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What is social mobility definition and examples. Big encyclopedia of oil and gas

Ticket 10. Social mobility: concept, types, channels

concept "social mobility" introduced by P. Sorokin. He believed that society is a huge social space in which people move both in reality and conditionally, in the opinion of others and their own.

social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of its position in the social space. According to the directions of social movements, vertical and horizontal social mobility are distinguished.

Vertical mobility - social movement, which is accompanied by an increase or decrease social status.

Moving to a higher social position is called upward mobility, and on the lower downward mobility.

Horizontal mobility- social displacement, not associated with a change in social status, - transfer to another place of work in the same position, change of residence. If social status changes when moving, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

By types of mobility sociologists distinguish between intergenerational and intragenerational. Intergenerational mobility change in social status between generations. Intragenerational mobility connected with social career,, which means a change in status within one generation.

In accordance with the change by the individual of his social position in society, they distinguish two forms of mobility: group and individual. group mobility- movements are made collectively, and entire classes, social strata change their status. (It happens during periods of fundamental changes in society - social revolutions, civil or interstate wars, military coups). Individual mobility means the social displacement of a particular person.

channels social mobility may perform: school, education, family, professional organizations, army, political parties and organizations, church. Certainly in modern society education is of particular importance, the institutions of which perform the function of a kind of "social lift" providing vertical mobility. social lift is a mechanism for raising (or lowering) social status.

At the same time, it should be noted that the processes of social mobility can be accompanied by the marginalization and lumpenization of society. Under marginality refers to an intermediate, “borderline” state of a social subject. Marginal when moving from one social group in another, he retains the old system of values, connections, habits and cannot learn new ones (migrants, the unemployed). lumpen, trying in the process of social mobility to move from the old group to the new one, finds himself outside the group altogether, breaks social ties and eventually loses basic human qualities - the ability to work and the need for it (beggars, homeless people).

The concept and types of social mobility

An analysis of the causes of social inequality always entails the question of whether an individual himself can achieve an increase in his social status and join the composition of a social stratum located above his own on the scale of wealth and prestige. In modern society, it is generally accepted that the starting opportunities for all people are equal and the individual will certainly succeed if he makes the appropriate efforts and acts purposefully. Often this idea is illustrated by examples of the dizzying careers of millionaires who started from nothing, and shepherdesses who turned into movie stars.

social mobility called the movement of individuals in the system of social stratification from one layer to another. There are at least two main reasons for the existence of social mobility in society. First, societies change, and social change alters the division of labor, creating new statuses and undermining old ones. Second, although the elite may monopolize educational opportunities, it is unable to control the natural distribution of talent and ability, so the upper strata are inevitably replenished by talented people from the lower strata.

Social mobility comes in many forms:

vertical mobility- a change in the position of the individual, which causes an increase or decrease in his social status. For example, if an auto mechanic becomes the director of a car service, this is an indication of upward mobility, but if an auto mechanic becomes a scavenger, such a movement will be an indicator of downward mobility;

horizontal mobility - a change in position that does not lead to an increase or decrease in social status.

A form of horizontal mobility is geographical mobility.

It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility becomes migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and got a job here, then this is migration.

intergenerational(intergeneration) mobility - is revealed by comparing the social status of parents and their children at a certain point in the career of both (according to the rank of their profession at approximately the same age).

intragenerational(intragenerational) mobility - involves a comparison of the social status of the individual for a long time.

Classification of social mobility can be carried out according to other criteria. So, for example, one distinguishes individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur in an individual independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old ruling class cedes its positions to the new ruling class.

On other grounds, mobility can be classified, say, into spontaneous or organized. An example of spontaneous mobility is the movement of residents of the near abroad to large cities of Russia for the purpose of earning money. Organized mobility (moving a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally) is controlled by the state. As P. Sorokin showed on a huge historical material, the causes of group mobility were the following factors:

social revolutions;

Foreign interventions, invasions;

Interstate wars;

Civil wars;

military coups;

Change of political regimes;

Replacing the old constitution with a new one;

Peasant uprisings;

Internecine struggle of aristocratic families;

Creation of an empire.

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The concept and parameters of social mobility

The concept of " social mobility» introduced into science by P.A. Sorokin. According to him, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.” In social mobility P.A. Sorokin included:

Movement of individuals from one social group to another;

The disappearance of some and the emergence of other social groups;

The disappearance of a whole set of groups and its complete replacement by another.

Cause of social mobility P.A. Sorokin saw the implementation in society of the principle of distribution of benefits in proportion to the merits of each of its members, because even partial implementation of this principle leads to increased social mobility and renewal of the composition of the higher strata. Otherwise, over time, these strata accumulate a large number of sluggish, incapable people, and in the low strata, on the contrary, talented people. This is how fuel is created in social relations material in the form of discontent and protest in the low strata, which can lead to revolution. To prevent this from happening, society must abandon rigid social structure, carry out social mobility constantly and in a timely manner, improve and control it.

Factors affecting social mobility:

The level of economic development (for example, during a period of economic depression - downward mobility);

Historical type of stratification (class and caste societies limit social mobility);

Demographic factors (gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density). Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration; where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Indicators (parameters) of social mobility.

Social mobility is measured by two main indicators:

distance

volume.

Mobility distance- the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend. normal distance moving one or two steps up or down is considered. abnormal distance- an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or a fall to its base.

The scope of mobility called the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction in a certain period of time. If the volume is calculated by the number of moved individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number to the entire population, then - relative and is indicated as a percentage.

So, social mobility- this is the movement of an individual or a social group from one social stratum to another, or within a social stratum, a change in the place of a particular social subject in the social structure.

