exchange of views is beneficial, it can also lead to intra-group disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always detrimental. The causes of conflict in small groups and the methods of their resolution are the same in all departments of the organization. Therefore, we will consider them later in the subsequent chapters of the book.

STATUS OF GROUP MEMBERS. A person's status in an organization or group can be determined by a number of factors, including seniority in the job hierarchy, job title, office location, education, social talents, awareness, and experience. These factors can contribute to the rise and fall of status, depending on the values ​​and norms of the group. Research has shown that high-status group members are more likely to influence group decisions than low-status group members. However, this does not always lead to an increase in efficiency.

A person who has worked for a company for a short time may have more valuable ideas and better experience in relation to a project than a person with high status acquired through years of work in the management of this company. The same applies to the head of the department, whose status may be lower than the vice president. In order to make effective decisions, it is necessary to take into account all the information related to this issue and objectively weigh all ideas. To function effectively, a group may need to work together to ensure that the views of higher-status members do not dominate it.

ROLES OF GROUP MEMBERS. A critical factor in determining the effectiveness of a group is the behavior of each of its members. For a group to function effectively, its members must behave in ways that promote the achievement of its goals and social interaction. There are two main focus areas for creating a well-functioning team. Target Roles distributed in such a way as to be able to select group tasks and perform them. Supporting roles implies behavior that is conducive to maintaining and revitalizing the life and activities of the group. These behaviors are summarized in table. 15.1.

Most American executives have targeted roles, while Japanese executives have targeted and supportive roles. In discussing this issue, Professor Richard Pascal and Professor Anthony Athos state:

“The Japanese are extremely responsive to group interactions and relationships. Their attitude towards groups is very similar to the attitude towards marriage in Western countries. And, most interestingly, the Japanese highlight the same problems and concerns in work relationships that we highlight in marriage: they relate to trust, mutual assistance, and loyalty. In the West, workgroup leaders tend to focus on productive activities and ignore social aspects, while in Japan maintaining the satisfaction of workgroup members goes side by side with the fulfillment of targeted roles. ”

2. Social groups ... 3

Social group parameters .. 3

Group structure .. 3

Group norms .. 3

Types of social groups .. 4

3. The process of formation and development of the workforce .. 6

Stages of team building. 6

Social role .. 8

Socio-psychological climate in the team .. 11

Conflicts in the organization. Their types and methods of resolution. 14

2. Stresses and ways to overcome them .. 18

3.Leadership .. 19

Workforce management ... 22

Team motivation .. 25

LABOR MOTIVATION. 25

EXPERIENCE OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 28

THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION IN THE WEST. 28

Conclusion .. 30

List of terms used .. 31

List of used literature ... 32

Introduction

In this chapter, I would like to define the reasons for my choice and the goals of my work, respectively. It has long been known that the team is more than just a logical ordering of workers performing interrelated tasks. Management theorists and practitioners have realized that an organization is also a social system where individuals and formal and informal groups interact. And on the psychological climate, on the mood of each employee depends on the productivity, and the health of employees and much more.

With the correct placement of human resources in the organization, with the correct handling of conflict situations, a certain breakthrough occurs, a synergistic effect, when 2 + 2 is 5, not 4. The organization becomes something more than the sum of its components.

This new system becomes much more resistant to external influences, but easily collapses if this unity of elements is not maintained. The "body" of the organization must be equipped with a mechanism that would ensure the constant regeneration of lost goals, tasks and functions, would determine more and more expectations of workers. In management science, there are quite perfect socio-psychological methods with which you can achieve the desired effect.

Social and psychological methods of management are understood as specific techniques and methods of influencing the process of formation and development of the team itself and individual workers. There are two methods: social (aimed at the collective as a whole), and psychological (aimed at individuals within the collective). These methods imply the introduction of various sociological and psychological procedures in management practice.

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of people's activity in conditions of interaction in social groups. The main problems of social psychology are the following: patterns of communication and interaction of people, the activities of large (nation, classes) and small social groups, socialization of the individual and the development of social attitudes. Hence the socio-psychological factors - the factors influencing the activities of people in the conditions of interaction in social groups.

2. Social groups

The above-described features of the social behavior of an individual are clearly manifested in groups.

A group is a really existing formation in which people are gathered together, united by some common feature, a kind of joint activity or placed in some identical conditions, circumstances, in a certain way they realize their belonging to this education.

Social group parameters

The elementary parameters of any group include: the composition of the group (or its composition), the structure of the group, group processes, group norms and values, the system of sanctions. Each of these parameters can take on completely different meanings depending on the type of group being studied. So, for example, the composition of a group can be described in different ways depending on whether in each case, for example, age, professional or social characteristics of the group members are significant. A single recipe for describing the composition of a group cannot be given in connection with the variety of real groups; in each specific case, it is necessary to start with which real group is chosen as the object of research: a school class, a sports team or a production team. In other words, we immediately set a certain set of parameters to characterize the composition of the group, depending on the type of activity with which this group is associated. Naturally, the characteristics of large and small social groups differ especially strongly, and they should be studied separately.

The same can be said for the structure of the group. There are several rather formal signs of the structure of a group, which, however, are revealed mainly in the study of small groups: the structure of preferences, the structure of "power", the structure of communications.

Group structure

However, if we consistently consider the group as a subject of activity, then its structure must be approached accordingly. Apparently, in this case, the most important thing is to analyze the structure of group activity, which includes a description of the functions of each member of the group in this joint activity. At the same time, a very significant characteristic is the emotional structure of the group - the structure of interpersonal relations, as well as its connection with the functional structure of group activity. In social psychology, the relationship between these two structures is often viewed as the relationship between "informal" and "formal" relationships.

An important component of characterizing the position of an individual in a group is the system of “group expectations”. This term denotes the simple fact that every member of the group not only performs his functions in it, but is also necessarily perceived and appreciated by others. In particular, this refers to the fact that each position, as well as each role, is expected to perform certain functions, and not only a simple list of them, but also the quality of performance of these functions. The group, through a system of expected patterns of behavior corresponding to each role, in a certain way controls the activities of its members. In some cases, there may be a mismatch between the expectations that the group has regarding any of its members, and its real behavior, the real way of fulfilling its role. In order for this system of expectations to be somehow defined, there are two more extremely important formations in the group: group norms and group sanctions.

Group norms

All group norms are social norms, i.e. represent “institutions, models, standards of what should be, from the point of view of society as a whole and social groups and their members. behavior ".

In a narrower sense, group norms are certain rules that are developed by a group, accepted by it, and which the behavior of its members must obey in order for their joint activity to be possible. The norms thus fulfill a regulatory function in relation to this activity. Group norms are associated with values, since any rules can be formulated only on the basis of the acceptance or rejection of some socially significant phenomena. The values ​​of each group are formed on the basis of the development of a certain attitude towards social phenomena, dictated by the place of this group in the system of social relations, its experience in organizing certain activities.

Although the problem of values ​​is fully investigated in sociology, it is extremely important for social psychology to be guided by some facts established in sociology. The most important of them is the different significance of different kinds of values ​​for group life, their different correlation with the values ​​of society. When it comes to relatively general and abstract concepts, for example, about good, evil, happiness, etc., then we can say that at this level values ​​are common to all social groups and that they can be considered as the values ​​of society. However, with the transition to the assessment of more specific social phenomena, for example, such as labor, education, culture, groups begin to differ in the accepted assessments. The values ​​of various social groups may not coincide with each other, and in this case it is difficult to talk about the values ​​of society. The specificity of the attitude towards each and such values ​​is determined by the place of the social group in the system of social relations. Norms as rules governing the behavior and activities of group members, naturally, are based precisely on group values, although the rules of everyday behavior may not carry any special specificity of the group. Group norms thus include both generally valid norms and specific ones, developed by this particular group. All of them, taken together, act important factor regulation of social behavior, ensuring the ordering of the position of various groups in the social structure of society. The concreteness of the analysis can be ensured only if the ratio of these two types of norms in the life of each group, and in a specific type of society, is revealed.

A formal approach to the analysis of group norms, when in experimental studies only the mechanism of acceptance or rejection of group norms by an individual is clarified, but not their content, determined by the specifics of activity, is clearly insufficient. It is possible to understand the relationship of an individual with a group only if it is revealed which norms of the group he accepts and which he rejects, and why he does so. All this takes on special significance when there is a mismatch between the norms and values ​​of the group and society, when the group begins to focus on values ​​that do not coincide with the norms of society.

An important problem is the measure of acceptance of norms by each member of the group: how is the acceptance of group norms by an individual carried out, how much each of them deviates from the observance of these norms, how social and “personal” norms relate. One of the functions of social (including group) norms consists precisely in the fact that, through them, the demands of society “are addressed and presented to a person as a person and a member of a particular group, community, society”. This requires an analysis of sanctions - the mechanisms by which a group “returns” its member to the path of compliance. Sanctions can be of two types: encouraging and prohibitive, positive and negative. The sanctions system is not intended to compensate for non-compliance, but to enforce compliance. The study of sanctions makes sense only if specific groups are analyzed, since the content of sanctions is correlated with the content of norms, and the latter are determined by the properties of the group.

Thus, the considered set of concepts, with the help of which the socio-psychological description of the group is carried out, is only a certain conceptual grid, which has yet to be filled with content.

Types of social groups

A social group, as indicated in the “Sociological Encyclopedic Dictionary” (Moscow, 1998), is “a set of individuals united by any common feature: common spatial and temporal being, activity, economic, demographic, psychological and other characteristics.” Sociology distinguishes large and small groups.

“A small group is understood as a small group, whose members are united by common social activities and are in direct personal communication, which is the basis for the emergence of emotional relationships, group norms and group processes”

The group must have own values, i.e. something should act as the center of unification (symbol, slogan, idea, etc.). This leads to the development in the group of a specific sense of community, which is expressed in the word "we". The emerging awareness of "we" acts as a psychic connection, which contributes to the unification of the members of this group and is the basis of the community of action and solidarity of the group.

collective is a special case of a small group.

