The effectiveness of group activity is how well the group copes with the tasks assigned to it. Usually, the effectiveness of a group is compared with the success of the work of the same number of individuals and it is believed that the group works effectively if the results of its activities exceed the combined (summed) results of the activities of the same number of people acting independently of each other.

Studying small groups, psychologists have repeatedly been convinced that the knowledge of the patterns of interaction and relationships between people in them makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of group work. Almost all the characteristics of the group we have considered - size, communication channels, composition, interpersonal relationships, leadership style and others - are important for successful group work. It is appropriate now to pose and discuss the following questions.

• 1. Is the influence of each of the above factors on the effectiveness of group activity the same?
• 2. What are the links between each of them and the success of group work?
• 3. Are these connections unambiguous, or can they be different in different situations and conditions of group work?

In search of answers to these questions, all previously considered socio-psychological characteristics of the group can be divided into two classes: formal, describing the structure of the group, ways of organizing joint activities and communication of people, and meaningful, directly reflecting the relationship of people in this group, that is, its social psychology. .

The formal characteristics of the group include the number of members in this group, its composition, communication channels, features of the group task, the distribution of responsibilities between group members; meaningful - interpersonal relationships, norms, value orientations, roles, statuses, leadership.

The question of what to give preference to when studying the effectiveness of group activity - its formal or substantive characteristics - is quite complex and is solved ambiguously. The psychological characteristics of the group directly affect its work, but they are not easy to change, and besides, they depend on the formal properties of the group, for example, on its composition. The formal aspects of group work, on the contrary, are easier to manage, but they only indirectly affect the success of group activity - through the psychology of its constituent individuals. Therefore, it is important, among other things, to find an answer to the question of how the formal and content characteristics of the group are interconnected in their joint influence on the effectiveness of group activity.

You can line up various factors that affect the success of group activities, according to their importance or logical priority. Let's try to do it.

Of the formal and substantive characteristics of the group (in terms of their joint influence on the success of the group), the first place can be put on the substantive, and not all, but only those that characterize the group as a developed team. Following them should, apparently, be placed the formal and general meaningful characteristics of the group (Fig. 2).

Considering the signs of the effectiveness of group work, social psychologists offer the following solution. There are three main criteria for the effectiveness of the group: productivity, quality of work and the positive impact of the group.

Rice. 2.

on an individual. The first two criteria reflect the special tasks facing the groups and associated with its work, and the third is general social. It implements positive socio-psychological functions associated with the socialization of the individual through small groups.

Let us consider separately what influence its formal (structural) and substantive (psychological) features can have on the success of group activity.

It has been established that the size of the group does not have a direct and unambiguous impact on the success of its activities. However, increasing or decreasing the number of members, depending on the task of the group, its structure and relationships, can affect the results of the work.

The psychological consequences of increasing or decreasing the number of group members are different, they can be both positive and negative. Those and others for comparison are presented in table. one.

Table 1. Consequences of increasing or decreasing the number of group members

Positive	Negative
1. With the increase in the group, more people with a pronounced individuality appear in it. This creates favorable conditions for a deep and versatile discussion of various issues.	1. With an increase in the number of members of a group, its cohesion may decrease, and the probability of the group breaking up into smaller groups may increase. This significantly reduces the cohesion of the group and makes it difficult to achieve unity on the issues discussed.
2. The larger the group in size, the easier it is for the sake of the cause to distribute duties in it among individual members in accordance with their capabilities and abilities.	2. It is difficult to manage a large group, much more difficult than a small one, it is not easy to organize the interaction of its members, to establish normal business and personal relationships between them.
3. A large group can collect and process a greater amount of diverse information in the same time.	3. Growth in the size of the group can lead to an increase in differences of opinion and to an aggravation of the relationship between group members.
4. In a large group, the number of people who can participate in the development and adoption of decisions, weighing and evaluating their positive and negative consequences increases.	4. With the increase in the group, the status and authority of some of its members grows, while others decrease, increasing the psychological distance between the members of the group. Opportunities for the development and use of their abilities, satisfaction. needs for communication, self-expression, recognition among some members of the group increase, while others, on the contrary, decrease, which creates unfavorable conditions for the development of each individual
5. As the size of the group grows, its "talent resource" usually increases. This increases the likelihood of making optimal decisions. For problems that have many alternative solutions, this circumstance seems to be significant.	5. With an increase in the group, the average contribution of each participant to the results of joint activities decreases

The success of the work of the group is largely influenced by the task facing it. It should be noted that the group task determines the structure of interaction between group members in the process of their joint work, and this structure, in turn, affects the results of group work.

