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The first theory of international trade was. Basic theories of international trade

Traditional and more developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. Trade accounts for about 80% of the total volume of international economic relations.

For any country role foreign trade hard to overestimate. According to the definition of J. Sachs, "the state success of any country in the world is based on foreign trade. No country has yet managed to create a healthy economy, isolating itself from the world economic program." Through trade, countries are able to specialize in several key areas of the economy. they have the opportunity to import products that they do not produce themselves. In addition, trade contributes to the spread of new ideas and technologies.

Modern theories international trade have their own history. The question is why do countries trade with each other? - was set by economists simultaneously with the emergence in the early 17th century. early schools of economic thought.

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of MRI, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. International trade is the total turnover between all countries of the world. Each state faces a choice in determining the main non-state national policy in the field of foreign trade, which in general can be defined as a choice between free trade and protectionism. The need for choice involves the study of the theory of this issue. The main classical theories of international trade are:

1. Mercantilist theory.

2. The theory of absolute advantages.

3. Theory comparative advantage.

4. The theory of the ratio of factors of production and how its refutation of the Leontiev paradox.

Mercantilist theory. It originated in the era of the great geographical discoveries when the discovery of new lands with their natural resources (the main one was gold) led to the seizure of territories, the formation of colonies. The national economies of Europe were strengthened by capturing new territories and dividing spheres of influence.

Mercantilists (Thomas Man (1571-1641), Charlie Davinant, John Baptiste Colbert, William Petty) were the first to propose a coherent theory of international trade. They believed that the wealth of countries depends on the quality of the gold and silver they possess, and they believe that:

1) should withdraw more goods than enter, this will ensure the influx of gold as payments, which will increase domestic production, domestic spending and increase the level of employment of its population.

2) to regulate foreign trade in such a way as to increase the share of exports and reduce the share of imports; the purpose of such regulation is to obtain a positive trade balance with the help of tariffs, quotas and other instruments of trade policy.

3) the need to prohibit or strictly organize the export of raw materials and allow duty-free imports of raw materials. This was supposed to allow the accumulation of gold reserves in the country and keep export prices for finished products low.

4) it is necessary to prohibit all trade of the colonies with other countries, except with the mother country. Such a situation will undoubtedly ensure only the mother country the right to sell colonial goods abroad, and the colonies will turn into suppliers of raw materials and materials.

According to the mercantilist theory, the wealth of one country can only be increased at the expense of the impoverishment of another; the growth of wealth is only possible through redistribution. In order to provide the state with a worthy place in the world, a strong state machine is occupied, which includes the army, military and merchant fleet and which can provide superiority over other countries.

One of the first critics of the mercantilist theory was the English economist David Hume. (An influx of gold as a result of a positive trade balance will increase the domestic money supply and increase wages and prices. As a result of rising prices, the country's competitiveness has decreased, etc.).

The theory of absolute advantages.(Chief Representative Adam Smith). According to this theory, international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each country produces at a lower cost than the partner country. Countries export those goods in the production of which they have advantages, and import those in the production of which the advantage belongs to their trading partners. In accordance with the views of A. Smith:

1) the government should not interfere in foreign trade, but should maintain a free trade regime;

2) states and individuals should specialize in the production of those goods in the production of which they have advantages, and trade them in exchange for goods, the advantages in the production of which they do not have;

3) foreign trade stimulates the development of labor productivity by expanding the market outside the state;

4) export is a positive factor for the economy, because ensures the sale of surplus products; export subsidies are a tax on the population and lead to higher domestic prices and should therefore be abolished.

The theory of absolute advantage is that countries export goods that they produce at lower cost and import goods that other countries produce at lower cost.

The theory of comparative advantage. Ch. representative - David Ricardo. The theory of comparative advantage is that countries specialize in the production of those goods that they will produce at a relatively lower cost compared to other countries. In this case, trade will be mutually beneficial for both countries, regardless of whether production in one of them is absolutely more efficient than in the other. The price of an imported good is determined by the price of the good that must be exported to pay for the import, so the final price ratio in trade is determined by the domestic demand for the goods in one of the trading countries. As a result of trade based on comparative advantage, one of the countries receives a positive economic effect, called the gain from trade. The gain from trade is the economic effect that each of the countries participating in trade receives if it specializes in trade in the product in the production of which it has a relative advantage.