A particular manifestation of a small group is a collective.

3. The process of formation and development of the labor collective

The social and economic efficiency of labor, other things being equal, is in direct proportion to the level of team cohesion.

Team cohesion means the unity of behavior of its members, based on common interests, value orientations, norms, goals and actions to achieve them. Cohesion is the most important sociological characteristic of a team. In essence, it is similar to the economic characteristics of his production activity - labor productivity. In addition, members of a close-knit team, as a rule, are in no hurry to leave it, i.e. reduced fluidity work force.

In terms of its orientation, the cohesion of the team can be positive (functional), i.e. focused on the goals and objectives of his labor activity and negative (dysfunctional), aimed at achieving goals that contradict public goals, the goals of production activities.

The key point in creating a cohesive team is the selection of people based on the coincidence of their life values ​​relatively professional activity and moral aspects of human existence

Stages of team building

There are three stages of rallying the labor collective, each of which corresponds to a certain level of its development.

First stage - orientation, which corresponds to a low level of development of the team - the stage of formation. This stage is characterized by the fact that a simple association of people is transformed into a group with common goals and objectives, ideological orientation. Each member of the team is oriented in a new team for him. It can be purposeful orientation and self-orientation. Purposeful orientation is carried out by the manager through the selection and placement of personnel, detailed information about the goals and objectives, plans and conditions of activity. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account how new employees can fit into the formed team, work well together. It is important to correctly place workers in the workplace. If people who sympathize with each other find themselves in neighboring, technologically interconnected places, this improves their mood, increases work and creative activity.

Everyone has their own personal idea about workmates, about how they would like to see their team. Therefore, purposeful orientation is always complemented by self-orientation.

If a goal-oriented orientation prevails in a team, then the common goal for most of the team members is transformed into their internal need and the orientation stage is relatively quickly replaced by the next one.

Second stage - mutually adaptive, which is the formation of uniform attitudes of behavior of team members. These attitudes can be formed in two ways: under the purposeful educational influence of the leader and through self-adaptation, as a result of imitation and identification.

Imitation consists in the fact that a person unconsciously adopts the ways of behavior of others, their views and reactions to certain situations. This is the least controlled way of forming attitudes, which does not always lead to positive results.

Identification - a person's conscious adherence to any patterns, norms and standards of behavior, identification (identification) with them of the rules of his own behavior. In this case, a person is already reflecting on the behavior of a particular person and consciously determines whether he should act in the same way in a similar situation or in a different way.

The mutually adaptive stage corresponds to the average level of development of the team, characterized by the creation of its asset (active group).

Third stage - a close-knit, or stage of consolidation, of a team, the stage of its maturity. The leader acts here not as an external force, but as a person who most fully embodies the goals of the team. In such a team, relations of mutual assistance and cooperation prevail.

Depending on the degree of cohesion, three types of collectives are distinguished:

· Close-knit, or consolidated, which is characterized by a close relationship of its members, solidarity and friendship, constant mutual assistance. The composition of such a team is relatively stable. Such a collective has, as a rule, high performance indicators, good labor discipline, high activity of workers;

· Dismembered (weakly united), which consists of a number of unfriendly social and psychological groups that have their own leaders. Group indicators, the level of industrial discipline, value orientations, the activity of such groups are very different;

· Disunited (conflict) - in essence a formal collective, in which everyone is on his own, personal friendly contacts between its members are absent, they are connected by purely official relations. In such teams, conflicts often arise, there is a high turnover of personnel.

It should be borne in mind that the process of rallying and developing the workforce is a reversible process. Under certain circumstances, it can stop and even turn into a process opposite to itself - into a process of disintegration. The reason for this may be a change in the leader or the composition of the team, the goals of its activities, the level of requirements, or any other changes in the labor situation.

Managing the process of cohesion of the workforce is carried out by influencing the factors that determine cohesion.

The general (external) factors include the nature of social relations, the level of development of scientific and technological progress, the peculiarities of the mechanism of economic activity, and the specific (internal) ones - the level of organization and management of production in the collective itself, its socio-psychological climate, personal composition.

Relationships in a team, its cohesion largely depend on what the team members themselves are, what are their personal qualities and the culture of communication, manifested in the degree of emotional warmth, sympathy or antipathy. The labor collective is formed from individual workers endowed with different mental properties with different social characteristics. In other words, members of the labor collective are representatives of different temperaments, age and gender and ethnic groups, have different habits, views, interests, which are essentially a commonality or difference in their social positions.

The prevalence of certain personality traits among the members of the team, it affects the relations that develop within the team, the nature of its mental attitude, gives it a certain feature that can facilitate or interfere with its cohesion. Negative character traits especially strongly hinder team building: resentment, envy, painful pride.

Social role

The social behavior of an individual is largely related to her role. The concept of "role" in social psychology means the social function of a person, a way of behavior corresponding to the accepted norms, depending on its status (positions) in the system of interpersonal relations. This understanding is due to the fact that in similar circumstances (for example, at the same enterprise), employees, occupying the same positions, behave in the same way in the labor process in accordance with the requirements of production, i.e. their labor behavior is regulated by the relevant documents (regulations, job descriptions, etc.). In other words, a role is a stable pattern of behavior reproduced by people who have the same status (position) in the social system. The role reflects, therefore, the socio-typical aspects of behavior.

Based on the above definition, the social role performs two functions:

1) tells a person how to behave in a given position (a student, a customer in a store, a passenger on a bus, a son in a family, etc.);

2) forms certain expectations of the partner from the behavior of her performer, which, in turn, determine the reciprocal behavior of the partner. The functional role of each member of the work collective is determined; job descriptions (seller, foreman, etc.), which reflect the duties, rights, responsibilities of the employee, his official relationship with other team members, as well as the basic requirements for his professional qualities... A detailed and clear job description is the basis for adequate understanding) and assimilation of the functional role. However, as evidenced by the results of sociological research, detailed regulation of the functional activity of an employee is not always justified, i.e. the instruction should establish a certain degree of independence of the employee, the opportunity for the manifestation of initiative and creativity.

The foregoing allows us to reveal the structure (internal structure) of the social role. It includes the following elements:

1) role prescriptions (social and group norms of behavior, requirements of a specific profession, position, etc.);

2) role expectations;

3) role-playing behavior (i.e. playing a role);

4) assessment of role behavior;

5) sanctions (in case of failure to fulfill the role). The central element of the structure, which allows us to explain why the same role, for example, the line manager (manager) in the enterprise, different people perform differently, is the concept of "role behavior".

Leadership style plays an important role in the formation and cohesion of the team. The leader in his daily activities must take into account that his employees have different characters, socio-psychological qualities, various general educational and special training. This requires him to study their character, the ability to choose ways of influencing a person, depending on character traits, specific activities, social characteristics. Not every specialist can be a good leader.

In this regard, it becomes especially relevant to determine the degree of correspondence between personal and business qualities managers' functional requirements.

In the process of team building, the communication process plays a significant role.

Communication- the need of a person, the most important condition for his labor activity, the force that organizes and unites the team.

Communication as a means of rallying the work collective performs cognitive, communicative and regulatory functions.

The cognitive function is that the members of a team or group, communicating, exchange information about themselves, their comrades, ways and methods of solving the tasks assigned to them. In the process of such an exchange, each of the team members has the opportunity to learn more effective techniques and methods of work, to correlate their individual style of performing it with the general one and to do their work in such a way that it corresponds to the rules and methods adopted in this team. And this forms the labor unity necessary for the normal functioning of the collective.

The communicative function is that the members of the team, communicating, form their own and the general collective emotional state. Emotions are a person's response to certain irritations. In the process of communication, various types of emotions are born. Communication can be accompanied by the effect of sympathy, complicity, mutual understanding and contribute to the emotional release of a person's state, but it can also create a certain level of emotional tension, a psychological barrier of bias, rejection, alienation.

The regulatory function is manifested in the influence of team members on their workmates, on their behavior, actions, activity, and the system of value orientations. It regulates the interactions of team members and forms relationships more vertically (in the manager-subordinate system). The leader plays an important role in shaping these relationships. The effectiveness of its impact on the team largely depends on the organization of communication with subordinates. The leader must be impartial, equally exacting and demanding with all subordinates. But exactingness works when it is organizationally thought out, psychologically sound and expressed in a form that corresponds to moral norms. A rude command, shouting not only does not contribute to the effective solution of common affairs, the cohesion of the team, but creates even new complications, irritates and divides its members.

However, the problem of forming relationships in a team, its cohesion should be considered not only through the system of relations between the leader and the subordinate, but also the subordinate-leader. Subordinates know what a leader should be like and how he should build his relationship with his subordinates: observe certain rules of communication, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates, their state of health, mood, etc. This fully applies to subordinates. Often, the leader's exactingness to the subordinate is perceived by the latter as cruelty, callousness, nit-picking.

The implementation of the considered functions forms in the team a certain system of relations, which are divided into formal(business, official) and informal(personal, informal). Formal relationships develop between people when they fulfill certain production roles. They reflect functional connections between officials, employees different categories and qualifications, managers and subordinates, they are based on norms, standards, rights and responsibilities. The content of formal relations is mutual exactingness, responsibility, comradely cooperation, and mutual assistance.

In each work collective, along with formal relations, there are informal relations, the microstructure of the collective. They also arise with functional connections between team members, but on the basis of their individual and personal qualities and are expressed in the assessment of these qualities. These relationships can arise between friends and foes, buddies and ill-wishers, both over formal and informal functions. Informal relationships are based on attraction and rejection, attraction and repulsion, likes and dislikes.

Formal and informal relationships are closely related and interact. Formal relationships can give rise to informal ones, slow down or accelerate the process of their development, give it a certain direction and social character... Informal relations, in turn, can actively influence formal ones, acquire a stable character and develop into formal ones. They can complement, concretize, contribute to the goals of formal relations, they can be indifferent, indifferent to them, or they can contradict these goals.