The composition, that is, the individual composition of the group, determined by the psychological characteristics of its members, affects the life of the group in the same way as its size and the tasks to be solved - through a system of relationships and interactions that characterize the level of socio-psychological development of the group as a team. The same composition of the group can be psychologically compatible and incompatible, efficient and inoperable, cohesive and disunited.

Highly developed groups with a heterogeneous composition - with significant individual psychological differences among group members - are better than homogeneous ones in coping with complex problems and tasks. Due to differences in experience, approaches to solving problems, points of view, thinking, perception, memory, imagination, etc., their participants approach the same problems from different angles. As a result, the number of ideas, options for proposed solutions increases and, consequently, the probability of an effective solution to the problem at hand increases. The heterogeneity of the composition of the group, if it is poorly developed, makes it difficult for mutual understanding and the development of a common position. Under such conditions, the heterogeneity of the composition of the group leads to contradictions and conflicts in the sphere of personal relationships. For the orderly activity of groups, it is advisable to divide them into subgroups in the process of work, consisting of people who are psychologically compatible with each other, to ensure coordination of actions and distribution of responsibilities (division of labor) between subgroups within this group.

The dependence of the success of the group's activity on the style of leadership is also directly related to the level of socio-psychological development. For a group approaching the level of collective development, having self-governing bodies, capable of self-organizing activities, collegial forms of leadership will be more effective, assuming a democratic, and in some situations even a liberal leadership style. In groups that are at an average level of development, the best results will be given by a flexible leadership style that combines elements of directiveness, democracy and liberalism. In relatively underdeveloped groups, not ready for independent work who are incapable of self-organization and have complex, conflicting interpersonal relationships, a directive leadership style with elements of democracy is preferable.

The directive style as a temporary measure can also be useful in medium-developed groups when they work in difficult situations: a new task, lack of time, unexpected and significant changes in the composition of the group, requiring a difficult and urgent redistribution of responsibilities, etc. It should, however, be remembered that too frequent, socio-psychologically unreasonable use of a directive or authoritarian style of leadership (leadership) in a group negatively affects general mood people, on their interactions and relationships and ultimately reduces the effectiveness of group work. This leadership style limits the independence of group members and is especially bad for solving creative problems that require independent thinking of each group member.

Important for successful work groups have personal relationships that have developed in it. Mutual likes and dislikes, the frequency of communication and the emotional coloring of interpersonal contacts, and other forms of relationships can affect the effectiveness of group work in different ways. Good emotional-interpersonal relationships between group members most often contribute to their successful teamwork.

However, in groups of different levels of socio-psychological maturity, these relationships manifest themselves in different ways. With relatively simple tasks that have become familiar to members of the group, which do not require significant joint efforts from them, do not cause them physical fatigue and emotional tension, personal relationships do not significantly affect the results of group work. If the group faces unusual tasks that require complex, coordinated, coordinated actions, great efforts, giving rise to increased emotional tension (especially a stressful situation), then groups that are more developed socially and psychologically will show themselves better in such work.

The success of the work of the group also depends on the form of organization of its activities. There are several such forms of organization: collective-cooperative, organized on the basis of interaction and interdependence of group members in work; individual, based on the independent work of each; coordinated, in which everyone works independently, but correlates the process and results of their work with the activities of the other members of the group.

The choice of one or another form of organization of joint labor is determined by two factors: the task facing the group, and the level of its socio-psychological maturity. In most cases, with the exception of some types of complex creative work, preference is given to the collective-cooperative form of organizing joint activities. It has the maximum effect, best mobilizes the intellectual, emotional and physical resources group members, improves their ability to perceive, process information and make optimal decisions. The same form of organization of work is better than others in preventing erroneous decisions. In complex creative work, individual and coordinated forms of organizing joint activities are preferable, sometimes combined with a collective-cooperative form of labor organization, for example, when using brainstorming techniques in group work, which will be discussed later.

The Group will be able to more or less effectively achieve its goals, depending on the influence of the following factors: size, composition, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status and functional role its members.