Theory of the ratio of factors of production.(Representatives - Henscher and Ohlin). Essence - the difference in the relative prices of goods in different countries, and therefore, economic trade between them is explained by the different relative endowment of countries with production factors. Each country exports those goods for the production of which it has a relatively surplus of factors of production, and imports those goods for the production of which it experiences a relative shortage of factors of production. International trade leads to the equalization of absolute and relative prices not only for goods, but also for factors of production in trading countries.

The theory of different relative endowment with factors of production as a basis for international trade is presented in the form of two interrelated theorems: the Heckshir-Ohlin theories and the theories of leveling prices for factors of production (P. Samuelson).

Leontief's paradox. Numerous empirical tests have cast doubt on the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.

Leontief's paradox lies in the fact that, contrary to theory, labor-saturated countries export capital-intensive products, while capital-saturated countries export labor-intensive ones. However, Leontief's paradox left numerous questions unanswered, and other empirical studies that took into account the qualification composition work force and covered a wider range of countries confirmed the validity of the theory of comparative advantage. But the Leontief paradox continues to serve as a serious warning against the straightforward use of the Heckshir-Ohlin theory.

Theories of international trade have undergone a certain process of development. The main questions they tried to answer were "what is the reason for the division of labor between states" and "on what basis is the most effective international specialization chosen."

Classical theories of international trade

Theory of Comparative Advantage

The first theories were laid down by the founders of the classical economic theory Smith and Ricardo in the 18th - early 19th centuries.

Thus, Smith laid the foundation for the theory that the reason for the development of international trade is the benefit that importers and exporters can receive from the exchange of their goods. He also developed the theory absolute advantage': a country has this advantage if it has a commodity that it, relying on own resources, can produce one more unit than the other. Such advantages can be natural (climate, soil fertility, natural resources) or acquired (technology, equipment, etc.).

The benefit that a country will receive from international trade will consist in an increase in consumption, which will occur due to a change in its structure and specialization.

Riccardo's comparative cost theory, developed and supplemented by Haberler

It considers 2 countries that produce 2 types of goods. For each country, a curve is constructed that clearly shows which production is more profitable for each country. This theory is simplified, it shows only 2 countries and 2 goods, proceeds from the condition of unlimited trade and labor mobility within the country, as well as from the presence of permanent production costs, no transport costs and no technical change. That is why the theory is considered quite illustrative, but not very suitable for reflecting the real conditions of the economy.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory

This theory, created in the 20th century, was intended to reflect the features of trade based to a greater extent on the exchange of manufactured goods (because of this, the dependence of countries' trade on their natural resources has significantly decreased). According to their theory of international trade, the differences in costs incurred by countries in the manufacture of products are explained by the fact that:

in the production of different products, factors are used in different ratios;
countries are very differently provided with the necessary factors of production;

From this follows the law of proportionality of factors, which reads as follows: for each state wants to specialize in the production of the goods that require the presence of those with which it is well endowed. in fact, it is an exchange of those factors that are in excess for those that are rarer for this country.

Leontief's paradox

In the late 40s of the 20th century, the economist Leontiev, while empirically verifying the conclusions of the previous theory on the basis of data American economy came to an unexpected paradoxical result: mainly labor-intensive products were exported to the United States, while capital-intensive products were imported. This was contrary to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory of international trade, since in the United States capital, on the contrary, was considered a much more abundant factor than labor costs. Leontiev suggested that in any combination with a given amount of capital resources, 1 man-year of American labor is equal to 3 man-years of foreign labor, which was associated with a higher qualification level American workers. According to the statistics he collected, the United States exported goods whose production required a more skilled labor force than imported ones. Based on this study, in 1956 a model was created that took into account 3 factors: skilled labor, low-skilled labor and capital.

Modern theories of international trade

These theories try to explain the features of international trade in the modern world, which no longer obey the logic of the classical theory of international trade. This is due to the fact that it occupies an increasing place in the economy, the volume of counter deliveries of goods similar in quality is increasing.

Theory life cycle goods

The life stage of a product is the period during which it has value in the market and is in demand. The stages of a product's life are product introduction, growth, maturity (sales peak) and decline. When a product ceases to satisfy the needs of its market, it begins to be exported to less

Theory of economies of scale

The main essence of this effect is that with a special technology and the level of organization of production, the average long-term costs will decrease as the volume of output of the goods increases, making savings. It is profitable to sell the surplus produced goods to other countries.