It is very important that informal relationships not only do not contradict the formal ones, but serve as their natural complement, and in this much depends on the team leader. The leader is a formal leader, and his subordinates can unite into informal groups, which will have their own informal leaders. And if the leader has enough common sense and experience, then he will try to win the trust of the informal leader and through him influence the behavior of the members of the informal group.

Socio-psychological climate in the team

The cohesion of the labor collective depends on the socio-psychological climate that characterizes the social face of the collective, its production potential.

The quality of the socio-psychological climate in the team determines the leader's attitude to society as a whole, to his organization and to each person individually. If, in his understanding, a person is represented as a resource, raw material and production base, then such an approach will not give the desired result, in the management process there will be a bias and deficiency or recalculation of resources for performing a specific task.

Under socio-psychological climate labor collective should be understood as a system of social - psychological relations, reflecting the subjective integration of individual workers and social groups for the implementation of common production goals. This is the internal state of the team, formed as a result of the joint activities of its members, their interpersonal interactions. The socio-psychological climate depends on the style of the team's activity and the attitude of the team members to it, the peculiarities of their perception of each other (assessments, opinions, responses to words and actions), mutually experienced feelings (likes, dislikes, empathy, sympathy), psychological unity (common needs , interests, tastes, value orientations, the level of conflict, the nature of criticism and self-criticism), etc.

The influence of the socio-psychological climate on the cohesion and development of the team can be twofold - stimulating and restraining, which is the basis for its differentiation into favorable (healthy) and unfavorable (unhealthy).

The following characteristics can serve as criteria for a favorable socio-psychological climate:

Firstly, at the level of collective consciousness:

· A positive assessment of their production activities;

· An optimistic mood prevailing in the life of the team;

· Secondly, at the level of behavior:

· Conscientious, proactive attitude of team members to their duties;

· Low level of conflict in interpersonal relationships;

· Absence or insignificant staff turnover.

In collectives where the importance of the socio-psychological climate is underestimated, tensions develop between people, manifested in frequent conflicts.

Creation of a favorable psychological climate in the team

Team leadership is a combination of science and art. From the point of view of American management, the essence of leadership is to do the work not with your own hands, but with others. In fact, an even more difficult task is to make not only other people's hands work, but also other people's heads. Therefore, it is unreasonable to rely only on yourself, considering yourself to be omniscient and able to do everything. You should never do yourself what subordinates can and should do (except in cases of personal example)

The fulfillment of each task must be monitored and evaluated (forms of control must not be totalitarian); lack of control can lead the employee to think that the work he is doing is unnecessary. There is no need to turn control into petty tutelage.

If the employee's independent solution to the problem does not in principle contradict the point of view of management, there is no need to shackle the employee's initiative and to dispute over trifles.

Every achievement of the employee and his initiative must be immediately noted. You can thank a subordinate in the presence of other employees. A person is encouraged by a positive assessment of his actions and upset if they do not notice and do not appreciate success in work.

When an employee turns out to be more talented and more successful than his manager in something, this is not something negative; the good reputation of subordinates is praise and credit to the leader.

Not affectionately making remarks to a subordinate who has committed a minor offense in the presence of others, employees or subordinates; humiliating a person is not the best way to educate.

There is no point in criticizing people. It will be more constructive to criticize their mistakes, indicating from which shortcomings such mistakes can occur. And all the more, there is no need to point out these shortcomings in a person - he must draw all the conclusions himself.

In a conflict situation, the use of harsh, offensive words will be disastrous (if the situation can be resolved without them).

Very important: the spark of respect and even more sympathy planted by the leader in the soul of a subordinate is able to charge him for creative selfless work, regardless of time.

Exact formulation of your thoughts: professional literacy, managerial competence, general culture are manifested in the manner of speaking. An easily outlined and formulated thought disposes to communication, eliminates the potential for conflict caused by misunderstanding.

A correctly made remark eliminates unnecessary irritation. Sometimes it is helpful to express comments in the form of a question: "Do you think there is a mistake here?" or "How do you think ..."

The ability of a leader to defend the interests of the entire team and each of the subordinates is a good means of gaining authority and uniting employees into a single group.

Gullibility and distrust are the most important personality traits on which the socio-psychological climate in the team depends. Excessive, excessive gullibility distinguishes inexperienced, easily injured people. They find it difficult to be good leaders. But the worst of all is suspicion of everyone. The manager's mistrust almost always gives rise to the mistrust of subordinates. Showing distrust of people, a person almost always limits the possibility of mutual understanding, and hence the effectiveness of collective activity.

Delegation of authority stimulates the disclosure of the abilities, initiative, independence and competence of subordinates. Delegation often has a positive effect on employee motivation and job satisfaction.

In general, under conflict means a collision of oppositely directed actions of employees caused by divergence of interests, views, aspirations. Conflict is accompanied by tension in the relationship.

Common causes of conflicts are:

· Shortcomings in the organization of rationing and remuneration. Mental comfort of people largely depends on the degree of implementation of the principle of social justice. It is very important that those workers who work better get more.

· Shortcomings in the organization of leadership, caused by the incompetence of the leader, the discrepancy between his personality and the level of maturity of the team; his insufficient moral education, as well as low psychological culture.

· Imperfection of the team itself or its individual members: lack of conscious discipline, which hinders the work of the leader and the development of the entire team; the prevailing inertia and inertia in the stele of the collective's activities, which leads to great resistance to innovations, unhealthy relations between cadre workers and newcomers; psychological and moral incompatibility of individual members of the team, the transfer of personal misfortunes, troubles of individuals to relations in the work collective, etc.

Team building involves, first of all, identifying the causes of conflict and conducting appropriate preventive work, which can be conducted in the following areas:

· Improvement of the organization and working conditions, ensuring the rhythm and strict coordination of the production process, which causes workers' moral satisfaction with work;

· Selection of personnel and the correct placement of personnel, taking into account their social and professional characteristics and psychological compatibility, which reduces the likelihood of conflict;

· Development of criticism and self-criticism, etc.

However, it is impossible to completely avoid conflicts in the team. As a rule, no collective can do without conflicts. Moreover, conflicts have both negative and positive consequences. They help team members get to know each other, get a more complete picture of mutual expectations and claims, and the administration - about shortcomings in the organization of work, everyday life, and production management. Therefore, it is very important that the clash of views and positions of the conflicting ones does not alienate them from each other, so that controversial issues are resolved and cease to be controversial, so that the conflict does not follow a destructive path. In this regard, the behavior of those in conflict, the culture of conflict, is of particular importance.

Conflicts in the organization. Their types and methods of resolution.

The term "conflict" has many different definitions. In management science, conflict is seen as a lack of agreement between two or more parties. The subjects of the conflict can be individuals, small groups, or entire groups.

The conflict can involve both all team members and individual production units (labor department and wages and planning department), production unit and one of the team members (technical regulation bureau and worker), individual team members (manager and subordinate, worker and worker). The most common conflicts are between individual members of the team, i.e. interpersonal conflicts - an active clash of various judgments, assessments, positions, accompanied by the active excitement of people, distortion of ideas about each other, the development of relations of hostility, enmity.

In the scientific literature, there are various approaches to the essence and assessment of the conflict. From the point of view of the authors belonging to the school of scientific management, based on Weber's theory of bureaucracy, conflict is a negative phenomenon in management. Conflicts should be avoided; if they arise, resolve immediately. This approach to the conflict was based on the idea of ​​an organization as a set of specific tasks, procedures, rules for the interaction of officials and a developed rational structure. Such mechanisms eliminate the conditions for the emergence of conflicts and lead to conflict-free resolution of problems.

Authors belonging to the school of "human relations" also believed that conflict can and should be avoided. They admitted the possibility of contradictions between the goals of individuals and the goals of the organization, the capabilities of one person and different groups of leaders, etc. But from the point of view of the concept of "human relations", conflict is a sign of ineffective organization and poor management.

The modern approach to the essence of the conflict considers it as inevitable, and even in some cases necessary element activities of the organization. Often the conflict is negative. Sometimes it can interfere with the satisfaction of the needs of the individual and the achievement of the goals of the organization as a whole. But in many situations, the conflict helps to reveal a variety of points of view, provides additional information, helps to identify a larger number of alternatives or problems. This makes the group's decision-making process more efficient, and also enables people to express their thoughts, satisfy their personal needs for respect and power. It can also lead to more effective implementation of plans, strategies and projects, since the discussion of different points of view on these documents occurs before their actual implementation.

So, conflict can be functional and lead to increased efficiency in an organization. Or it may be dysfunctional and result in decreased personal satisfaction, group collaboration, and organizational effectiveness. The role of conflict depends on how effectively it is managed. To manage the conflict, it is necessary to find out the occurrence of a conflict situation.

In the scientific literature, various types of conflicts are distinguished. For example, Mescon, Albert, Khedouri distinguish four main types of conflict: intrapersonal, interpersonal, conflict between an individual and a group, and intergroup conflict.

Intrapersonal conflict is a special kind of conflict. One of the most common forms of it is role conflict. Its essence lies in the fact that a person is presented with conflicting requirements about what should be the result of his work. Also, such a conflict can arise as a result of the fact that production requirements are not consistent with the personal needs or values ​​of a person. In addition, intrapersonal conflict may be a response to work overload or light workload.

Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict. In organizations, it manifests itself in different ways. Most often it is the struggle of leaders for resources, capital, labor, project approval, etc. Each of them tries to convince the superiors to accept his point of view. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities.

People with different character traits, views, values ​​sometimes cannot get along with each other, since their views and goals are fundamentally different from each other. A conflict between an individual and a group arises when the individual takes a position different from that of the group. During the production process, certain norms of behavior and development are established in the group. Everyone must comply with them in order to be accepted by an informal group, and thereby satisfy their social needs. But if the expectations of the group are in conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict can arise.