SIZE. Management theorists have devoted much time to determining the ideal group size. The authors of the school of administrative management believed that the formal group should be relatively small. According to Ralph K. Davis, the ideal group should consist of 3-9 people. Keith Davis, a modern theorist who has devoted many years to the study of groups, tends to share his opinion. He believes that the preferred number of group members is 5 people. Studies show that actually 5 to 8 people come to meetings in a group.

Some studies suggest that groups with 5 to 11 members tend to make better decisions than those with more than that size. Research has also shown that in groups of 5, members tend to be more satisfied than in larger or smaller groups. The explanation for this seems to be that in groups of 2 or 3, members may be concerned that their personal responsibility for decisions is too obvious. On the other hand, in groups consisting of more than 5 people, its members may experience difficulty, timidity in expressing their opinions in front of others.

In general, as the size of a group increases, communication between its members becomes more difficult, and it becomes more difficult to reach agreement on issues related to the activities of the group and the fulfillment of its tasks. An increase in group size also reinforces the tendency for groups to be divided into subgroups informally, which can lead to conflicting goals and cliques.

COMPOSITION. The composition here refers to the degree of similarity of personalities and points of view, the approaches that they show when solving problems. An important reason for putting a question to the group's decision is the use of different positions to find the optimal solution. Therefore, it is not surprising that on the basis of research it is recommended that the group be composed of dissimilar personalities, since this promises to be more effective than if the members of the group had similar points of view. Some people pay more attention to the important details of projects and problems, while others want to look at the whole picture, some want to approach the problem from a systemic perspective and consider the relationship of various aspects. According to Miner, when “groups are matched to either very similar or very different people, groups with different points of view produce more high-quality solutions. Multiple viewpoints and perceptual perspectives are bearing fruit.”

GROUP RULES. As was revealed by the first researchers of groups in labor collectives, the norms adopted by the group have a strong influence on the behavior of the individual and on the direction in which the group will work: to achieve the goals of the organization or to resist them. Norms are designed to tell group members what behavior and work is expected of them. Norms have such a strong influence because only by conforming their actions to these norms can an individual count on belonging to a group, its recognition and support. This applies to both informal and formal organizations.

From the standpoint of the organization, we can say that the norms can be positive and negative. Positive norms are considered to be those that support the goals and objectives of the organization and encourage behavior aimed at achieving these goals. Negative norms have the opposite effect; they encourage behavior that is not conducive to achieving organizational goals. Norms that encourage the diligence of employees, their dedication to the organization, concern for product quality, or concern for customer satisfaction are positive norms. Examples of negative norms are those that encourage unconstructive criticism of the company, theft, absenteeism, and low productivity.

One of the researchers classified group norms:

1) pride in the organization;

2) achievement of goals;

3) profitability;

4) collective work;

5) planning;

6) control;

7) professional training of personnel;

8) innovations;

9) relationship with the customer;

10) protection of honesty.

Leaders should exercise caution in their judgments of group norms. For example, a group of lower-level managers who feel it is right to always agree with superiors may seem to exhibit a high degree of loyalty. However, in fact, such a norm will lead to the suppression of initiatives and opinions that are very advantageous for the organization. Such suppression of important information is fraught with a decrease in the effectiveness of decisions.

COHESION. Group cohesion is a measure of the attraction of group members to each other and to the group. A highly cohesive group is a group whose members are strongly attracted to each other and see themselves as similar. Since a cohesive group works well as a team, a high level of cohesion can increase the effectiveness of the entire organization if the goals of both are consistent with each other. Highly cohesive groups tend to have fewer communication problems, and those that do are less severe than others. They have less misunderstandings, tensions, hostility and distrust, and their productivity is higher than in non-cohesive groups. But if the goals of the group and the entire organization are not consistent, then a high degree of cohesion will adversely affect the productivity of the entire organization. This was demonstrated in an experiment at the bank signaling section of the Hawthorne plant.

Leadership may find it possible to increase the positive effect of cohesion by meeting periodically and emphasizing the group's global goals, and by allowing each member to see his or her contribution to these goals. Leadership can also build cohesion by allowing periodic meetings of subordinates to discuss potential or ongoing problems, the impact of upcoming changes on operations, and new projects and priorities for the future.

A potential negative consequence of a high degree of cohesion is group like-mindedness.