Questions of the effectiveness of foreign trade are among the fundamental problems of economic theory, on which economic thought has been working for the past three centuries. The development of foreign trade is reflected in the evolution of theories, models, concepts that explain the driving forces of this process.

The first attempt to create a theory of international trade, combining trade relations with domestic economic development, was made by mercantilists. Mercantilism theory was based on the idea that the wealth of a country depends on the amount of gold and silver. In this regard, the mercantilists believed that in the field of foreign trade it is necessary to maintain an active trade balance and implement state regulation foreign trade activities in order to increase exports and reduce imports.

Mercantilist theories of international trade gave rise to a direction of economic policy that has outlived it and remains relevant today - protectionism. The policy of protectionism consists in the active protection by the state of the interests of the domestic economy, as they are understood by this or that government.

As a result of the mercantilist policy, using the instruments of protectionism, complex systems customs duties, taxes, barriers that ran counter to the needs of the emerging capitalist economy. Moreover, the static theory of mercantilism was based on the principle of enriching one country by reducing the welfare of other nations.

The next stage in the development of the theory of international trade is associated with the name of A. Smith - the creator absolute advantage theory. A. Smith believed that the task of the government is not to regulate the sphere of circulation, but to implement measures to develop production on the basis of cooperation and division of labor, taking into account the support of the free trade regime. The essence of the theory of absolute advantage is that international trade is profitable if two countries trade in goods that each produces at a lower cost.

The theory of absolute advantages is only part of the general economic doctrine of A. Smith, the ideologist of economic liberalism. From this doctrine follows the policy of free trade, opposed to protectionism.

Modern economists see the strength of the theory of absolute advantages in that it shows the clear advantages of the division of labor not only at the national level, but also at the international level. Weak side this theory: it does not explain why countries trade even in the absence of absolute advantages.

The answer to this question was found by another English economist D. Ricardo, who discovered law of comparative advantage, which says: the basis for the emergence and development of international trade can serve as an exceptional difference in the costs of production of goods, regardless of absolute values.

The role and significance of the law of comparative advantage is evidenced by the fact that for many decades it remained predominant in explaining efficiency. foreign trade turnover and had a profound effect on all economic science.

However, D. Ricardo left unanswered the question of the origin of the comparative advantages that form prerequisites for the development of international trade. In addition, the limitations of this law include those assumptions that were introduced by its creator: one production factor was taken into account - labor, production costs were considered constant, the production factor was mobile within the country and immobile outside it, there were no transportation costs.

During the 19th century the labor theory of value (created by D. Ricardo and developed by K. Marx) gradually lost its popularity, faced with competition from other teachings; at the same time there were big changes in the system international division labor and international trade, caused by a decrease in the role of natural differences and an increase in the importance of industrial production. As a response to the challenge of the time, neoclassical economists E. Heckscher and B. Olin created factor theory: mathematical calculations on it are given by P. Samuelson. This theory can be represented by two interrelated theorems.

The first of these, explaining the structure of international trade, not only recognizes that trade is based on comparative advantages, but also derives the reason for comparative advantages from the difference in endowment with factors of production.

Second - factor price equalization theorem Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson - affects the effect of international trade on factorial prices. The essence of this theorem is that the economy will be relatively more efficient by producing goods that make more intensive use of factors that are abundant in a given country.

The limitation of the theory is due to many assumptions. It was assumed that returns to scale are constant, factors are mobile inside the country and immobile outside it, competition is perfect, there are no transport costs, tariffs and other obstacles.

It can be noted that in the field of analysis of foreign trade until the middle of the 20th century. economic thought concentrated more on the study of the supply of goods and factors of production and did not pay due attention to demand due to the emphasis on considering the reduction in production costs.

The theory of comparative advantage has become the starting point not only for the development of the theory of factors of production, but also for two other areas, the specificity of which is determined by the fact that they pay attention not only to supply, but also to demand.

In this context, the first direction is associated with the theory of mutual demand, created by the follower of D. Ricardo J.St. Mill, who derived the law of international value, showing at what price goods are exchanged between countries: the greater the external value for the goods of a given country and the less capital is used to produce export goods, the more favorable the country's terms of trade will be. Further development of this theory was obtained in general equilibrium models created by A. Marshall and F. Edgeworth.