A similar conflict can arise from the manager's job responsibilities: between the need to ensure appropriate performance and adhere to the rules and procedures of the organization. The manager may be forced to take disciplinary action that may be unpopular in the eyes of his subordinates.

Intergroup conflict arises from the fact that any organization consists of many groups, both formal and informal. Informal groups may feel that the management group does not treat them fairly and intends to reduce work efficiency.

In the works of Russian and foreign scientists, the types of conflicts are also determined depending on the causes of conflicts. The main reasons are: limited resources that need to be divided, interdependence in the task, differences in goals, differences in ideas and values, differences in behavior, in the level of education, as well as poor communication.

Even in the most large organizations resources are always limited. The leader must decide how to allocate materials, human resources, and finances among the various groups in order to most efficiently achieve the organisation's goal. Allocating more resources to one group means that others will receive less of the total. Thus, the need to share resources almost always leads to different types of conflicts.

If in an organization a person or group is dependent on another person or group to complete a task, conflict is also likely to arise.

The potential for conflict increases as organizations become more specialized and subdivided. This is because the specialized units formulate their own goals and may place more emphasis on achieving them than on the goals of the entire organization.

The idea of ​​a certain situation depends on the desire to achieve a certain goal. Instead of objectively assessing the situation, people can only consider those views, alternatives and aspects of the situation that, in their opinion, are favorable for their group and personal needs. Thus, differences in values ​​are a very common cause of conflict.

Differences in demeanor and life experiences can also increase the likelihood of conflict. For example, people with personality traits that make them authoritarian, dogmatic, and indifferent to the self-respect of others are more likely to come into conflict. Differences in life experience, values, education, seniority, age and social characteristics reduce the degree of mutual understanding and cooperation between the views of different departments.

Unsatisfactory communication, poor communication of information can be both a cause and a consequence of the conflict. It can act as a catalyst for conflict, making it difficult for individuals or a group to understand the situation or the perspectives of others. Other common communication problems that cause conflict are ambiguous quality criteria, the inability to accurately define the job responsibilities of all employees and departments, and the presentation of mutually exclusive job requirements.

As noted earlier, conflict can have both positive and negative consequences. The positive consequences of a conflict are, first, that the problem is solved in a way that is acceptable to all parties, and as a result, employees feel that they are involved in solving this problem. This minimizes the difficulties in implementing the decisions made - hostility, the need to act against the will. Another positive consequence of the conflict is that the parties are more likely to cooperate in future conflict situations. Conflict can also reduce the conformity, inertia of thinking, when subordinates do not express ideas that contradict the ideas of their leaders.

Negative consequences of the conflict:

1.dissatisfaction, bad state of mind, employee turnover and decreased productivity.

2.fewer cooperation in the future

3. strong loyalty of the individual to the group and an increase in unproductive competition with other groups in the organization.

4. opposing your goals to the goals of the other group, both positive and negative

5.reduction of interaction between conflicting parties

6.increasing animosity between them as communication decreases

7.giving more importance to winning a conflict than solving a real problem

The consequences of a conflict are determined by how effective the conflict management will be. The scientific literature describes various ways to manage conflict situations. Albert, Mescon, Khedouri divide them into two categories: structural and interpersonal. There are four structural methods of conflict resolution — clarifying job requirements, using coordination and integration mechanisms, setting corporate cross-cutting goals, and using a reward system.

According to the above American scientists, clarifying job requirements is the best management method to prevent the negative consequences of conflict.

The manager must explain to each employee and department what work results are expected of them. What authority and responsibility do they have, what procedures and operating rules exist.

Another method of managing a conflict situation is the use of a coordination mechanism. An example of such a mechanism: a chain of commands, the establishment of a hierarchy of powers, which streamlines the interaction of people, decision-making and information flows within the organization.

If subordinates have disagreements, conflict can be avoided by asking their common superior to make a decision.

The next method of conflict management is the setting of corporate integrated goals. The effective implementation of these goals requires the collaborative effort of individuals, teams or departments. The idea inherent in these higher goals is to unite the efforts of all participants in the activity and subordinate them to a single task. Thus, the coordination of actions of all personnel is achieved.

The method of managing a conflict situation is also the creation of a reward system. People who make a special contribution to achieving common goals, helping other groups in the organization, should be rewarded with gratitude, bonus, recognition or promotion.

Among the interpersonal styles of conflict resolution, the following are distinguished: evasion, smoothing, coercion, compromise and problem solving.

The evasion style implies that a person tries to get away from the conflict, not to get into situations that provoke the emergence of contradictions, not to enter into discussion of issues fraught with disagreements.

The smoothing style is characterized by the fact that the leader tries not to let out the signs of conflict and bitterness, appealing to solidarity.

In the framework of the coercive style, attempts to force people to accept their point of view at any cost prevail. A person using this style usually behaves aggressively and abuses their power. The disadvantage of this style is that it suppresses the initiative of subordinates and leads to the ignorance of important factors.

The compromise style is characterized by accepting the other's point of view, but only to some extent. The ability to compromise is most valuable in managerial situations, as it minimizes hostility and allows for a quick resolution of the conflict. But using compromise early in a conflict can hinder close scrutiny and reduce the number of alternatives.

The style of problem solving is to recognize differences of opinion and a willingness to learn from a variety of points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find the most appropriate way to resolve it. According to American scientists, this style is the most effective and leads to the optimal solution of issues.

2. Stresses and ways to overcome them

One of the most important socio-psychological aspects of management activity is overcoming stress. In the literature, this problem is considered from two sides: the stress state of managers and the stress state of subordinates.

In any organization, even the most progressive and well-governed, there are situations and work characteristics that negatively affect people and cause them to feel stress. Excessive stress can be destructive for the individual and therefore for the organization.

Stress can be caused by factors related to the work and activities of the organization or personal events.

Organizational factors mean the following:

1. overload or, on the contrary, too little workload of the worker. An employee who does not get a job that matches his capabilities usually feels frustration, anxiety about his value and position in the social system of the organization, and feels clearly unremunerated.

2. Role conflict arises when conflicting demands are made on an employee. This conflict can also occur as a result of a violation of the principle of one-man management (when different leaders can give contradictory tasks to a subordinate). In this situation, the individual may feel tension and anxiety because he wants to be accepted by the group on the one hand and to comply with the requirements of leadership on the other.

3. role majeure arises when an employee is not sure what is expected of him. Unlike the conflict of roles, the requirements here will not be contradictory, but they will be evasive and vague. People need to have a correct understanding of management expectations - what and how they should do and how they will then be evaluated.

4. uninteresting work. However, people's views on the concept of "interesting work" differ. What seems interesting to one person may not necessarily be interesting to another.

It should be noted that positive events in a person's personal life can equally or even more cause stress, as well as negative events.

Management literature suggests ways to prevent and manage stress:

Developing a particularly effective and reliable relationship with the manager. An understanding of his problems and help him in understanding the problems of his subordinates are required

Do not agree with a manager or anyone who begins to make conflicting demands. More explanation needed

Informing the manager or employees that the criteria for assessing the quality of work are not clear

Public discussion of boredom or lack of interest in work

Including short breaks in the workday to change the line of thought

Ability to explain refusal when the limit is reached, after which the employee is not able to take on more work.

3.Leadership

The socio-psychological structure of the team ends with the nomination of a leader.

Leadership is one of the socio-psychological factors affecting performance. Leadership potential is a set of psychological qualities that correspond to the needs of the group and are most useful for resolving the problem situation in which this group has found itself. Leadership - primacy in stimulating, planning and organizing group activity. Behind the ability to lead are such integral characteristics as "attitude to danger", "managerial ability" and high "personal activity".

Dangerous attitudes are understood as being highly effective in dealing with stress, as well as sensitivity to potential danger and fearlessness.

Actions in stressful conditions, the most appropriate to the role of a true leader, are in his primacy of protecting the group, in organizing group actions, in attacking actions, in choosing the strategy and tactics of the group's behavior. Sensitivity is the leader's ability to anticipate the possibility of stressful circumstances and the options for their development. Fearlessness conventionally denotes a quality that allows a leader to withstand threats directed at him for the longest time and to recover faster from defeats.

In the structure of managerial abilities, the leading functions are the functions of suppressing intragroup aggressiveness (conflict) and providing support to weak members of the group, planning the upcoming actions of the group.

A leader's high personal activity includes a wide range of private manifestations - from initiative and contact to physical mobility and a tendency to form temporary alliances with various members of the group.

Psychoanalysts have identified ten types of leadership

1. "Sovereign" or "patriarchal ruler". A leader in the image of a strict but beloved father, he is able to suppress or suppress negative emotions and instill confidence in people. He is promoted on the basis of love and revered.

2. "Leader". In it, people see the expression, the concentration of their desires, corresponding to a certain group standard. The personality of the leader is the bearer of these standards. They try to imitate him in the group.

3. "Tyrant". He becomes a leader because he inspires others with a sense of obedience and unaccountable fear, he is considered the strongest. A tyrant leader is a dominant, authoritarian personality, he is usually feared and obeyed.

4. "Organizer". It acts for the members of the group as a force to maintain the "I-concept" and satisfy the needs of everyone, relieves feelings of guilt and anxiety. Such a leader unites people, he is respected.

5. "Seducer". A person becomes a leader by playing on the weaknesses of others. He acts as a "magical force", giving an outlet to the suppressed emotions of other people, prevents conflicts, relieves tension. Such a leader is adored and often overlooked for all his shortcomings.

6. "Hero". Sacrifices himself for the sake of others; this type manifests itself especially in situations of group protest - thanks to his courage, others are guided by him, see in him a standard of justice. The hero-leader draws people along with him.

7. "Bad example". Acts as a source of contagion for a conflict-free person, emotionally infects others.