GROUP CONSISTENCY- this is the tendency of an individual to suppress his real views on some phenomenon in order not to disturb the harmony of the group. Group members feel that disagreement undermines their sense of belonging and therefore disagreement should be avoided. In order to preserve what is understood as agreement and harmony among the members of the group, the group member decides that it is better not to express his opinion. In an atmosphere of group unanimity, the paramount task for the individual is to keep common line in discussion even if he or she has different information or belief. This trend is self-reinforcing.

Since no one expresses opinions that are different from others, and does not offer different, opposing information or point of view, everyone assumes that everyone else thinks the same way. Since no one speaks out, no one knows that other members may also be skeptical or concerned. As a result, the problem is solved with less efficiency, since all the necessary information and alternative solutions are not discussed and evaluated. When there is group consensus, the likelihood of a mediocre solution that will not hurt anyone increases.

CONFLICT. It was previously mentioned that differences of opinion usually lead to more efficient group work. However, it also increases the likelihood of conflict. While an active exchange of opinions is beneficial, it can also lead to intra-group disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always harmful. The causes of conflict in small groups and the methods of their resolution in all departments of the organization are the same. Therefore, we will deal with them later in later chapters of the book.

STATUS OF GROUP MEMBERS. An individual's status in an organization or group can be determined by a number of factors, including seniority in the job hierarchy, job title, office location, education, social talents, awareness, and experience. These factors can raise or lower status depending on the values ​​and norms of the group. Studies have shown that high-status group members are able to influence group decisions more than low-status group members. However, this does not always lead to increased efficiency.

A person who has worked for a company for a short time may have more valuable ideas and better experience in relation to a project than a person with high status acquired through years of work in the management of this company. The same applies to the head of department, whose status may be lower than vice president. In order to make effective decisions, it is necessary to take into account all the information relevant to a given issue and weigh all ideas objectively. To function effectively, a group may need to work together to ensure that the opinions of higher-ranking members do not dominate it.

ROLES OF GROUP MEMBERS. A critical factor in determining the effectiveness of the group is the behavior of each of its members. For a group to function effectively, its members must behave in a way that promotes its goals and social interaction. There are two main focus areas for creating a well-functioning group. Target Roles distributed in such a way as to be able to select group tasks and perform them. Supporting Roles imply behavior that contributes to the maintenance and revitalization of the life and activities of the group. These behaviors are summarized in Table. 15.1.

Most American managers are in target roles, while Japanese managers are in target and support roles. Discussing this issue, Professor Richard Pascal and Professor Anthony Athos state:

“The Japanese are extremely sensitive to the interactions and relationships in the group. Their attitude towards groups is very similar to the attitude towards marriage in Western countries. And, interestingly, the Japanese highlight the same issues and concerns in work relationships that we highlight in marriage: they are about trust, mutual assistance, and loyalty. In the West, working group leaders tend to emphasize production activities and ignore social aspects, while in Japan maintaining the state of satisfaction of members working group goes hand in hand with the fulfillment of the target roles.

Nadezhda Suvorova

Every day we are psychologically affected. Sometimes it's annoying, and sometimes we don't even know we're being manipulated. Psychological influence is a powerful tool in capable hands. To master the techniques, you need to thoroughly study the characteristics of the individual and possible ways influence on people's minds.

What types of influence are there and how to protect yourself from the influence of others, we will talk in this article.

The concept of psychological impact

It is a complex and multifaceted term. In short, the psychological impact is the manipulation of the human subconscious, which occurs contrary to common sense. allow you to control human behavior.

At the dawn of civilization, shamans and tribal leaders possessed the skills of psychological influence. They used primitive methods: body language, intonations of the voice, rituals and potions that cloud the mind.

With the development of science and technology, there are so many ways to manipulate the subconscious that each of us uses them daily and does not suspect it.

The purpose of the psychological impact

Regardless of the object (one person or group), there is a specific goal of psychological impact behind the process:

Using other people to meet personal needs.
Gaining prestige in the group.
Creation of the framework and standards of society.
Finding a sense of significance.
proof of its existence.

Most attempts at manipulation have selfish goals. We see a person who is emotionally weaker than us, and we strive to subdue him. One needs to be listened to, the other needs to carry out instructions for him. These are the goals that we achieve through psychological influence.

Some use this skill for good purposes, others are driven by selfishness. But in the first and second cases, the true goal is to prove one's own importance to society and to establish the fact of one's existence. Psychology does not divide motives into good and bad; it studies methods and methods of influence, discovering new facts.