D. Ricardo's law also determined the development opportunity cost theory. The prerequisite for its creation was that the facts of economic life were in conflict with the labor theory of value.

In addition, replacement costs are not constant, as in the theory of comparative advantage, but growing according to a pattern known from general economic theory and in accordance with economic realities.

The foundations of the theory of opportunity costs were laid by G. Haeberler and F. Edgeworth.

This theory was based on the fact that:

curves production possibilities(or transformation curves) have a negative slope and show that the actual ratio of the output of different goods is different for each country, which encourages them to trade with each other;
if the curves match, then trading is based on differences in tastes and preferences;
supply is determined by the curve of the marginal level of transformation, and demand is determined by the curve of the marginal level of substitution;
the equilibrium price at which trade is conducted is determined by the ratio of relative world supply and demand.

Thus, comparative advantage is proven not only from labor theory cost, but also from the theory of opportunity costs. The latter showed that there is no complete specialization of the country in the field of foreign trade, since after reaching an equilibrium price in mutual trade, further specialization of each of the countries loses its economic meaning.

Despite the fundamental nature and the evidence presented, the considered theories were constantly tested on the basis of various empirical data. The first study of the theory of comparative advantage was carried out in the early 1950s by McDougall, who confirmed the law of comparative advantage and showed a positive relationship between the equation of labor productivity in individual industries and the share of their products in total exports. Under the conditions of globalization and internationalization of world economic relations, basic theories cannot always explain the existing multivariance of international trade. In this regard, an active search for new theories that provide answers to various questions of international trade practice continues. These studies can be divided into two large groups. The first, using a neofactorial approach, is based on the assertion that traditional theories require clarification in particular regarding the quantity of factors of production and their quality.

Within this direction, the following models, hypotheses and concepts have been developed and proposed.

The study carried out by V. Leontiev in 1956 served as the basis for the emergence of a skilled labor model developed by D. Kising, who proved that not two, but three factors are used in production: skilled, unskilled labor and capital. In this regard, the unit costs for the production of export goods are calculated for each of the groups separately.
The theory of specific factors of production by P. Samuelson showed that international trade is based on differences in relative prices for goods, which in turn arise due to varying degrees of availability of factors of production, moreover, factors specific to the export sector develop, and factors specific to the import-competing sector is shrinking.
An important place in this direction is given to the issue of distribution of income from international trade. This question was developed in the Stolper-Samuelson, Rybchinsky, Samuelson-Jones theorems.
The Swedish economist S. Linder, who created the theory of intersecting demand, suggests that the similarity of tastes and preferences enhances foreign trade, since countries export goods for which there is a capacious domestic market. The limitation of this theory is due to the fact that it manifests itself with a uniform distribution of income between individual groups of countries.

The second group of studies, formed on the basis of the neotechnological approach, analyzes situations that are not covered by the presented theories, rejects the position on the decisive importance of differences in factors or technologies, and requires new alternative models and concepts.

Within the framework of this direction, the advantages of a country or a company are determined not by the focus on factors and not by the intensity of the spent factors, but by the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology. A number of new models have been created here, developing and enriching the theory of international trade from the side of both demand and supply.

1. Theory of economies of scale substantiated in the works of P. Krugman: the effect of scale makes it possible to explain trade between countries equally endowed with factors of production, similar goods, provided that perfect competition. At the same time, the external effect of scale implies an increase in the number of firms producing the same product, while the size of each of them remains unchanged, which leads to perfect competition. Internal economies of scale contribute to imperfect competition, where producers can influence the price of their products and increase sales by lowering the price. In addition, a special place is given to the analysis of large firms - transnational companies (TNCs), due to the fact that a company that produces products on the most cost-effective scale occupies a dominant position in the world market, and world trade gravitates toward gigantic international monopolies.

The neotechnological school connects the main advantages with the monopoly positions of the firm (country) - innovator and proposes a new strategy: to produce not what is relatively cheaper, but what everyone or many people need and what no one else can produce yet. At the same time, many economists are supporters of this direction, in contrast to the supporters of the comparative advantage model, believe that the state can and should support the production of high-tech export goods and not interfere with the curtailment of the production of other obsolete ones.