Types of social mobility

Exists two main types of social mobility:

Intergenerational

Intragenerational

And two main types:

vertical

Horizontal.

They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes that are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility- when children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents.

Intragenerational mobility- the same individual changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise it is called a social career.

Vertical mobility is the movement of an individual or social group from one stratum to another, while there is a change in social status. Depending on the direction of movement highlight the following types of vertical mobility:

Rising (social rise);

Descending (social descent).

There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, while descent is forced.

Channels of vertical mobility.

According to P.A. Sorokin, in any society between the strata there are channels("elevators"), on which individuals move up and down. Of particular interest are social institutions – army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social mobility.

Army functions most intensively as such a channel in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from lower ranks.

Church moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society, and vice versa. The institute of celibacy obliged the Catholic clergy not to have children. So after death officials vacated positions were filled with new people. At the same time, thousands of heretics were put on trial, destroyed, among them were many kings, aristocrats.

School: the institution of education at all times served as a powerful channel of social mobility, because education was always valued, and educated people had a high status.

Own most clearly manifests itself in the form of accumulated wealth and money, which is one of the simplest and most effective ways of social advancement.

Family and marriage become a channel of vertical mobility in the event that representatives of different social statuses enter the union.

Horizontal mobility- this is the transition of an individual or a social group from one social group to another, located at the same level, i.e. without changing social status.

A kind of horizontal mobility is an geographical mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration.

Also distinguish individual And group mobility.

Individual mobility- moving down, up or horizontally occurs for each person independently of others.

TO factors of individual mobility, those. reasons that allow one person to achieve greater success than another include: the social status of the family; the level of education received; nationality; physical and mental abilities; external data; received upbringing; location; profitable marriage.

group mobility- Movements happen collectively. For example, after a revolution, the old class cedes its dominant position to the new class. According to P.A. Sorokin reasons for group mobility the following factors serve: social revolutions; foreign interventions; invasions; interstate wars; civil wars; military coups; change of political regimes, etc.

It is also possible to highlight organized And structural mobility.

Organized mobility occurs when the movement of an individual or social group up, down or horizontally is controlled by the state. This process can take place with the consent of the people themselves (for example, public calls for Komsomol construction projects) and without their consent (resettlement of small peoples, dispossession).

Structural mobility It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people employed in them.

During the mobility process, a state may arise marginality. This is a special sociological term for a borderline, transitional, structurally indefinite social state of the subject. People who, for various reasons, fall out of their usual social environment and are unable to join new communities (often due to cultural inconsistencies), who experience great psychological stress and experience a kind of crisis of self-consciousness, are called outcasts. Among marginals there can be ethnomarginals, biomarginals, economic marginals, religious marginals.

The process of migration in society

Migration is the process of changing the permanent place of residence of individuals or social groups, expressed in moving to another region, geographical area or another country.

The migration process is closely related to both horizontal and vertical mobility, since each migrating individual seeks to find better economic, political or social conditions of existence in a new place.

Migration mechanism. In order for people to want to change their habitual place of residence, conditions are necessary that force them to do so. These conditions are usually divided into three main groups:

extrusion

Attraction

Migration paths.

extrusion associated with the difficult conditions of existence of the individual in his native places. The expulsion of large masses of people is associated with serious social upheavals (interethnic conflicts, wars), economic crises, and natural disasters (earthquakes, floods). With individual migration, failure in a career, the death of relatives, and loneliness can serve as a buoyant force.

Attraction- a set of attractive features or conditions for living in other places (higher wages, the opportunity to occupy a higher social status, greater political stability).

Migration paths is a characteristic of the direct movement of a migrant from one geographical location to another. Migration routes include the accessibility of a migrant, his luggage and family to another region; the presence or absence of barriers on the way; information to help overcome financial obstacles.

Distinguish international(moving from one state to another) and internal(moving within one country) migration.

Emigration- traveling outside the country . Immigration- entry into the country.

seasonal migration- depends on the season (tourism, study, agricultural work).

pendulum migration- regular movement from this point and return to it.

Migration is considered normal up to certain limits. In the event that the number of migrants exceeds a certain level, saying that migration becomes redundant. Excessive migration can lead to a change in the demographic composition of the region (departure of young people and the “aging” of the population; the predominance of men or women in the region), to a shortage or excess of labor, to uncontrolled urban growth, etc.

Literature

Volkov Yu.G., Dobrenkov V.I., Nechipurenko V.N., Popov A.V.

Sociology: textbook / ed. prof.

SOUTH. Volkov. – M.: Gardariki, 2007.- Ch. 6.

Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: a textbook for universities. - M., 2003. - Ch. eleven.

Raduev V.V., Shkaratan O.I. social stratification: tutorial. M., 1996.

Radugin A. A., Radugin K. A. Sociology: a course of lectures. M., 1996. - Topic 8.

Smelzer N. Sociology. M., 1994. - Ch. 9.

Frolov S.S. Sociology: textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2006. - Ch.17.

Test tasks on the topic "Social mobility"

1. Social mobility is:

1. change by a person of the place of his permanent residence

2. change of value orientations of the individual

3. change in the social status of an individual or group

4. expansion of professional and general cultural horizons

2. The main types of social mobility are:

1. vertical and horizontal

2. intergenerational and intragenerational

3. ascending and descending

4. individual and group

3. Geographic mobility turns into migration when:

1. a person moves from one place to another, while maintaining his social status

2. a person moves from one place to another, while changing his social status

3. person moves from one nationality to another

4. a person temporarily moves from one socio-geographical zone to another

4. An example of downward social mobility can be considered:

1. promotion

2. change of religion

3. dismissal due to redundancy

4. change of profession

5. Social career should be understood as:

1. increasing the social status of representatives of subsequent generations in comparison with the status of the current

2. achievement of a higher social position by an individual compared to parents

3. change by the individual, beyond comparison with the father, several times during the life of their social positions

4. change by the individual of his position in the social and professional structure

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located on the same level (example: moving from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another). Distinguish between individual mobility - the movement of one person independently of others, and group mobility - the movement occurs collectively. In addition, geographical mobility is distinguished - moving from one place to another while maintaining the same status (example: international and interregional tourism, moving from city to village and back). As a kind of geographical mobility, the concept of migration is distinguished - moving from one place to another with a change in status (example: a person moved to a city for a permanent place of residence and changed his profession). And it is similar to castes.