A skillful master is difficult to figure out, especially if he acts on you and your environment. It is easier to convince several people in practice than one. This is due to the herd mentality and the development of the media. We blindly believe what we are told on TV.

Methods of psychological influence

Diverse. Politicians and dictators are fluent in each of them:

Belief. Impact with arguments.
Self-promotion. Demonstration of one's advantages over other people in order to gain the trust of others.
Suggestion. Impact without arguments.
Infection. Transferring your feelings and emotions to other people.
Arousing the desire to imitate. Through words and actions, awaken people to imitate you.
Call for favor. Belief in your good intentions and goals.
Request. Expressing your desires and asking for their satisfaction.
Compulsion. Pressure and intimidation with threats.
destructive criticism. Suppression of a person's personality, ridicule and insult of a person.
Manipulation. Indirect awakening to action or judgment.

The types of psychological influence have similar and different features, some are suitable for achieving a quick result, others for influencing a person over a long time.

Tools of psychological influence

It's one thing when a person is nearby and you can convince him with words, looks, movements, intonation. But what if the goal is the consciousness of an audience of people located in different cities and even countries.

To do this, psychological tools are used:

Military funds.
Trade and financial sanctions.
political means.
Fine and.
MEDIA.
Internet.

Managing the masses with these tools leads to stunning results. We are used to believing what we read on the Internet and see on TV, and it would never occur to us that this is another way of psychological influence. Let's take as an example the canons of beauty that were 50 years ago and that exist now. Both were dictated by fashion with the help of the media in order to sell their products.

Belief

This method has three components: thesis, arguments and demonstration. First, you formulate a specific position - this is a thesis, then you form arguments, and at the end, with the help of a demonstration, you convince the target audience.

The method is very effective if you know the secrets of persuasion:

terms and arguments should be extremely simple and understandable;
use only those facts in the veracity of which you are sure;
take into account the personality of the interlocutor;
conduct a conversation without discussing other people;
your speech should be simple, without complex epithets and winged expressions.

Much of the success depends on the arguments you present. Those arguments that are supported by well-known facts, relate specifically to the topic of the conversation, are interesting to the interlocutor and have not lost their relevance, have the effect.

Suggestion

This method has no arguments and facts. It affects the individual in a different way. With it, you can impose your opinion on a person and force him to act in your interests.

Suggestion is direct and indirect. In the first case, you directly express your point of view and expect obedience. This method is used by parents, educators, teachers. In the second case, techniques are chosen that unobtrusively push for action. This method is used by the advertisers.

The effectiveness of suggestion is affected the following factors:

the age of the person or target audience;
state (fatigue, fatigue);
your authority;
the type of personality of the person who is psychologically affected.

Infection

This is the third main method of influencing the personality. It is aimed at a mass of people, and not at one individual. Religious sects and fan clubs are a striking example of the psychological impact through infection.

The fact that there is a method of infection, people knew at the dawn of a civilized society, when mass ceremonies were held around an idol or altar with ritual dances and entering a trance.

Today, this method is widely studied. It is better known as mass psychology or crowd phenomenon. A rare person will be able to resist the general impulse and go against the crowd.

Infection can be identified by the following signs:

turning off consciousness;
transition to a state of unconsciousness;
direction of thoughts and feelings in one direction;
the desire to implement ideas into reality right here and now;
loss of personality;
disable logic;
unwillingness to be responsible for their actions.

Persuasion, suggestion and infection are the "three pillars" on which the psychological impact is based. But other methods are also popular among those who wish to control the behavior and mind of people.

Methods of protection against psychological influence

Today, each of us has access to information about the methods of psychological influence and how to master them, so people who are inspired often have to be a puppet in someone's hands and fulfill his requests and wishes. In order not to find yourself in a similar situation, you should be able to resist manipulators and maintain a sober mind.