2. Intra-industry trade model based on the postulates of the theory of economies of scale. Intra-industry exchange provides additional benefits from foreign trade relations due to market expansion. In this case, a country can simultaneously reduce the number of goods it produces, but increase the number consumed. By producing a smaller set of goods, a country realizes economies of scale, increasing productivity and reducing costs. A significant contribution to the development of the theory was made by P. Krutman and B. Balassa.

Intra-industry exchange is associated with the theory of similarity, which explains the cross-trade of comparable goods belonging to the same industry. In this regard, the role of the acquired advantages associated with the development and implementation of new technologies is increasing. According to the theory of similarity of countries in this situation, a developed country has a greater opportunity to adapt its products to the markets of similar countries.

3. Supporters dynamic models as initial theoretical foundations they simultaneously use the Ricardian explanation of the international exchange of technological differences and the theses of J. Shum-Peter on the decisive role of innovation. They believe that countries differ not only in the availability of production resources, but also in the level of technical development.

One of the first among the dynamic models is the theory of the technological gap by M. Posner, who believed that as a result of the emergence of technological innovations, a “technological gap” is formed between countries that have them and do not have them.

4. Life cycle theory R. Vernon explains the specialization of countries in the production and export of the same product at different stages of maturity. In the Asia-Pacific region, where continuous process sequential passage of certain phases economic development, the concept of “flying geese” by K. Akamatsu took shape and was confirmed by practice, according to which a hierarchy of international exchanges is formed, corresponding to different levels development groups of countries.

It examines the links between two groups of characteristics;

evolution of imports - domestic production - exports;
transfer from consumer goods to capital-intensive from simple industrial products to more complex ones.

On the present stage special attention is paid to the problem of combining the interests of the national economy and large firms - participants in international trade. This direction solves the problems of competitiveness at the level of the state and firm. So, M. Porter calls the main criteria of competitiveness factor conditions, demand conditions, the state of service industries, the company's strategy in a certain competitive situation. At the same time, M. Porter notes that the theory of comparative advantage is applicable only to basic factors such as undeveloped physical resources and unskilled labor. In the presence of developed factors (modern infrastructure, digital exchange of information, highly educated personnel, research of individual universities), this theory cannot fully explain the specifics of foreign trade practice.

M. Porter also puts forward a rather radical position, according to which, in the era of transnationalization, one should not talk about trade between countries at all, since it is not countries that trade, but firms. Apparently, in relation to our time, when different countries to one degree or another, protectionist mechanisms are used when brands like “made in USA”, “Italian furniture”, “white assembly”, etc. still retain their attractiveness, such a situation is still premature, although it clearly reflects a real trend.

5. Complements the neo-technological analysis of the factors of the international division of labor concept of I. B. Kreyvis, which uses the concepts of price elasticity of demand and supply, which measure the sensitivity of demand to price changes. According to Cravis, each country imports goods that it is either unable to produce itself or can produce in limited quantities and whose supply is elastic, while at the same time exporting goods with a highly elastic production that exceeds local needs. As a result, a country's foreign trade is determined by the comparative level of elasticity of the national and external supply of goods, as well as by higher rates of technological progress in export industries.

In conclusion, we note that at the present stage of the theory of international trade, they pay equal attention to both supply and demand, they seek to explain the practical issues that arise in the course of foreign trade between countries, modifying the international trade system, and are formed on the basis of the criterion for clarifying factors and their quantity, as well as the monopoly position of the innovator in terms of technology.

The deepening of globalization processes in world economic relations confirms the viability of all theories, and practice - the need for their constant modification.

International economic relations

The most important feature of the functioning of the world economy throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and especially in the second half of the last century, is the progressive development of world economic relations. Its essence is that the movement towards economic independence and the strengthening of individual national economies inevitably leads to a growing internationalization of economic life, an increase in the degree of openness of national economies and an increase in their interdependence based on a further deepening of the international division of labor.

International economic relations are a complex and contradictory system of economic relations both between individual states, their regional and other associations, and between companies within the world economy. The most important links in international economic relations are international trade in goods and services, international movement of capital, international monetary relations and international labor migration.

Theories of international trade

The development of world trade is based on the benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. The theory of international trade gives an idea of what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows.

International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, improve the welfare of the population.