Vertical mobility

Vertical mobility is the movement of a person up or down the career ladder.

§ Upward mobility - social uplift, upward movement (For example: promotion).

§ Downward mobility - social descent, downward movement (For example: demolition).

Generational mobility

Intergenerational mobility - a comparative change in social status among different generations (example: the son of a worker becomes president).

Intragenerational mobility (social career) - a change in status within one generation (example: a turner becomes an engineer, then a shop manager, then a factory director). Vertical and horizontal mobility are influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, men and young people are more mobile than women and the elderly. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the consequences of emigration (relocation from one country to another for economic, political, personal reasons) than immigration (moving to a region for permanent or temporary residence of citizens from another region). Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

10) The concept of social control
social control

social control- a system of methods and strategies by which society directs the behavior of individuals. In the ordinary sense, social control is reduced to a system of laws and sanctions, with the help of which an individual coordinates his behavior with the expectations of others and his own expectations from the surrounding social world.

Sociology and psychology have always sought to uncover the mechanism of internal social control.

Types of social control

There are two types of social control processes:

§ processes that encourage individuals to internalize existing social norms, processes of socialization of family and school education, during which the requirements of society - social prescriptions - are internalized;

§ processes that organize the social experience of individuals, lack of publicity in society, publicity - a form of social control over the behavior of the ruling strata and groups;

11) The main problems of the sociology of advertising
Home The problem of the sociology of advertising is the influence of advertising on the social system in societal perception and the influence public system on advertising in a specific historical aspect. These are two aspects of the same process. The first aspect is related to understanding how advertising images created to promote goods, services, ideas affect society itself, how advertising changes its cultural and moral foundations; whether advertising can change the social atmosphere or cultural paradigms of a particular society, or is it intended to promote only what is already in everyday life. All these questions, in their broader formulation, are about the role of communicative institutions in public life, have been actively discussed since the beginning of the twentieth century, when the means mass media began to intrude into public life. It cannot be said that at the moment these issues have been resolved.

At the same time, one cannot fail to emphasize another aspect of the problem of the relationship between society and advertising, namely the influence of social processes on the functioning of advertising as public institution. Why, for example, in the conditions of the functioning of the Soviet social system, advertising as a public institution was practically absent, and the emergence of the rudiments of a market social mechanism led to the institutionalization of advertising? What happens to advertising in a crisis of the social system? What content is filled with advertising space in a period of political instability?

That is, one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising is connected with the study of the mechanisms, patterns of functioning of advertising as a social institution, its impact on society and the reverse impact of society on advertising.

Second a block of problems, which is closely related to the first, arises in connection with the influence of advertising on individual institutions of society and the impact of these institutions on different kinds promotional activities. For example, how advertising affects the family and how family life affects the methods, means of disseminating information advertising nature. Of undoubted interest are the problems of the influence of advertising on the upbringing and educational institutions of society. And, of course, advertisers are very interested in how changes in education affect the functioning certain types advertising practice: advertising on television, in the press, on radio, etc.

Particularly in this series is the problem of the influence of advertising on the media, since it is the media that are the main carriers of advertising. How, for example, will the advent of interactive television affect the change in advertising practice? Or a functional fusion of TV and computer?

The forecast of the development of the media as advertising carriers is very important, since it allows predicting the development of the advertising market, the distribution and redistribution of financial flows between various subjects of the advertising industry.

In this way, forecasting changes in public institutions and the impact of these changes on the forms, methods, means of advertising distribution is one of the main problems of the sociology of advertising.

Third a block of problems is associated with the influence of advertising on individual social processes. As you know, society is a constantly evolving social organism. The main vector of development is set by separate permanent social processes. In particular, one of such significant processes is social mobility. Advertising significantly changes the perception of mobility in the public mind, moving this problem from the sphere of material production to the sphere of consumption.

No less important is the process of legitimation of the power institutions of society. In many ways, it is connected with political advertising, the ability of specialists in the field of political technologies, using the mechanisms and means of political marketing, to constitute the democratic institutions of society.

It is also important here to emphasize the need to analyze the influence of advertising on the process of integration and disintegration of the social system.

Fourth the block of problems can be described using the concepts of "mentality", "national character", "advertising and cultural stereotypes", "domestic advertising", "foreign advertising". In other words, we are talking about the relationship between advertising impact and the culture of a particular society, the influence of culture on advertising and advertising on the culture of a particular society. In a practical sense, this means: what is the effectiveness of foreign advertising spots, of which there are quite a lot on domestic television? Are they not rejected by the mass consciousness, because they do not take into account the national culture and mentality of domestic consumers? What should be an advertising message designed for the so-called "new Russian" or a housewife who is not burdened with a tight wallet? In general, problems mentality and advertising, culture and advertising, national stereotypes and advertising constitute a significant block of issues included in the subject field of the sociology of advertising.