8. "Idol". Attracts, attracts, positively infects the environment, he is loved, idolized and idealized.

9. "Outcast".

10. "Scapegoat".

There is a difference between "Formal" leadership - when the influence comes from the official position in the organization, and "Informal" leadership - when influence comes from the recognition by others of the personal superiority of the leader. In most situations, of course, these two influences are intertwined to a greater or lesser extent.

A formally appointed business unit leader has the advantage of gaining leadership positions in a group, and is therefore more likely than anyone else to become recognized leader... However, his status in the organization and the fact that he is appointed "from outside" put him in a position somewhat different from that of informal natural leaders. First of all, the desire to move up the career ladder prompts him to identify himself with larger divisions of the organization, rather than with a group of his subordinates. He may believe that emotional attachment to any work group should not serve as a brake on him on this path, and therefore identifying himself with the leadership of the organization is a source of satisfying his personal ambitions. But if he knows that he will not rise higher, and does not particularly strive for this, often such a leader decisively identifies himself with his subordinates and does everything in his power to protect their interests.

Formal leaders first of all determine how and in what ways to achieve the goal set, as a rule, by other people, organize and direct the work of subordinates in accordance with detailed plans, while taking a passive position. They build their interaction with others on the basis of a clear regulation of rights and obligations, try not to go beyond them, seeing themselves and others as members of one organization in which a certain order and discipline should prevail.

In contrast, informal leaders determine which goals to strive for, formulating them independently, without going into unnecessary details. Their followers are those who share their views and are willing to follow them, despite the difficulties, and the leaders find themselves in the role of inspirers as opposed to managers who ensure the achievement of goals through reward or punishment. Unlike formal leaders, informal leaders are not controlled by others, but build relationships with followers on trust in them.

To summarize what has been said, we will use the table, which is based on the materials of O. Vikhansky and A. Naumov.

In a team, the general level of which is below average, the informal leader most often acts as an expert-specialist on any issues or an emotional center, can cheer, sympathize, and help. In a team with a high level of development, he is primarily an intellectual center, a source of ideas, a consultant on the most difficult problems. And in both cases, he is the integrator of the collective, the initiator and organizer of its active actions, the model with which the rest check their thoughts and actions.

Since the informal leader reflects the interests of the collective, he is a kind of controller, making sure that the specific actions of each of its members do not contradict the general interests, do not undermine the unity of the group. In necessary cases, he can enter into a conflict with the administration in this regard, authorizing, even in the field of production activities, only those decisions that do not contradict the interests of the team he represents. It is practically impossible to fight this phenomenon, because pressure on the leader only causes even greater cohesion of the team and its opposition to the administration.

It is believed that in a conflict situation, if there is an opportunity with an informal leader, it is better to compromise by offering him at the same time an official position, which he usually does not have, but fully deserves.

The easiest way to do this is when the boundaries of the formal and informal team headed by such a leader coincide, and its members are guided by corporate values. Under these conditions, it will be much easier for a leader who has received official powers to manage the team, and to a certain extent he will be able to neglect the interests of the team for the sake of the interests of the official organization, to which people, trusting him, will agree. However, in this case, the official decisions still have to be adjusted taking into account the interests of the collective, because it is dangerous to abuse its trust.

Labor collective management

Any work collective so that it does not disintegrate and continues to carry out the assigned objective function need to lead. Moreover, under leadership the purposeful impact of persons endowed with the functions and competencies of leaders on collectives and individuals is understood, i.e. interaction of managers and executors, the purpose of which is the constant (continuous) provision of the optimal functioning of a certain system as a whole.

It should be noted that the concepts of "management" and "leadership" are largely identical and their use to denote the same phenomena, purposeful actions is legitimate. However, there are certain differences between them. Managing production means, first of all, purposefully influencing all components of the controlled system to achieve pre-planned results. In other words, production management as a process includes people, material, financial and other resources. You can only manage people, not resources.

Leadership is not only necessary, but also the main element of the management process, constituting its main content. The content of the leadership process is mainly determined by two factors: the amount of authority (competence) of the leader and the nature of the problem that he has to solve by influencing the subordinate team or individual.

The influence of the head on the performers is a continuous process to the same extent as the production process is continuous. The impact of the subject of leadership (leader) on the object of leadership (team) is a direct link. In turn, the team of executors, implementing the orders of the head, informs him about the progress of work, factors that contribute to the successful completion of the task or prevent it, and thus affects the head's subsequent decisions. The impact of the object of leadership (team) on the subject of leadership (leader) is a feedback.

The manager, realizing the importance of feedback in the process of managing the work collective, must intensify the flow of information from the management object, first of all, necessary for making informed decisions of a corrective or long-term nature. Means, Feedback- a controlled process. The leader should actively influence the formation of the structure of information coming from the object of management in order to ensure the validity and purposefulness of the management decisions developed by the subject of management.

Thus, team leadership is a process of continuous exchange of information between the subject and the object of leadership in order to consciously influence each other.

The essence and content of the management process are revealed in its functions: planning, organization, coordination, stimulation, control.

The process of managing a production labor collective can be conditionally divided into three stages.

The first stage is the definition of goals that must be achieved by the team in a certain period of time - shift, month, quarter, year or for another period.

The second stage is informing the team. It includes familiarizing the team with the task, methods and techniques for performing work, sources of providing them with the necessary resources, remuneration systems and other incentives, working conditions and rules of safe behavior in the workplace and other information.

The third stage is the organization and implementation of analytical work in the labor collective, the purpose of which is to identify and study the technical, technological and organizational reserves for increasing the efficiency of the collective; reasons and factors of underperformance or overfulfillment of production targets by individual workers and teams, etc.

The participation of a leader in the achievement of the set goals by the work collective or an individual employee is primarily determined by the content and quality of his performance of the main functions of management.

As an organizer, the team leader must ensure a high level of organization of the team being led. The organization of the team is, first of all, the unity of actions of all its members, different in character, temperament, physical and mental data, their general purposefulness in solving the problems of increasing the efficiency of labor and production. Therefore, the head of the primary team, as the organizer of his labor activity, must be able to set specific goals for the team and distinguish among them the main and secondary ones, rationally distribute the team's efforts in time and space to achieve the set goals, determine the means and methods for solving specific problems, develop the initiative and abilities of the members. team, skillfully use their knowledge and experience when assigning tasks to groups of workers or specialists.

The manager must take care that his subordinates are not idle because of the poor organization of their work, so that the work is fairly distributed among employees.

The leader, as the spokesman and defender of the interests of the subordinate team, is empowered to apply specific incentives to reward those who are distinguished by high performing skills, good quantitative performance indicators, and discipline. At the same time, he must apply certain forms of punishment and sanctions in relation to violators of labor discipline or persons who perform their work in bad faith, in order to protect the interests of conscientious and disciplined workers and encourage the undisciplined to improve their attitude to work.

In addition, the leader must be a consumer, generator and disseminator of knowledge (information). His informational readiness allows him to rationally manage the work collective. Information is a kind of energy and raw material for making management decisions. The leader in his work uses information received both from his team and from other teams, i.e. internal and external. Based on this information, he assesses the state of the object of management and makes decisions. The quality of the manager's decisions largely depends on the objectivity, timeliness and purposefulness of information. The higher the substantiation of managerial decisions, the greater success in solving economic and social problems the labor collective achieves.

The leader, in order to induce the subordinate team to achieve the set goals, uses a set of techniques and actions, called methods. In the literature, there is no unified approach to the classification of management methods.

V real life work collective, different methods of influence affect the individual in different ways. This necessitates the use of various methods of influence in the process of managing a work collective at the same time. In practice, there are no clear boundaries between them, for example, using administrative and managerial methods of influencing the team or its individual members, the manager takes into account the requirements of economic laws, labor and business law, etc.

The greatest impact on the attitude of a person and a team to work is exerted by economic methods of leadership.

Administrative - regulatory methods are used to solve the same problems that are solved mainly economic methods, but unlike the latter, they do not give the executor an alternative in choosing the means of executing decisions. They are carried out in the form of orders, instructions, instructions orally or in writing, issued by a higher governing body or a leader in relation to a subordinate, performer.

Socio-psychological methods of leadership are based on the manager's use of techniques and methods of influencing individual workers or the collective as a whole, arising from his knowledge of human psychology in general, specific features and characteristics of the psychology of individual workers in particular. The task of the leader is to use this knowledge to create relationships in the team that allow subordinates to perceive any of his orders as reasonable, fair and in line with social norms.

Team motivation

LABOR MOTIVATION.

In the context of the formation of new management mechanisms focused on a market economy, before industrial enterprises it becomes necessary to work in a new way, reckoning with the laws and requirements of the market, mastering a new type of economic behavior, adapting all aspects of production activity to the changing situation. In this regard, the contribution of each employee to the final results of the enterprise's activity increases. One of the main tasks for enterprises of various forms of ownership is the search for effective methods of labor management, ensuring the activation of the human factor.

The decisive causal factor in the performance of people is their motivation .

Motivational aspects of labor management are widely used in countries with developed market economy... In our country, the concept of labor motivation in economic sense appeared relatively recently in connection with the democratization of production. Previously, it was used mainly in industrial economic sociology, pedagogy, psychology. This was due to a number of reasons. Firstly, economic sciences did not seek to analyze the relationship of their subjects with the named sciences, and, secondly, in a purely economic sense, until recently, the concept of "motivation" was replaced by the concept of "incentive". Such a truncated understanding of the motivational process led to an orientation towards short-term economic goals, towards achieving momentary profits. This had a destructive effect on the need-motivational personality of the employee, did not arouse interest in own development, self-improvement, and in fact it is this system today that is the most important reserve for increasing production efficiency.

Labor motivation is a process of stimulating an individual performer or a group of people to activities aimed at achieving the goals of the organization, to the productive implementation of decisions made or planned work.