Mercantilist theory of international trade. It arose during the period of primitive accumulation of capital and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of the nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

Trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain the maximum benefit, it was proposed to increase state intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers to international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and restrict imports by introducing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

A. Smith's theory of absolute advantages. In his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in a polemic with the mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries - participants in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods in which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

The theory of comparative advantage D. Ricardo and D.S. Mill. In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case. general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

The advantages that countries have are not given once and for all, D. Ricardo believed, therefore, even countries with absolutely higher levels of production costs can benefit from trade exchange. It is in the interests of each country to specialize in production in which it has the greatest advantage and the least weakness, and for which not absolute, but relative benefit is the greatest - such is the law of comparative advantage of D. Ricardo. According to Ricardo, total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity (opportunity) costs. Thus, relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (opportunity) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit.

Subsequently, D. S. Mill, in his work "The Foundations of Political Economy", gave explanations at what price the exchange is carried out. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports - such is the law of international value.

Heckscher-Ohlin theory. This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in the countries participating in international trade.

The main provisions of their theory boiled down to the following: firstly, countries tend to export those goods for the manufacture of which the factors of production available in the country are used in excess, and, conversely, to import goods, the production of which requires relatively rare factors; secondly, in international trade there is a tendency to equalize "factorial prices"; thirdly, the export of goods can be replaced by the movement of factors of production across national borders.

However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade in "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

Leontief's paradox. These are the studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. These labor-intensive goods were also exported, although the United States experienced an excess of capital, not labor.

Theory of the product life cycle. It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, a product from the moment it enters the market to the time it leaves it goes through a series of stages that make up its life cycle, and the international movement of goods occurs depending on a certain stage of the life cycle.

So, at the implementation stage, innovation is developed, production, marketing and export are established. This stage is characterized by increased labor intensity of the product. Further, at the stage of growth, there is a transition to large-scale production and a tendency to increase the capital intensity of production is manifested, prerequisites are created for organizing production abroad - first in developed countries, and then in other countries. At the stage of maturity, production is already carried out in many countries, and in the country of innovation, market saturation begins to be felt. There are conditions for large-scale production in developing countries with the export of innovations. Finally, the stage of decline (from an international standpoint) is characterized by a narrowing of the market for this product in developed countries, where the largest companies in developed countries begin production and promotion of new, more advanced products to the market.

Theory of M. Porter. Among the main problems of foreign trade is the combination of the interests of national economies and the interests of firms participating in international trade. According to Porter's theory, this is due to how individual firms in specific countries gain competitive advantages in world trade in certain goods in specific industries. M. Porter, based on the study of the practice of companies in 10 leading industrial countries, which account for half of world exports, put forward the concept of "international competitiveness of nations". He identifies four attributes of a country that form competitive environment, the so-called "national rhombus". The competitiveness of a country in international exchange is determined by the impact and relationship of the following main components: 1) factor conditions; 2) demand conditions; 3) the state of service and related industries; 4) the company's strategy in a certain competitive situation.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. Artificial dominance of enterprises through state support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision that leads to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for the development of recommendations at the state level to improve the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Dynamics and structure of international trade

international trade theory

International trade is a form of exchange of products of labor in the form of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. The characteristics of international trade are the volume of world trade, the commodity structure of exports and imports and its dynamics, as well as the geographical structure of international trade.

Export is the sale of goods to a foreign buyer with its export abroad.

Import - purchase from foreign sellers of goods with its import from abroad.

Modern international trade is developing at a fairly high pace. Among the main trends in the development of international trade are the following:

1. There is a predominant development of trade in comparison with the branches of material production and the entire world economy as a whole.
2. In the structure of international trade, the share of manufacturing products is growing (up to 75%), of which more than 40% are engineering products. Only 14% is fuel and other raw materials, the share of agricultural products is about 9%, clothing and textiles - 3%.
3. Among the changes in the geographical direction of international trade flows, there is an increase in the role of developed countries and China. However, developing countries (mainly due to the promotion of new industrial countries with a pronounced export orientation from among them) managed to significantly increase their influence in this area.
4. The most important direction in the development of foreign trade is intracompany trade within TNCs. According to some data, intra-company international deliveries account for up to 70% of all world trade, 80-90% of sales of licenses and patents. Since TNCs are the most important link in the world economy, world trade is at the same time trade within TNCs.
5. Trade in services is expanding, and in several ways. Firstly, this is a cross-border supply, for example, distance learning. Another way of supplying services - consumption abroad - involves the movement of the consumer or the transfer of his property to the country where the service is provided, for example, the service of a guide on a tourist trip. The third way is a commercial presence, such as the operation of a foreign bank or restaurant in the country. And the fourth way is moving individuals who are service providers abroad, such as doctors or teachers. The most developed countries of the world are the leaders in trade in services.