If we translate all the above questions from a fairly high philosophical level to an operational one related to the practical activities of a sociologist, then we can say that when studying advertising as a public institution, he is interested in: how advertising affects people's behavior, how advertising affects public sentiment, how advertising affects the integration of social life, how advertising affects social mobility, how advertising affects the legitimization of power, what system of symbols advertising relies on, what mechanisms of influence it uses, with what efficiency.

12) The main problems of sociology and culture

13) The main problems of the sociology of education

Similar information.

Thanks to social mobility, members of society can change their status within society. This phenomenon has many features and characteristics. The nature of social mobility varies depending on the characteristics of a particular country.

The concept of social mobility

What is social mobility? This is a change by a person of his place in the structure of society. An individual can move from one social group to another. Such mobility is called vertical. At the same time, a person can change his position within the same social stratum. This is another mobility – horizontal. Moving takes the most different forms- increase or decrease in prestige, change in income, career advancement. Such events have a serious impact on a person's behavior, as well as his relationships with others, attitudes and interests.

The types of mobility described above took on modern forms after the emergence of industrial society. The ability to change one's position in society is an important sign of progress. The opposite case is represented by conservative and estate societies where castes exist. As a rule, a person is assigned to such a group from his very birth until his death. The Indian caste system is best known. With reservations, such orders existed in medieval feudal Europe, where there was a great social gap between the poor and the rich.

The history of the phenomenon

The emergence of vertical mobility became possible after the start of industrialization. About three hundred years ago, the industrial development of European countries accelerated significantly, which led to the growth of the proletarian class. At the same time, states around the world (with varying degrees of success) began to introduce a system accessible education. It has become and still is the main channel of vertical social mobility.

At the beginning of the 20th century, most of the population of any country were unskilled workers (or with the beginnings of a general education). At the same time, mechanization and automation of production took place. The new type of economy demanded more and more highly qualified personnel. It is this need that explains the increase in the number of educational institutions and thus opportunities for social growth.

Mobility and economy

One of the features of an industrial society is that mobility in it is determined by the structure of the economy. In other words, opportunities for climbing the social ladder depend not only on personal qualities of a person (his professionalism, energy, etc.), but also on how the different branches of the country's economy are interconnected.

Mobility is not possible everywhere. It is an attribute of a society that has given its citizens equal opportunities. And although there are no absolutely equal conditions in any country, many modern states continue to move towards this ideal.

Individual and group mobility

In each country, the types and types of mobility are presented differently. Society can selectively raise some individuals up the social ladder and lower others. This is a natural process. For example, talented and professional people should definitely replace the mediocre ones and get their high status. Rise can be individual and group. These types of mobility differ in the number of individuals changing their status.

In an individual case, a person can increase his prestige in society due to his talents and hard work (for example, become a famous musician or receive a prestigious education). Group mobility is associated with much more complex processes, covering a significant part of society. A striking example of such a phenomenon can be changes in the prestige of the profession of engineers or a fall in the popularity of the party, which will necessarily affect the position of the members of this organization.

Infiltration

In order to achieve a change in his position in society, the individual must make certain efforts. Vertical mobility becomes possible only if a person is able to overcome all the barriers that lie between different social strata. As a rule, climbing the social ladder occurs due to the ambitions and the individual's need for his own success. Any kind of mobility is necessarily associated with the vigor of a person and his desire to change his status.

The infiltration that exists in every society weeds out people who have made insufficient efforts to change the social stratum. German scientist Kurt Lewin even brought own formula, which can be used to determine the probability of the ascension of a particular person in the social hierarchy. In the theory of this psychologist and sociologist, the most important variable is the energy of the individual. Vertical mobility also depends on the social conditions in which a person lives. If he meets all the requirements of society, then he will be able to undergo infiltration.

The inevitability of mobility

There are at least two reasons for the existence of the phenomenon of social mobility. First, any society invariably changes in the course of its historical development. New features may appear gradually, or they may appear instantly, as happens in the case of revolutions. One way or another, but in any society, new statuses undermine and replace the old ones. This process is accompanied by changes in the distribution of labor, benefits and responsibilities.

Secondly, even in the most inert and stagnant societies, no power can control the natural distribution of abilities and talents. This principle continues to operate even if the elite or the authorities have monopolized and limited the accessibility of education. Therefore, there is always the possibility that the top layer will be replenished at least periodically. worthy people"from below".

Mobility across generations

Researchers identify another feature by which social mobility is determined. Generation can serve as this measure. What explains this pattern? The history of the development of very different societies shows that the position of people of different generations (for example, children and parents) can not only differ, but, as a rule, is different. Data from Russia supports this theory. On average, with each new generation, the inhabitants of the former USSR and the Russian Federation have gradually risen and are climbing up the social ladder. This pattern also takes place in many other modern countries.

Thus, when listing the types of mobility, one should not forget about intergenerational mobility, an example of which is described above. In order to determine progress on this scale, it is enough to compare the position of two people at a certain point in their career development at approximately the same age. The measure in this case is the rank in the profession. If, for example, a father at the age of 40 was a shop manager, and a son at that age became a factory director, then this is intergenerational growth.

Factors

Slow and gradual mobility can have many factors. An important example in this series is the migration of people from rural areas to cities. International migration has played a serious role in the history of all mankind, especially since the 19th century, when it swept the whole world.

It was in this century that huge masses of the peasant population of Europe moved to the United States. You can also give an example of the colonial expansion of some empires of the Old World. The capture of new territories and the subjugation of entire nations were fertile ground for the rise of some people and the slide down the social ladder of others.

Consequences

If lateral mobility mostly affects only a particular individual or group of people, then vertical mobility entails much larger consequences that are difficult to measure. There are two opposing points of view on this.