This definition shows a close relationship between the managerial and individual-psychological content of motivation, based on the fact that the management of a social system and a person, in contrast to the management of technical systems, contains, as a necessary element, the coordination of the chains of the object and the subject of management. Its result will be the labor behavior of the object of management and, ultimately, a certain result of labor activity.

R. Owen and A. Smith considered money to be the only motivating factor. According to their interpretation, people are purely economic beings who work only to obtain the funds necessary to purchase food, clothing, housing, and so on.

Modern theories of motivation, based on the results of psychological research, prove that the true reasons that induce a person to give all their strength to work are extremely complex and diverse. According to some scientists, a person's action is determined by his needs. Those who adhere to a different position proceed from the fact that human behavior is also a function of his perception and expectations.

When considering motivation, the focus should be on the factors that force a person to act and reinforce their actions. The main ones are: needs, interests, motives and incentives.

Needs cannot be directly observed or measured, they can only be judged by the behavior of people. Allocate primary and secondary needs. Primary ones are physiological in nature: a person cannot do without food, water, clothing, shelter, rest, and the like. Secondary ones are developed in the course of learning and acquiring life experience, that is, there are psychological needs for affection, respect, and success.

Needs can be satisfied by reward by giving a person what he considers valuable for himself. But in the concept of "value" different people put a different meaning, and, consequently, their assessments of remuneration also differ. For example, a wealthy person may find a few hours of rest with their family more significant to themselves than the money they receive for overtime work for the good of the organization. For a person working in a scientific institution, the respect of colleagues and an interesting job may be more valuable than the material benefits that he would receive by performing the duties of, say, a salesman in a prestigious supermarket.

"Internal" a person receives a reward from work, feeling the significance of his work, feeling a feeling for a certain team, satisfaction from communicating friendly relations with colleagues.

"External" remuneration is salary, promotion, symbols of service status and prestige.

The motivational process can be presented in the form of the following one after another stages: the employee's awareness of his needs as a system of preference, the choice of the best way to receive a certain type of remuneration, the decision to implement it; taking action; receiving remuneration; satisfaction of the need. The core of management based on motivation will be the impact in a certain way on the interests of the participants. labor process to achieve the best performance results.

For labor management based on motivation, such prerequisites as identifying the inclinations and interests of the employee, taking into account his personal and professional abilities, determining motivational opportunities and alternatives in the team and for a specific person are necessary. It is necessary to make fuller use of the personal goals of the participants in the labor process and the goals of the organization.

No goals set from the outside cause a person's interest in intensifying his efforts until they turn into his “inner” goal and then into his “inner” plan of action. Therefore, for the ultimate success, the coincidence of the goals of the employee and the enterprise is of great importance.

To solve this problem, it is necessary to create a motivation mechanism for increasing labor efficiency. This means a set of methods and techniques for influencing workers from the management system of the enterprise, prompting them to behave in a certain way in the labor process in order to achieve the goals of the organization, based on the need to meet personal needs.

WAYS TO IMPROVE LABOR MOTIVATION

Consider ways to improve labor motivation. They are united in five relatively independent directions:

1. Material incentives.

2. Improving the quality of the workforce.

3. Improving the organization of work.

4. Involvement of personnel in the management process.

5. Non-monetary incentives.

The first direction reflects the role of the motivational mechanism of remuneration in the system of increasing labor productivity. It includes, as elements, improving the wage system, enabling staff to participate in the property and profits of the enterprise.

Of course, the motivational mechanism of remuneration plays a large role, but a constant increase in the level of remuneration does not contribute to either maintaining labor activity at the proper level or increasing labor productivity. Application of this method can be useful for achieving short-term increases in labor productivity. Ultimately, there is a certain overlap or addiction to this type of influence. One-sided influence on workers only by monetary methods cannot lead to a long-term rise in labor productivity.

Although labor in our country, in contrast to highly developed countries, is today viewed mainly as a means of earning money, it can be assumed that the need for money will grow up to a certain limit, depending on the standard of living, after which money will become a condition for a normal psychological condition, preservation of human dignity. In this case, other groups of needs related to the need for creativity, achievement of success, and others can act as dominant ones. It is very important for a leader to be able to recognize the needs of employees. The need of a lower level must be satisfied before the need next level will become a more significant factor in determining human behavior.

Needs are constantly changing, so one cannot expect that motivation that worked once will be effective in the future. With the development of the personality, opportunities and needs for self-expression expand. Thus, the process of motivating by satisfying needs is endless.

The next direction for improving motivation - improving the organization of work - contains setting goals, expanding labor functions, enriching labor, production rotation, using flexible schedules, and improving working conditions.

Goal setting assumes that a correctly set goal through the formation of an orientation towards achieving it serves as a motivating tool for the employee.

Expansion of labor functions implies the introduction of diversity in the work of personnel, that is, an increase in the number of operations performed by one employee. As a result, the working cycle for each worker is lengthened, and the intensity of labor increases. The use of this method is advisable in case of underutilization of workers and their own desire to expand the range of their activities, otherwise it can lead to sharp resistance from workers.

Enrichment of labor implies providing a person with such work that would give an opportunity for growth, creativity, responsibility, self-actualization, the inclusion in his responsibilities of some functions of planning and quality control of the main and sometimes related products. This method is advisable to apply in the labor sphere of engineering and technical workers.

For mass working professions, it is best to use production rotation, which involves the alternation of types of work and production operations, when workers periodically exchange jobs during the period, which is typical mainly for the brigade form of labor organization.

Improving working conditions is the most acute problem of today. At the stage of transition to the market, the importance of working conditions as one of the most important human needs increases. The new level of social maturity of the individual denies the unfavorable conditions of the working environment. Working conditions, acting not only as a need, but also as a motive for working with a certain return, can be both a factor and a consequence of a certain labor productivity and its efficiency.

Another side of this problem should be distinguished - the low labor culture of the workers themselves. Working for a long time in unsatisfactory sanitary and hygienic conditions, a person does not know how, and does not want to properly organize his workplace. V Lately At our cutting-edge factories, Japanese methods of productivity management have been introduced as an experiment, one of which is the enhancement of production culture. Compliance with the five principles of work is one of the elements of labor morality.

1) Eliminate unnecessary items in the workplace

2) Properly position and store the items you need

3) Maintain a clean and tidy workplace at all times

4) Permanent readiness of the workplace to carry out work

5) Learn the discipline and observe the listed principles.

The state of the workplace is assessed on a daily basis when checking the point grade for compliance with the specified rules. The workers are directly interested in the constant maintenance of their place in good condition, since in this case the tariff part of his earnings increases by 10%. The use of such a system allows raising the level of production culture and contributes to the growth of labor productivity.

EXPERIENCE OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

THEORY OF LABOR MOTIVATION IN THE WEST.

In the practice of the American firms "Ford", "General Motors" and others, various methods of motivation and humanization of labor are used. Many of them are associated with material incentives. The so-called analytical systems wages, a feature of which is a differential assessment in points of the degree of complexity of the work performed, taking into account the qualifications of the performers, physical efforts, working conditions, and others. At the same time, the variable part of wages, which acts as a reward for improving product quality, increasing labor productivity, saving raw materials, reaches 1/3 of the salary. Various forms of participation of workers in the distribution of profits are used. To solve production problems, quality circles and joint commissions of workers and administration are formed, making decisions on material incentives for workers, depending on the contribution, including in increasing labor productivity.

Material incentives are practiced in various forms. Promotion in the form of gifts has become widespread in British firms. Thus, in the company "British Telecom" they reward with valuable gifts and travel vouchers. The awarding procedure is carried out in accordance with the success achieved: at workplaces, at public events and celebrations. This makes it possible to popularize the achievements in the field of improving the efficiency of its work, its qualities, which previously went unnoticed.

The systems of motivating workers used by industrial firms by promoting them in the service can be reduced to rotation, taking into account personal qualities and work experience. The first is more often used at US enterprises, the second is typical for Japan.

One of the forms of motivation that has found wide application in the practice of foreign and domestic enterprises was the introduction of flexible working hours. V government institutions in the county of Oxfordshire (UK) in the early 90s, a new form of work organization was experimentally introduced, giving employees a significant degree of freedom - the opportunity to work both at the workplace and at home, depending on the specific duties of the employee and the agreement between him and his manager ... In some cases, the number of hours spent in the institution is negotiated in advance. Specific hours can be assigned for the collection of all employees of the unit for the exchange of information, familiarization with new tasks. This regime is also recommended for managers. So, the contract of the chief of accounting of one of the institutions assumes the following distribution of working time: 75% (30 hours per week) - at the institution, 25% (10 hours per week) - at home. The chief of accounting at home mainly works on a computer, verifies the digital data of financial documents, and at the institution participates in meetings and does other work that requires contact with employees.

Work that is done only at home at the computer is called telework... Its main drawback is isolation, however, for some categories of workers, who are also burdened with family responsibilities, this form of work organization is preferable.

The experiment met expectations and was picked up by other companies. British Telecom predicts that by 2000, teleworking will employ about 15% of the workforce. If this forecast comes true, a colossal effect will be obtained: the number of cars on the roads will be reduced by 1.6 million units, and 7.5 billion liters less gasoline will be burned, firms will save 20 thousand pounds sterling (about 33 thousand dollars) per year on each employee, and the employees themselves will save an average of £ 750 per year on gasoline and travel costs.

One of the most effective methods of motivation is the creation of self-governing groups. As an example, we can refer to the experience of the American company "DigitalEquipment", where such groups are formed in the management general accounting and reporting, which is part of one of the 5 financial management centers. The groups independently decide on the planning of work, hiring new employees, holding meetings, coordinating with other departments. Group members take turns attending meetings of company managers.

In the West, there are many theories of labor motivation. For example, D. McKieland's theory focuses on the needs of the highest level: power, success, involvement. Different people can be dominated by one or the other of them. Power-oriented people manifest themselves as outspoken and energetic individuals, eager to defend their point of view, not afraid of conflict and confrontation. Under certain conditions, high-level managers grow out of them.