Methods of protection against psychological influence:

In any situation, you should analyze whether you need to obey the words of another person or not, what will be the benefit from this. In most cases, you will not be able to specifically answer the question why you do something. And this is the first sign that they want to influence you;
rational approach. If you are offered to perform specific actions, then offer your option, which will be more convenient for you. This will lead the manipulator into a stupor, and he will lose power over you;
faith in one's own righteousness. If someone else's opinion is trying to impose on you, do not blindly believe other people's words. It is better to analyze the arguments provided, compare with your own;
Change your behavior. Manipulators read information about your personality from the manner of communication and behavior. Enter such people into a dead end, trying on different roles;

distrust should become your habit. This is not about close people who wish you well. But if a stranger or work colleague suddenly begins to take an interest in you and impose his communication, beware and try to notice signs of a manipulator in his words and behavior;
review past mistakes. Focus on situations where you have been controlled. Think about how you allowed this and what to do so as not to repeat the sad experience;
ask for an explanation. If you are tempted to do something, ask lots of questions. The manipulator will give himself away if he tries to deceive you, to evade the answer;
do not do what is expected of you. Often, at the first meeting, we show ourselves better than we really are. Others take advantage of this situation, and you have to comply with their requests so as not to lose confidence. But you have the right to change and there is no need to act to the detriment of yourself and to please others;
do not test . This is a powerful incentive to get you to obey. Accept your mistakes and don't let others pressure you with memories of the past.

Psychological impact can work wonders: help loved ones, change them for the better. But greedy individuals use it for selfish purposes, so you should protect yourself and your family from negative influences.

February 17, 2014, 11:06 am

The main factors of the effectiveness of psychological influences are:

• properties of the impact initiator;
• features of the addressee of the impact;
• the quality of the relationship that develops between the initiator and the addressee of psychological impact;
• conformity of the type, form, method and tactics of influence to its goal, situation and personal characteristics of the initiator and addressee.

The central figure in the psychological impact within the framework of the "leader-followers" system is the leader as the initiator of the impact. The effectiveness of the impact largely depends on its moral, psychological, professional qualities.

Yu. A. Sherkovin, speaking of suggestion as a method of psychological influence, emphasizes that the degree of readiness of a partner to focus his attention on information, perceive and accept it largely depends on his subjective idea of ​​a communicator.

In general, the following factors associated with the leader as the initiator of the impact determine its effectiveness:

• prestige of a leader (a leader as an initiator of influence can increase his prestige either by showing his real high competence or by using the authority of another person or group);
• personal properties (charm, strong-willed, intellectual, characterological superiority, etc.);
• the degree of possession of a complex of special skills, in particular, to choose and apply the most effective ways and techniques, taking into account the purpose and characteristics of the addressee of the impact, to quickly and well understand people, take into account their characteristics and conditions (for example, if the addressee of the impact is calm, other things being equal, the best results will be given by persuasion, and if he is excited, a brief suggestion);
• features of the role behavior of the leader as the initiator of the impact;
• the nature of the general and situational attitude of the initiator of the impact to the addressee;
• the attitude of the leader as the initiator of the impact to the content of this process (in experimental studies it was found that the attitude of the speaker to the content of the speech is transmitted to the listeners and thereby affects the results of the impact; a relationship was revealed between the speaker's belief in what he conveys to the listeners, his conviction, speech and the effectiveness of psychological impact);
• the influence of the social environment on the leader as the initiator of the impact (positive or negative).

If the assessment of the status and role behavior of the leader is high enough, and the presence of his connections with social group Obviously, if the personality of the leader is indisputably positive for the followers and there is not even the slightest suspicion of the insincerity of his intentions, and, finally, if the leader, as the initiator of the influence, has confidence in the reliability of the information he offers and conviction in his ideas, then the process of influence will be very effective.

Every person is susceptible to external influences in one way or another. This ability is common to all people, although to varying degrees. Applied to various methods psychological impact, it acts as suggestibility (suggestivity), persuasion, etc. The following types of susceptibility to psychological influence are distinguished:

• 1) according to the degree of awareness - intentional and unintentional;
• 2) according to the content of the impact - general and special;
• 3) by the number of objects of influence - individual and group;
• 4) according to the conditions of influence - personal and situational.

In addition, the effectiveness of the impact is determined by the following circumstances related to the addressee of the impact:

• the participation of the addressee in the process of transmitting information (the addressee responds better to the message if he himself participates in this process in one way or another; for example, the subordinate perceives information better if the leader does not just give him instructions, but discusses possible ways to solve the problem);
• the addressee has mechanisms of psychological protection from exposure.

As A. V. Kirichenko showed, psychological protection is the reverse side of any psychological influence. It "filters" influences, separating desirable from undesirable, useful from harmful, accepting or blocking them.

Psychological protection - complex, multilevel, dynamic system, the main function of which is to prevent a violation of the internal stability of the individual, to protect the human psyche (personal structure) from negative, unwanted, destructive external influences. Psychological protection is manifested at the interpersonal and intrapersonal level and is inherent in every adult normal person.