The first says that any examples of mobility in the vertical direction destroy the class structure of society and make it more homogeneous. This theory has both supporters and opponents. On the other hand, there is a point of view according to which a high level of social mobility only strengthens the system of social strata. This happens for the simple reason that people who find themselves on a higher rung of their position become interested in maintaining class differences and contradictions.

Speed

According to sociological science, the main types of social mobility have an indicator of their own speed. With its help, experts give a quantitative assessment of this phenomenon in each case. Speed is the distance that an individual travels in a certain period of time. It is measured in professional, political or economic strata.

For example, one university graduate managed to become the head of a department at his enterprise in four years of his career. At the same time, his classmate, who graduated with him, became an engineer by the end of the same term. In this case, the speed of social mobility of the first graduate is higher than that of his friend. This indicator can be influenced by a variety of factors - personal aspiration, the qualities of a person, as well as his environment and circumstances associated with working in a company. High speed social mobility can also be inherent in processes opposite to those described above, if we are talking about a person who has lost his job.

Intensity

Considering 2 types of mobility (horizontal and vertical), one can determine the number of individuals who change their position in society. V different countries this indicator gives different figures from each other. The larger the number of these people, the higher the intensity of social mobility. Like the speed this indicator demonstrates the nature of internal transformations in society.

If we are talking about the actual number of individuals, then the absolute intensity is determined. In addition, it can also be relative. This is the name of the intensity, determined by the proportion of individuals who have changed their position, from the total number of members of society. modern science gives different estimates of the importance of this indicator. The combination of the intensity and speed of social mobility determines the overall mobility index. With it, scientists can easily compare the state of different societies.

The future of mobility

Today, in Western and economically developed societies, horizontal mobility is gaining significant proportions. This is due to the fact that in such countries (for example, in Western Europe and the USA), society is becoming more and more classless. The differences between layers are blurred. This contributes advanced system accessible education. In rich countries, anyone can learn, regardless of their background. The only important criterion is his interest, talent and ability to acquire new knowledge.

There is another reason why the former social mobility is no longer relevant in the modern post-industrial society. Moving up becomes more and more conditional if income and financial well-being are taken as the determining factor. Today, a stable and wealthy society can introduce social benefits (as is done in the Scandinavian countries). They smooth out contradictions between people on different rungs of the social ladder. So the boundaries between the usual classes are erased.

Society does not remain unshakable. In society, there is a slow or rapid increase in the number of one and a decrease in the number of another social stratum, as well as an increase or decrease in their status. The relative stability of social strata does not rule out vertical migration of individuals. According to the definition of P. Sorokin, social mobility is understood as the transition of an individual, social community, values from one social status to another".

social mobility is the transition of a person from one social group to another.

Horizontal mobility is distinguished when a person moves to a group located at the same hierarchical level as the previous one, and vertical when a person moves to a higher (upward mobility) or lower (downward mobility) rung in the social hierarchy.

Examples of Horizontal Mobility: moving from one city to another, changing religion, moving from one family to another after the breakdown of marriage, changing citizenship, moving from one political party to another, changing jobs when transferring to an approximately equivalent position.

Examples of vertical mobility: change from a low-paid job to a highly paid one, the transformation of an unskilled worker into a skilled one, the election of a politician as the president of the country (these examples demonstrate upward vertical mobility), the demotion of an officer to a private, the ruin of an entrepreneur, the transfer of a shop manager to the position of foreman (downward vertical mobility).

Societies where social mobility is high are called open, and societies with low social mobility closed. In the most closed societies (say, in a caste system), upward upward mobility is practically impossible. In less closed (for example, in a class society) there are opportunities for moving the most ambitious or successful people to higher levels of the social ladder.

Traditionally, the institutions that contributed to the promotion of people from the "low" classes were the army and the church, where any private or priest, with the appropriate abilities, could reach the highest social position - become a general or church hierarch. Another way to rise higher in the social hierarchy was profitable marriage and marriage.

V open society the main mechanism for raising social status is the institution of education. Even a member of the lowest social strata can expect to achieve a high position, but on condition that he receives a good education at a prestigious university, while demonstrating high academic performance, dedication and high intellectual abilities.

Individual and group social mobility

At individual social mobility, it is possible to change the social status and role of an individual within the framework of social stratification. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a former ordinary engineer becomes an "oligarch", and the president turns into a wealthy pensioner. At group social mobility changes the social status of some social community. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a significant part of teachers, engineers, scientists became "shuttles". Social mobility also implies the possibility of changing the social status of values. For example, during the transition to post-Soviet relations, the values of liberalism (freedom, enterprise, democracy, etc.) have risen in our country, while the values of socialism (equality, diligence, centralism, etc.) have fallen.

Horizontal and vertical social mobility

Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal. At horizontal mobility is the social movement of individuals and occurs in other, but equal in status social communities. These can be considered movement from state structures to private, moving from one enterprise to another, etc. Varieties of horizontal mobility are: territorial (migration, tourism, resettlement from village to city), professional (change of profession), religious (change of religion), political (transition from one political party to another).

At vertical mobility is happening ascending And descending movement of people. An example of such mobility is the demotion of workers from the "hegemon" in the USSR to the simple class in today's Russia and, conversely, the rise of speculators to the middle and upper class. Vertical social movements are associated, firstly, with profound changes in the socio-economic structure of society, the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to win a higher social status, and secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems and norms. , political priorities. In this case, there is an upward movement political forces who were able to catch the changes in mindsets, orientations and ideals of the population.

For quantitative characteristics social mobility indicators use indicators of its speed. Under speed social mobility refers to the vertical social distance and the number of strata (economic, professional, political, etc.) that individuals go through in their movement up or down over a certain period of time. For example, a young specialist after graduation can take the positions of a senior engineer or head of a department for several years, etc.