People with a predominant need for success, as a rule, are not inclined to take risks, are able to take responsibility for themselves. The organization should provide such people with a greater degree of autonomy and the opportunity to bring things to the end themselves.

Motivation based on the need for involvement is typical for people interested in developing personal connections, building friendships, and helping each other. Such employees should be involved in work that will enable them to communicate widely.

Renowned Leadership Scholar D. Mac. Gregor, highlighting two basic principles of influence on human behavior, formulated "theory X" and "theory Y".

Theory X is an authoritarian type of government leading to direct regulation and tight control. According to this theory, people initially do not like to work, so they should be forced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment in order to force them to work to achieve the goals of the organization. The average person prefers to be guided, he avoids responsibility.

Theory Y is based on the democratic principles of delegating authority, enriching the content of work, improving relationships, and recognizing that a complex set of psychological needs and expectations determines people's motivation. The democratic leader believes that the work of a person, the natural state, and "external" control are not the main and not the only means of influence, the employee can exercise self-control, strive for responsibility, is inclined to self-education and ingenuity.

Conclusion

This work aims to illustrate how difficult and at the same time easy it is to make a company prosperous.

The success of any collective activity lies in the relationship of cooperation and trust, mutual assistance and professionalism. At the same time, it is equally important to determine the individual psychological qualities of a person, her real state and capabilities, the degree of conflict and sociability. Of course, serious studies of the human psyche require a complex and multifaceted analysis, the use of a diverse set of specific techniques.

The team itself is a potentially powerful incentive for labor activity, brings satisfaction to its members, puts lofty goals, creates a creative atmosphere. It is not for nothing that they say that a person is happy when he goes to work in a good mood and returns home with the same. Joint solution of production interests reduces stressful situations, increases the innovative potential of employees.

The effectiveness and comfort of business communication in a group to a large extent depend on its leader, more precisely, on the leadership style he practices.

Style in general is a manifestation and expression of a leader's individuality. It is "selected" as a personal wardrobe: so that it is, firstly, convenient, and secondly, according to the situation. But what is comfortable and familiar to the boss is not necessarily so for the subordinates.

In order for the organization to flourish and develop successfully, the leader must take into account a lot of parameters, and they concern not only economic and legal situations. The head of the organization must understand exactly who he is leading, who needs to be paid more attention to, with whom and how he should talk.

List of terms used

1. social groups
2. team cohesion
3. socio-psychological climate in the team
4. conflicts
5. motivation

List of used literature

1. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. - M., 1996

2. Vesnin V.R. Fundamentals of management. - M., 1996

1. If you are a leader ... elements of management psychology in your day-to-day work
2. Delo Publishing House Moscow 1993

5. Ladanov I. D. The psychology of managing market structures. -M., 1997

6. Fundamentals of Psychology: tutorial... - M., 1986

7. Samygin S.I., Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology of management: textbook. - Rostov n / a, 1997

1. Psychology and ethics of business communication: a textbook for universities / V.Yu. Doroshenko, L. I. Zotova, V. N. Lavrienko and others: ed. Prof. Lavrienko. - 2nd ed., Rev. dop. - M.: Culture and sport, UNITI, 1997 .-- 279 p.
2. Shuvanov V.I. Social psychology of management. - M., 1997

Mescon M.H., Albert M., Fundamentals of Management. M., "Delo", 1992. S. 440

Http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/arhiv/books/novikova_soc/soc_nov33.asp

Kozyrev V. Start with a management culture. Yekaterinburg, "Biblioservice". 1992.S. 48

Mescon M.H., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. M., 1992.S. 517

Mescon M.H., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. P.520

Mescon M.H., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of Management. P.522

I.V. Lipsits Secrets of a Skillful Leader. M. Economy. 1991.S. 111

Panasyuk A.Yu. Management communication. M. S. 45

Socio-psychological factors of the effectiveness of joint activities of a military collective

Joint military activity, the collective subject of which is a unit (crew, crew, guard personnel, etc.), is a system of group activity that unites individual activities military personnel and regulated by group socio-psychological processes (states, formations).

For a military psychologist-practitioner, the tasks of understanding psychology and the management of military activity most often act as the tasks of studying the factors affecting the level of its effectiveness, obtaining specific empirical patterns, as well as formulating some general and particular recommendations for leaders on accounting and optimizing these factors.

Factors of the effectiveness of group activities as a socio-psychological process

Taking into account the results of socio-psychological research in domestic and foreign science (D. Krech, R. Kratchifld, E. Bellchi, NHObozov, R.S. Hemov, A. V. Petrovsky, A. I. Dontsov, etc.), several groups of factors of the effectiveness of joint activities can be distinguished, many of which are the main components of the structure of the psychology of a military collective:

I. Primary factors:

(They act as independent variables for a natural or formative military-psychological experiment, are most easily controlled, direct variation by them can lead to an increase in the efficiency of activities without additional special socio-psychological innovations).

1.1. The number of members in the group;

1.2. The duration of the group's existence;

1.3. Composition (socio-demographic, individual-personal composition) of the group;

1.4. Features of the group organization, which determines the subordination of military personnel, the hierarchy of role statuses;

1.5. Providing the group with material and technical resources;

1.6. The state of communication channels, features of information and communication processes and the structure of communications;

1.7. Environment, physical, climatic, ergonomic environment;

1.8. Functional place, position of the group in the organization, which determines its relationship with other groups;

1.9. The level of available information and resource isolation (autonomy) of the group in the activities of the entire organization;

1.10. The type of group task (its divisibility, indivisibility, saturation with sensorimotor, perceptual, mental operations), the degree of its difficulty (novelty, uncertainty, extreme, monotony);

1.11. Normative (organizational and staff, statutory, time-based, instructive, etc.) requirements for the structure of interaction (joint actions and communication).

II. Secondary factors:

(They act as intermediate variables, are controlled with the help of socio-psychological diagnostic tools and change, are formed with the help of special innovations in the structure of activity, communication and influence on the personality).

2.1. Leadership style (typical ways of management and communication of an official leader);

2.2. Individual-group level of military-professional readiness and service-combat experience;

2.3. Style of informal (positive and negative) leadership;

2.4. Individual and group dominant motivation (service, combat, training);

2.5. The structure of socio-psychological roles (intragroup, interpersonal, individual);

2.6. Interpersonal relationships (the nature of relationships, communication, or the moral and psychological climate, determined by the dominant emotional states, normative-value ideas and the real appeal of servicemen to each other, i.e., group moods, opinions, traditions, forms of group sanctions and the behavior of individual servicemen);

2.7. Harmony and compatibility of group members;

III. Dependent variables:

3.1. Operational efficiency (productivity, quality, resource costs, reliability).

3.2. Satisfaction of group members with activities and relationships, as well as their position in the group (themselves).

3.3. Professional and socio-psychological development (growth) of individual servicemen and the collective as a whole.

In the process of research, it is necessary to establish the existing empirical relationships between the indicators of dependent variables associated with the effectiveness of group processes and, on the other hand, indicators of primary and secondary factors.

In everyday life, increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system occurs when a person experiences stress and feels that they cannot cope with it.

Psychologists have found that stress has four types of consequences for the person who has experienced it: emotional, physiological, cognitive (associated with cognitive functions) and behavioral (behavioral).

Here are some examples of typical signs of stress:

Emotional Effects:

The person experiences feelings of anxiety and depression.

Physical tension increases.

Psychological tension increases.

Physiological effects:

Adrenaline and norepinephrine are released into the bloodstream.

Digestion is impaired.

The volume of inhaled air increases.

Heartbeats become more frequent.

The blood vessels become narrower.

Sleep is disturbed.

Cognitive Effects:

Decreased concentration of attention.

Absent-mindedness appears.

Short-term memory deteriorates.

Behavioral Effects:

Absence from work is increasing.

Labor productivity falls.

Physiology of stress.

General adaptation syndrome. Selye's 3 main stages:

1. Stage of reaction of anxiety. At this stage, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenaline system is activated. This system is activated when the hypothalamus begins to release the hormone corticotropin releasing factor, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland. As a result, the latter releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which triggers the release of glucocorticoid hormones by the adrenal cortex, which cause the stress response. Glucocorticoids get their name for their ability to alter glucose metabolism. They are able to break down protein and convert it into glucose, convert fat into energy, and increase blood flow. As a result of the described processes, the body is ready for active actions, for example, to fight or flight.

2. Stage of resistance. All physiological systems that deal with stress are fully activated. However, as this stage progresses, the parasympathetic nervous system (responsible for storing energy) encourages the use of resources more economically. Personal strategies for coping with stress are connected (for example, denial of the stressful nature of the situation).

3. Stage of exhaustion. The physiological systems responsible for the stress response become ineffective and the likelihood of developing stress-related diseases (eg, hypertension, asthma, heart disease) increases. In especially severe cases, the adrenal cortex grows, and the work of the immune system (in particular, the spleen and thymus - the thymus gland) is destroyed, possibly a stomach ulcer.

Also, under stress, the nervous system stimulates the release of hormones such as adrenaline and norepinephrine into the bloodstream. These hormones increase blood flow to muscles, increase heart rate and respiration, decrease digestive system activity, and increase blood clotting to reduce blood loss in the event of injury. Epinephrine affects glucose metabolism, preparing tissue nutrients for breakdown.

How do adrenaline and norepinephrine relate to stress?

The short-term effect of a stressor on the functioning of the sympathetic nervous and endocrine systems can be positive. Like glucocorticoids, epinephrine and norepinephrine arm a person or animal to fight or flight. When the state of mobilization of the body is delayed, hormones increase the intensity of the heart, which increases blood pressure and can develop heart disease.

The problem of adaptation.

Adaptation is a dynamic process due to which the mobile systems of living organisms, despite the variability of conditions, maintain the stability necessary for the existence, development and procreation. It is the adaptation mechanism, developed as a result of long-term evolution, that makes it possible for the organism to exist in constantly changing environmental conditions.