Based on the benefits it brings to participating countries. The theory of international trade gives an idea of what is the basis of this gain from foreign trade, or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows. International trade serves as a tool through which countries, by developing their specialization, can increase the productivity of available resources and thus increase the volume of goods and services they produce, improve the welfare of the population.

Many well-known economists dealt with international trade issues. The main theories of international trade - Mercantilist theory, A. Smith's Theory of absolute advantages, D. Ricardo's and D. S. Mill's Theory of comparative advantages, Heckscher-Ohlin theory, Leontief's paradox, Product life cycle theory, M. Porter's theory, Rybchinsky's theorem, and also The Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

Mercantilist theory.

Mercantilism is a system of views of economists of the XV-XVII centuries, focused on the active intervention of the state in economic activity. Representatives of the direction: Thomas Maine, Antoine de Montchretien, William Stafford. The term was proposed by Adam Smith, who criticized the writings of the mercantilists. The mercantilist theory of international trade arose during the period of primitive accumulation of capital and the great geographical discoveries, based on the idea that the presence of gold reserves is the basis of the prosperity of the nation. Foreign trade, the mercantilists believed, should be focused on obtaining gold, since in the case of a simple commodity exchange, ordinary goods, being used, cease to exist, and gold accumulates in the country and can be reused for international exchange.

Trading was considered as a zero-sum game, when the gain of one participant automatically means the loss of the other, and vice versa. To obtain the maximum benefit, it was proposed to increase state intervention and control over the state of foreign trade. The trade policy of the mercantilists, called protectionism, was to create barriers in international trade that protect domestic producers from foreign competition, stimulate exports and restrict imports by imposing customs duties on foreign goods and receiving gold and silver in return for their goods.

The main provisions of the Mercantilist theory of international trade:

The need to maintain an active trade balance of the state (excess of exports over imports);

Recognition of the benefits of bringing gold and other precious metals in order to improve her well-being;

Money is a stimulus to trade, since an increase in the mass of money is considered to increase the volume of merchandise;

Welcome protectionism aimed at importing raw materials and semi-finished products and exporting finished products;

Restriction on the export of luxury goods, as it leads to the leakage of gold from the state.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage.

In his work An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, in a polemic with the mercantilists, Smith formulated the idea that countries are interested in the free development of international trade, since they can benefit from it regardless of whether they are exporters or importers. Each country should specialize in the production of the product where it has an absolute advantage - a benefit based on different amounts of production costs in individual countries - participants in foreign trade. The refusal to produce goods in which countries do not have absolute advantages, and the concentration of resources on the production of other goods lead to an increase in total production volumes, an increase in the exchange of products of their labor between countries.

Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage suggests that a country's real wealth consists of the goods and services available to its citizens. If any country can produce this or that product more and cheaper than other countries, then it has an absolute advantage. Some countries may produce goods more efficiently than others. The country's resources flow into profitable industries, as the country cannot compete in unprofitable industries. This leads to an increase in the productivity of the country, as well as the qualification of the workforce; long periods of production of homogeneous products provide incentives for the development of more efficient methods of work.

Natural advantages for a single country: climate; territory; resources. Acquired advantages for a single country: production technology, that is, the ability to manufacture a variety of products.

The theory of comparative advantage D. Ricardo and D.S. Mill.

In his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Ricardo showed that the principle of absolute advantage is only a special case of the general rule, and substantiated the theory of comparative (relative) advantage. When analyzing the directions of development of foreign trade, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, economic resources - natural, labor, etc. - are unevenly distributed among countries, and secondly, the efficient production of various goods requires different technologies or combinations of resources.

According to Ricardo, total output will be greatest when each good is produced by the country that has the lowest opportunity (opportunity) costs. Thus, relative advantage is a benefit based on lower opportunity (opportunity) costs in the exporting country. Hence, as a result of specialization and trade, both countries participating in the exchange will benefit. An example in this case is the exchange of English cloth for Portuguese wine, which benefits both countries, even if the absolute costs of production of both cloth and wine in Portugal are lower than in England.