Intensity social mobility is characterized by the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal position for a certain period of time. The number of such individuals gives absolute intensity of social mobility. For example, during the years of reforms in post-Soviet Russia (1992-1998), up to one-third of the “Soviet intelligentsia”, who made up the middle class of Soviet Russia, became “shuttle traders.

Aggregate index social mobility includes its speed and intensity. In this way one can compare one society with another in order to find out (1) in which of them or (2) in what period social mobility is higher or lower in all indicators. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional, political and other social mobility. Social mobility is an important characteristic of the dynamic development of society. Those societies where the total index of social mobility is higher develop much more dynamically, especially if this index belongs to the ruling strata.

Social (group) mobility is associated with the emergence of new social groups and affects the ratio of the main ones, whose no longer correspond to the established hierarchy. By the middle of the 20th century, for example, managers (managers) of large enterprises became such a group. On the basis of this fact in Western sociology, the concept of the "revolution of managers" (J. Bernheim) has developed. According to it, the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, supplementing and displacing the class of owners of the means of production (capitalists).

Social movements along the vertical are intensively going on during the restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups contributes to mass movement up the ladder of social status. The fall of the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provoke not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal strata, losing their usual position in society, losing the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of values and norms that previously united them and determined their stable place in the social hierarchy.

Outcasts - these are social groups that have lost their former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in their usual activities, and found themselves unable to adapt to the new sociocultural (value and normative) environment. Their former values and norms did not succumb to the displacement of new norms and values. The efforts of marginals to adapt to new conditions give rise to psychological stress. The behavior of such people is characterized by extremes: they are either passive or aggressive, and also easily violate moral standards, capable of unpredictable actions. A typical leader of marginals in post-Soviet Russia is V. Zhirinovsky.

During periods of acute social cataclysms, a radical change in the social structure, an almost complete renewal of the highest echelons of society can occur. Thus, the events of 1917 in our country led to the overthrow of the old ruling classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) and the rapid rise of a new ruling stratum (communist party bureaucracy) with nominally socialist values and norms. Such a cardinal replacement of the upper stratum of society always takes place in an atmosphere of extreme confrontation and tough struggle.

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COURSE WORK

on the topic: "Vertical and horizontal social mobility"

Introduction

1. The concept, essence and nature of social mobility

2. Main types and types of social mobility

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

2.1 Vertical social mobility

3. Factors affecting horizontal and vertical mobility

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Modern Russian society is developing and changing especially rapidly due to the fact that the reforms of the 1990s, along with a sharp aggravation social problems, the rapid growth of social inequality and painful transformations of the social structure, opened up new economic, technological and social opportunities for the country.

Along with changes in the socio-economic system, factors associated with changes in the social identity of people, their value orientations, consumer behavior, material and symbolic world.

The state of the social structure of society and its social stratification most fully reflects the social mobility of the population, which characterizes the directions and existing mechanisms for changing the social status of individuals. People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in one's status is called social mobility. This topic has interested humanity for a long time. social horizontal mobility society

The relevance of the research topic of the nature of social mobility is determined by the strengthening of the role of social mobility in modern society. Social mobility is an integral part of the culture in any modern democratic society. Mobile individuals begin socialization in one class and end in another. Moreover, any social movement does not occur without hindrance, but by overcoming more or less significant barriers. Social mobility is an integral and necessary process in society, which is significantly influenced by constantly emerging new circumstances of social life, factors of social differentiation and integration. Their influence on the social structure of society and on social mobility has not yet been studied and constitutes a research problem. At present, there is a need for a thorough study of the processes of social mobility, as well as factors influencing the dynamics of social mobility.

The purpose of this work is to study the nature of social mobility of the population and consider the main types and types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical.

The following tasks were set during the study:

Find out the nature and essence of social mobility;

Determine and analyze the types and forms of social mobility;

Identify problems of transition from one status group to another.

1. The concept, essence and nature of social mobility

The problem of the socio-economic division of society, as a scientific problem, was studied by ancient Greek philosophers. The analysis of estates is already found in Plato's "Laws" and "State", as well as in Aristotle's "Politics". The reasoning of Plato and Aristotle had a significant impact on the formation of the theory of stratification as a component of socio-political philosophy. Within the framework of the school of social stratification, the theory of social mobility is born, the founder of which is considered to be Pitirim Sorokin. His first major work on this issue was published in 1927. This work, entitled "Social Mobility", belongs to the sociological classics, and its most important provisions have long been included in numerous social science textbooks.

P. Sorokin singled out three forms at the basis of social stratification: economic stratification, political and professional differentiation. Sorokin's attention to the hierarchy of professional groups was revealing. Shortly after him whole line researchers took up the problems of social stratification of social mobility.

Let's take a look at what social mobility is. Each person moves in the social space, in the society in which he lives. Sometimes these movements are easily felt and identified, for example, when an individual moves from one place to another, the transition from one religion to another, a change in marital status. This changes the position of the individual in society and speaks of his movement in the social space.

However, there are such movements of the individual that are difficult to determine not only for the people around him, but also for himself. For example, it is difficult to determine the change in the position of an individual in connection with an increase in prestige, an increase or decrease in the possibilities for the use of power, a change in income. At the same time, such changes in a person's position ultimately affect his behavior, the system of relations in the group, needs, attitudes, interests and orientations.

In this regard, it is important to determine how the processes of movement of individuals in the social space are carried out, which are called mobility processes.

There are barriers between strata and classes that prevent the free transition of individuals from one status group to another. One of the biggest barriers arises from the fact that social classes have subcultures that prepare the children of each class to participate in the class subculture in which they are socialized.