Thanks to the adaptation process, homeostasis is maintained during the interaction of the body with the outside world. In this regard, the adaptation processes include not only the optimization of the body's functioning, but also the maintenance of balance in the “organism-environment” system. The adaptation process is implemented every time when in the "organism-environment" system there are significant changes, and provides the formation of a new homeostatic state, which allows you to achieve maximum efficiency of physiological functions and behavioral responses. Since the organism and the environment are not in static, but in dynamic equilibrium, their ratios are constantly changing, and therefore must also constantly carry out the adaptation process.

The above applies equally to animals and humans. However, a significant difference between a person is that mental adaptation plays a decisive role in the process of maintaining adequate relations in the “individual-environment” system, during which all parameters of the system can change.

Mental adaptation is considered as a result of the activity of an integral self-governing system (at the level of "operational rest"), while emphasizing its systemic organization. But when viewed this way, the picture remains incomplete. But when viewed this way, the picture remains incomplete. It is necessary to include the concept of need in the wording. The maximum possible satisfaction of urgent needs is, therefore, an important criterion for the effectiveness of the adaptation process. Consequently, mental adaptation can be defined as the process of establishing the optimal correspondence between the personality and the environment during the implementation of the optimal correspondence between the individual and the environment during the implementation of human activity. A process that enables an individual to meet current needs and realize associated meaningful goals, while at the same time meeting the requirements of the environment.

Mental adaptation of a person is a continuous process, which, along with the actual mental adaptation (i.e. maintaining mental homeostasis), includes 2 more aspects:

a) optimization of the constant interaction of the individual with the environment;

b) establishing an adequate correspondence of an individual between mental and physiological characteristics.

The study of adaptation processes is closely related to the concept of emotional stress and stress. This served as the basis for defining stress as a nonspecific response of the body to the demands placed on it, and considering it as a general adaptation syndrome.

One of the stress factors is emotional tension, which is physiologically expressed in changes in the human endocrine system. For example, in experimental studies in patient clinics, it was found that people who are constantly in nervous tension, viral infections are more difficult to carry. In such cases, the help of a qualified psychologist is needed.

Key features of mental stress:

1) stress - the state of the body, its occurrence presupposes the interaction between the body and the environment;

2) stress is a more stressful state than the usual motivational one; it requires a threat to arise;

3) the phenomena of stress occur when the normal adaptive response is not enough.

Since stress arose mainly from the perception of a threat, its occurrence in a certain situation may arise for subjective reasons associated with the characteristics of a given personality.

In general, since individuals are not alike, a lot depends on the personality factor. For example, in the “person-environment” system, the level of emotional tension increases with the increase in the differences between the conditions in which the subject's mechanisms are formed. Thus, certain conditions cause emotional stress not because of their absolute rigidity, but as a result of the discrepancy between these conditions of the emotional mechanism of the individual.

In case of any violation of the balance "man-environment", the inadequacy of the individual's mental and physical resources to meet urgent needs or the mismatch of the system of needs itself is a source of anxiety.

Every day we are exposed to psychological pressure. Sometimes it’s annoying, and sometimes we don’t even know that we are being manipulated. Psychological impact is a powerful tool in the right hands. To master the techniques, you need to thoroughly study the personality traits and possible ways of influencing the consciousness of people.

What types of influence are there and how to protect yourself from other people's influence, we will talk in this article.

The concept of psychological impact

This is a complex and multifaceted term. In short, the psychological impact is the manipulation of the human subconscious, which occurs contrary to common sense. allow you to control human behavior.

At the dawn of civilization, shamans and tribal leaders possessed the skills of psychological influence. They used primitive methods: body language, voice intonations, rituals and drugs that cloud the mind.

With the development of science and technology, there are so many ways to manipulate the subconscious that each of us uses them every day and does not suspect it.

The goal of psychological impact

Regardless of the object (one person or a group), there is a specific goal of psychological impact behind the process:

Using other people to meet personal needs.
Gaining authority in the group.
Creation of the framework and standards of society.
Gaining a sense of meaning.
Proof of your existence.

Most manipulation attempts are based on selfish goals. We see a person who is emotionally weaker than us, and we strive to subdue him. One needs to be listened to, the other to carry out assignments for him. These are the goals that we achieve through psychological influence.

Some use this skill for good purposes, others are driven by selfishness. But in the first and in the second case, the true goal is to prove their own importance to society and to establish the fact of their existence. Psychology does not distinguish between good and bad motives; it studies methods and methods of influence, discovering new facts.

It is difficult to see through a skillful master, especially if he acts on you and your environment. Convincing several people in practice is easier than one. This is the fault of the herd feeling and the development of the media. We blindly believe in what we are told on TV.

Methods of psychological influence

Diverse. Politicians and dictators are fluent in each of them:

Belief. Impact with arguments.
Self-promotion. Demonstrating your advantages over other people to gain the trust of others.
Suggestion. Impact with no arguments.
Infection. Transferring your feelings and emotions to other people.
Stimulating the desire to imitate. With words and actions, awaken people to imitate you.
Inducing favor. Convincing your good intentions and goals.
Request. Expressing your desires and asking for their satisfaction.
Compulsion. Pressure and intimidation with threats.
Destructive criticism. Suppression of the person's personality, ridicule and insult of the person.
Manipulation. Indirect awakening to action or judgment.

The types of psychological influence have similar and different features, some are suitable for achieving a quick result, others for influencing a person over time.

Psychological tools

It's one thing when a person is nearby and you can convince him with words, eyes, movements, intonation. But what if the goal is the consciousness of an audience of people in different cities and even countries.

For this, tools of psychological influence are used:

Military means.
Trade and financial sanctions.
Political means.
Fine and.
MEDIA.
Internet.

Managing the masses with these tools leads to overwhelming results. We are used to believing what we read on the Internet and see on TV, and it would never occur to us that this is another method of psychological influence. Let's take as an example the canons of beauty that were 50 years ago and exist now. Both were dictated by fashion through the media to sell their products.

Belief

This method has three components: thesis, arguments, and demonstration. First, you formulate a specific position - this is the thesis, then form the arguments, and at the end, using a demonstration, you convince the target audience.

The method is very effective if you know the secrets of persuasion:

terms and arguments should be as simple and understandable as possible;
use only those facts that you are sure of the veracity;
take into account the personality traits of the interlocutor;
conduct a conversation without discussing other people;
your speech should be simple, without complex epithets and catchphrases.

Much of your success depends on the arguments you present. The effect is possessed by those arguments that are supported by well-known facts, relate specifically to the topic of the conversation, are interesting to the interlocutor and have not lost their relevance.

Suggestion

This method has no arguments or facts. He acts on a person differently. With its help, you can impose your opinion on a person and force them to act in your interests.

Suggestion is direct and indirect. In the first case, you express your point of view directly and expect obedience. This method is used by parents, educators, teachers. In the second case, techniques are selected that subtly nudge them into action. This is the method used by advertisers.

The following factors affect the effectiveness of suggestion:

the age of the person or target audience;
condition (tiredness, fatigue);
your authority;
the type of personality of a person who is psychologically influenced.

Infection

This is the third main method of influencing the personality. It is aimed at a multitude of people, not at one individual. Religious sects and fan clubs are a striking example of psychological influence through infection.

The fact that there is a method of infection, people knew at the dawn of civilized society, when mass rituals with ritual dances and entering a trance were carried out around the idol or altar.

Today this method is widely studied. It is better known as mass psychology or crowd phenomenon. A rare individual will be able to resist the general impulse and go against the crowd.

Infection can be determined by the following signs:

blackout;
transition to a state of unconsciousness;
orientation of thoughts and feelings in one direction;
the desire to implement ideas into reality right here and now;
loss of personality;
disable logic;
unwillingness to be responsible for their actions.

Persuasion, suggestion and infection are the “three whales” on which psychological influence is based. But other methods are popular among those who wish to control the behavior and minds of people.

Methods of protection from psychological influences

Today, each of us has access to information about the methods of psychological influence and how to master them, therefore, suggested people often have to be a puppet in someone's hands and fulfill his requests and wishes. In order not to find yourself in such a situation, one should be able to resist manipulators and maintain a sobriety of mind.

Methods of protection from psychological influence:

In any situation, you should analyze whether you need to obey the words of another person or not, what will be the benefit from this. In most cases, you will not be able to specifically answer the question of why you need to do something. And this is the first sign that they want to influence you;
rational approach. If you are asked to perform specific actions, then suggest your own option, which will be more convenient for you. This will lead the manipulator into a stupor, and he will lose power over you;
belief in one's own righteousness. If they are trying to impose someone else's opinion on you, do not blindly believe someone else's words. It is better to analyze the provided arguments, compare with your own;
Change your behavior. Manipulators read information about the characteristics of your personality from the manner of communication and behavior. Lead such people to a standstill by trying on different roles;

distrust should become your habit. We are not talking about close people who wish you well. But if a stranger or work colleague suddenly begins to take an interest in you and impose his communication, be wary and try to notice signs of a manipulator in his words and behavior;
analyze past mistakes. Focus on situations where you have been manipulated. Think about how you allowed this and what to do in order not to repeat the sad experience;
demand an explanation. If you are being persuaded to do something, ask a lot of questions. The manipulator will betray himself if he tries to deceive you, to evade an answer;
do not do what is expected of you. Often, when we first meet, we show ourselves better than we really are. People around you take advantage of this situation, and you have to fulfill their requests in order not to lose confidence. But you have the right to change and there is no need to act to the detriment of yourself and to please others;
do not test. This is a powerful incentive to make you obey. Accept your mistakes and do not let others pressure you with memories of the past.

Psychological influence can work wonders: help loved ones, change them for the better. But greedy individuals use it for selfish purposes, so it is worth protecting yourself and your family from negative influences.