Subsequently, D.S. Mill, in his Foundations of Political Economy, explained the price at which exchange takes place. According to Mill, the price of exchange is set by the laws of supply and demand at such a level that the aggregate of each country's exports pays for the aggregate of its imports - such is the law of international value.

The Heckscher-Ohlin Theory.

This theory of scientists from Sweden, which appeared in the 30s of the twentieth century, refers to the neoclassical concepts of international trade, since these economists did not adhere to the labor theory of value, considering capital and land to be productive along with labor. Therefore, the reason for their trade is the different availability of factors of production in the countries participating in international trade.

The neoclassical concept of Heckscher - Ohlin turned out to be convenient for explaining the reasons for the development of trade between developed and developing countries, when machinery and equipment were imported into developing countries in exchange for raw materials coming to developed countries. However, not all phenomena of international trade fit into the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, since today the center of gravity of international trade is gradually shifting to mutual trade in "similar" goods between "similar" countries.

Leontief's paradox.

These are the studies of an American economist who questioned the provisions of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory and showed that in the post-war period the US economy specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor rather than capital. The essence of Leontief's paradox was that the share of capital-intensive goods in exports could grow, while labor-intensive goods could decrease. In fact, when analyzing the US trade balance, the share of labor-intensive goods did not decrease.

The resolution of Leontief's paradox was that the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the cost of goods is much lower than in US exports. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant impact on the price of labor in export deliveries. The share of labor-intensive supplies in US exports is growing, confirming Leontief's paradox. This is due to the growth in the share of services, labor costs and the structure of the US economy. This leads to an increase in the labor intensity of the entire American economy, not excluding exports.

Product Life Cycle Theory.

It was put forward and substantiated by R. Vernoy, C. Kindelberger and L. Wels. In their opinion, the product from the moment it enters the market until it leaves it goes through a cycle consisting of five stages:

Product development. The company finds and implements new idea goods. At this time, sales zero, costs are rising.

Bringing goods to market. There is no profit due to the high costs of marketing activities, sales volume is growing slowly;

Quickly conquer the market, increase profits;

Maturity. Sales growth is slowing down, as the bulk of consumers have already been attracted. The level of profit remains unchanged or decreases due to an increase in the cost of marketing activities to protect the product from competition;

decline. Decline in sales and shrinking profits.

Theory of M. Porter.

This theory introduces the concept of a country's competitiveness. It is national competitiveness, according to Porter, that determines the success or failure in specific industries and the place that the country occupies in the world economy. National competitiveness is determined by the ability of the industry. At the core of the explanation competitive advantage The role of the home country lies in stimulating renewal and improvement (that is, in stimulating the production of innovations).

Government measures to maintain competitiveness:

Government impact on factor conditions;

Government influence on demand conditions;

Government impact on related and supporting industries;

The impact of government on the strategy, structure and rivalry of firms.

A serious incentive to success in the global market is sufficient competition in the domestic market. The artificial dominance of enterprises through government support, from Porter's point of view, is a negative decision, leading to waste and inefficient use of resources. The theoretical premises of M. Porter served as the basis for the development of recommendations at the state level to increase the competitiveness of foreign trade goods in Australia, New Zealand and the United States in the 90s of the twentieth century.

Rybchinsky's theorem. The theorem consists in the assertion that if the value of one of the two factors of production increases, then in order to maintain a constant price for goods and factors, it is necessary to increase the production of those products that intensively use this increased factor, and reduce the production of the rest of the products that intensively use the fixed factor. In order for the prices of goods to remain constant, the prices of factors of production must remain unchanged.

The prices of factors of production can only remain constant if the ratio of the factors used in the two industries remains constant. In the case of an increase in one factor, this can only happen if there is an increase in production in the industry in which this factor is intensively used, and a decrease in production in another industry, which will lead to the release of a fixed factor, which will become available for use along with a growing factor in an expanding industry. .

Theory of Samuelson and Stolper.

In the middle of the XX century. (1948), the American economists P. Samuelson and W. Stolper improved the Heckscher-Ohlin theory by imagining that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with the additions of Heckscher and Ohlin and consider trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.