All social movements of an individual or a social group are included in the process of mobility. According to the definition of P. Sorokin, “social mobility is understood as any transition of an individual, or a social object, or a value created or modified through activity, from one social position to another.”

When an individual moves from one social plane to another, the problem of entering a new subculture of a group with a higher status often arises, as well as the related problem of interactions with representatives of a new social environment. To overcome the cultural barrier and the barrier of communication, there are several ways that, one way or another, resort to individuals in the process of social mobility.

1. Lifestyle change. For example, it is not enough just to earn and spend big money in the case when an individual has caught up in income with representatives of a higher social stratum. To assimilate a new status level, he needs to accept a new material standard corresponding to this level. At the same time, changing the material way of life is only one of the moments of initiation to a new status, and in itself, without changing other components of culture, means little.

2. Development of typical status behavior. A person will not be accepted into a higher social class stratum until he has assimilated the patterns of behavior of this stratum to such an extent that he can follow them without any effort. Clothing patterns, verbal expressions, leisure activities, manner of communication - all this is being revised and should become the usual and only possible type of behavior.

3. Change in the social environment. This method is based on establishing contacts with individuals and associations of the status stratum into which the mobile individual is socialized.

4. Marrying a representative of a higher status stratum. At all times, such a marriage has served as the best means of overcoming the barriers that stand in the way of social mobility. First, it can greatly contribute to the manifestation of talents if it gives material well-being. Secondly, it provides the individual with the opportunity to quickly rise, often bypassing several status levels. Thirdly, marriage to a representative or representative of a higher status largely resolves the problems of the social environment and the rapid assimilation of culture samples of a higher status layer.

The social mobility of society is a contradictory process. Even if society allows individuals relatively freely to bypass the barriers between social classes and strata, this does not mean at all that any individual with talents and motivation can painlessly and easily move up the steps of the ladder of social ascent. Mobility is always difficult for all individuals, as they have to adapt to a new subculture, make new connections and fight the fear of losing their identity. new status. At the same time, an open way to the top, a large number of achieved statuses is the only way for the development of society, because otherwise social tensions and conflicts arise.

To characterize mobility processes, indicators of the speed and intensity of social mobility are used. They are commonly used to quantify mobility processes.

The speed of mobility is understood as "the vertical social distance or the number of strata - economic, professional or political, that an individual passes in his movement up or down in a certain period of time." For example, within three years after graduating from the institute and starting work in the specialty, a certain individual manages to take the position of the head of a department, and his colleague, who graduated from the institute with him, takes the position of a senior engineer. It is obvious that the speed of mobility is higher for the first individual, since during the indicated period of time he has overcome more status levels.

The intensity of mobility is understood as the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal direction over a certain period of time. The number of such individuals in any social community gives the absolute intensity of mobility, and their share in the total number of this social community shows relative mobility. For example, if we take into account the number of individuals under the age of 30 who are divorced and moved to other families, then we will talk about the absolute intensity of horizontal mobility in this age category. If we consider the ratio of the number of people who moved to other families to the number of all individuals under the age of 30, then we will talk about relative social mobility in a horizontal direction.

Often there is a need to consider the process of mobility from the point of view of the relationship between its speed and intensity. In this case, the aggregate mobility index for a given social community is used. In this way, for example, one society can be compared with another in order to find out in which of them or in which period mobility is higher in all indicators.

2. Main types and types of social mobility

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and its two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, fall into subspecies and subtypes, which are closely related to each other.

Intergenerational mobility implies that children achieve a higher social position or move down to a lower level than their parents, i.e. this is a change in the social status of people, especially young people, in various spheres of public life in comparison with the status of their parents. Intergenerational mobility is an important factor social changes and expression of social activity of individuals.

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, unlike, for example, his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise, such mobility is called a social career.

The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second - movement from the sphere physical labor into the realm of the mind.

There is also a classification of social mobility according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish between individual mobility, when movements down, up, or horizontally occur for each person independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old class cedes dominant positions to the new class.

In addition to these types, there are two more types of social mobility: horizontal and vertical. Let's consider them in more detail.

2.1 Horizontal social mobility

Horizontal mobility is the transition of an individual or social object from one social position to another, lying on the same level. In all these cases, the individual does not change the social stratum to which he belongs, or social status. Examples of horizontal mobility are movements from one citizenship to another, from an Orthodox religious group to a Catholic one, from one labor collective to another, and so on.

Such movements occur without a noticeable change in the social position in the upright position.

A variation of horizontal mobility is geographic mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to a permanent place of residence and got a job, then this is migration.

Consequently, horizontal mobility can be territorial, religious, professional, political (when only the political orientation of the individual changes). Horizontal mobility is described by nominal parameters and can only exist with a certain degree of heterogeneity in society.

P. Sorokin, regarding horizontal mobility, only says that it means the transition of people from one social group to another without changing their social status. But if we proceed from the principle that all differences without exception in the world of people have some kind of unequal significance, it will be necessary to recognize that horizontal social mobility must also be characterized by a change in social position, only not ascending or descending, but progressive or retreating (regressing) . Thus, horizontal mobility can be considered any process that leads to the formation or change of class social structures - in contrast to the starting ones, which are formed and changed as a result of vertical social mobility.

Today, it is horizontal mobility that is gaining momentum in society, especially among residents of large cities. For young people, it becomes a rule to change jobs every 3-5 years. At the same time, most sociologists welcome this, believing that such an approach allows a person not to be “conserved” in one place and an invariable range of tasks. Secondly, a considerable part of workers prefers to master related specialties or even radically change their field of activity.

A change of residence - and it is also a type of lateral mobility - often complements a change of job, even if new job located in the same city - there are people who prefer to rent an apartment closer, just not to spend two and a half hours a day on the road.

The meaning of vertical mobility is completely transparent - many people want to improve their situation. Much more interesting is the question of what drives horizontal social mobility.

First of all, it becomes noticeable that in recent years the so-called social elevators have ceased to work: that is, the number of opportunities to take and jump to a higher social level in one fell swoop is decreasing. Isolated cases are possible, but for the majority this move is closed. And horizontal mobility is, in principle, available to almost everyone.

Horizontal mobility allows you to significantly expand your horizons, it does not force you to significantly change your habits, lifestyle.

2.2 Vertical social mobility

The most important process is vertical mobility, which is a set of interactions that facilitate the transition of an individual or a social object from one social stratum to another. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another.

Depending on the direction of movement, upward mobility, or social ascent, and downward mobility, or social descent, are distinguished. Thus, promotion, rank and demolition show respectively these types of vertical social mobility. Both types manifest themselves in economic, political and professional mobility, which is another option for structuring social mobility. Vertical upward mobility can in this case be shown as the acquisition of property by a person, election as a deputy, obtaining a higher position.

Society can elevate the status of some individuals and lower the status of others. And this is understandable: some individuals who have talent, energy, youth should force out other individuals who do not possess these qualities from the highest statuses. Depending on this, they distinguish between upward and downward social mobility, or social upsurge and social decline.

The upward currents of professional, economic and political mobility exist in two main forms:

1) as an individual rise, or infiltration of individuals from their lower stratum into a higher one;

2) and as the creation of new groups of individuals with the inclusion of groups in the upper layer next to the existing groups of this layer or instead of them.

Consider the mechanism of infiltration in vertical mobility.

In order to understand how the process of ascension occurs, it is important to study how an individual can overcome barriers and boundaries between groups and rise up, that is, increase his social status. This desire to achieve a higher status is due to the achievement motive, which, to one degree or another, each individual has and is associated with his need to achieve success and avoid failure in the social aspect.

The actualization of this motive ultimately generates the strength with which the individual strives to achieve the highest social position or to stay on the existing one and not slide down. The realization of the power of achievement depends on many factors, in particular, on the situation in society.

In order to achieve a higher status, an individual who is in a group with lower statuses must overcome the barriers between groups or layers. An individual striving to get into a higher status group has a certain energy aimed at overcoming these barriers and expended on walking the distance between the statuses of a higher and lower groups. The energy of the individual striving for a higher status finds expression in the strength with which he tries to overcome the barriers in front of the higher stratum. Successful passage of the barrier is possible only if the force with which the individual seeks to achieve high status is greater than the repulsive force. By measuring the force with which an individual seeks to penetrate into the upper layer, one can predict with a certain probability that he will get there. The probabilistic nature of infiltration is due to the fact that when evaluating the process, one should take into account the constantly changing situation, which consists of many factors, including their personal relationships individuals.

Similarly, downward mobility exists in the form:

1) pushing individual individuals from high social statuses to lower ones;

2) and lowering the social status of the whole group.

An example of the second form of downward mobility can be the decline in the social status of a group of engineers that once occupied very high positions in our society, or the decline in the status of a political party that is losing real power in the figurative expression of P. Sorokin, “the first case of decline resembles the fall of a man from a ship; the second is a ship that sank with all on board.

3. Factors affecting horizontal and vertical mobility

Vertical and horizontal mobility is influenced by gender, age, birth rate, death rate, population density. In general, the young are more mobile than the elderly, and men are more mobile than women. Overpopulated countries are more likely to experience the effects of emigration than immigration. Where the birth rate is high, the population is younger and therefore more mobile, and vice versa.

Professional mobility is typical for the young, economic mobility for adults, and political mobility for the elderly. The birth rate is unevenly distributed across classes. The lower classes tend to have more children, while the upper classes tend to have fewer. There is a pattern: the higher a person climbs the social ladder, the fewer children he has.

Even if every son of a rich man follows in the footsteps of his father, voids form on the upper steps of the pyramid, which are filled by people from the lower classes. In no class do people plan for the exact number of children needed to replace parents. The number of vacancies and the number of applicants for the occupation of certain social positions in different classes is different.

Professionals (doctors, lawyers, etc.) and skilled employees do not have enough children to fill their jobs in the next generation. In contrast, farmers and agricultural workers, in the US, have 50% more children than are needed for self-replacement. It is not difficult to calculate in which direction social mobility should proceed in modern society.

High and low birth rates in different classes have the same effect on vertical mobility as population density in different countries has on horizontal mobility. Strata, like countries, can be undersalted or overpopulated.

Conclusion

Having considered the essence, nature and types of social mobility, we can draw the following conclusions:

1. Social mobility is a change by an individual or a group of persons of the place occupied in the social structure, or movement from one social stratum to another. The nature of social mobility is directly related to the subculture in which a person was born and raised. For advancement from one stratum to another, or from one social class to another, "difference in starting opportunities" matters.

2. In modern sociology, there are various ways to quantify social mobility, mobility indices, mobility coefficients related to gender, education level, nationality, etc. This is one of the main areas of study of the social structure of society, a comparative analysis of various countries.

3. All social movements of an individual or group are accompanied by the overcoming of serious barriers, and to overcome these barriers there are a number of techniques and ways of adapting to a new social space (changing lifestyle, developing typical status behavior, changing social behavior, etc.).

4. There are several variants of social mobility, but the main ones are considered to be horizontal and vertical social mobility. Horizontal mobility implies the movement of an individual from one social group to another, with both groups being approximately at the same level. Vertical mobility involves the movement of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Moreover, moving up in the corresponding status hierarchy represents an upward mobility, downward - downward. Lliterature

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