As a result of empirical research, A. V. Kirichenko found that the effectiveness of psychological influence at the socio-psychological level is regulated by the "safety filter", "interest filter" and "confidence filter". These "filters", sifting through all external influences, automatically and almost instantly determine the level of psychological danger, as well as the significance of psychological influences for the individual, accepting or blocking them. It is the work of the "filters" that explains the selective nature of psychological defense and its dynamism, consisting in "fluctuations in its strength both upwards and downwards".

The “security filter”, which performs the function of general external psychological protection of the individual, allows, relying on stereotypical signs, to identify in the form of a partner but in interaction everything that may pose a threat to personal security, to create uncomfortable living conditions. The functioning of this "filter" is based on the ancient psychological mechanism "we - they".

The "filter of interest" protects a person from an overabundance of psychological contacts with various people, from satiety with human communication, separating significant interaction from insignificant. This subsystem of psychological defense "filters" all the "we" members of the society on the basis of "usefulness - uselessness". The psychological sign "useful - useless" ("interesting - not interesting"), which underlies the functioning of this filter, protects the human psyche from information overload, overvoltage and, as a result, its possible destruction.

The main function of the "confidence filter" is to identify among the "safe" and "interesting" people those to whom a person can fully open up. The "confidence filter", making the most subtle screening among the social environment, allows a person to protect himself as much as possible from targeted psychological influences. Based on the system of signs "trust - distrust", a person compares the integral image of a communication partner with his "model" of a partner who can be trusted. If the reflected image of the interlocutor coincides with this "model", he begins to act as a motivating force to reveal the person to the interlocutor, he feels that "you can trust the partner."

In addition to socio-psychological protection, the human psyche is protected from destructive influences from the outside by a system of intrapersonal protection.

Psychological protection can be directed to various structural elements of the impact:

• on the initiator (critical attitude towards the leader as a person);
• on content (the follower does not accept the arguments and arguments of the leader);
• on the situation, the conditions of influence (for example, the follower may not perceive a sharp critical remark in the presence of other members of the group).

At the same time, a “transfer” of the protective relation from one element to another can be observed. Thus, often the lack of authority of the leader gives rise to a critical attitude to what he says.

In addition, psychological protection is characterized by:

• selective character: one and the same addressee of the impact can detect a different degree of opposition to different initiators of the impact;
• dynamism - the fluctuation of its strength depending on the situation of influence and the personality of the initiator.

It should be borne in mind that the process of influence is not one-sided. Often it takes on the character of interaction when individual A affects individual B, and the latter not only reacts to this impact, but, in turn, has an impact on individual A. If this scheme is supplemented with feedback, then we will have a closed system in which there is a constant exchange of roles. In addition, partners in the psychological impact are connected by mutual, albeit with different goals, knowledge. Thus, the leader seeks to know the followers in order to determine the tactics of interaction, to choose the most effective methods for solving group problems, and the followers learn the leader in order to determine his competence and, consequently, the measure of trust or distrust in him.

The leader and followers are also connected by emotional relationships, which are the result of their knowledge of each other. Emotional relationships can have both positive and negative connotations, but in any case they affect the direction and strength of the psychological impact. For example, the follower's sympathy for the leader increases the degree of trust, removes communication barriers, and thereby increases the effectiveness of the impact.

Finally, the relevance of its type, form and method to the goals, situation and personal characteristics of the initiator and addressee is important for the effectiveness of the impact.

Depending on the means of influence leader on followers can be divided into two types of psychological impact: authoritarian And dialogical. Each type of influence corresponds to various tasks solved in the process of communicative interaction (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2. Comparative characteristics authoritarian and dialogic type of psychological impact

Analysis Options						Dialogic influence ting
Psychological setting of the initiator of the impact			"Top down"			"Equally"
The psychological position of the addressee of the impact			Passive object of influence, listening and perceiving information			An equal, active participant in the interaction, who has the right to his own opinion, i.e. not only support feedback, but also participate in the process of achieving the goal of communication
	Message content presentation method	Axiom or dogma		Problem or challenge
	Statement form	Impersonal ("it is believed", "there is an opinion", "it is known that ...", etc.)		Personified ("I believe", "in my opinion", "I know that...")
	Means of influence	requirement, inspiring instruction, etc.		suggestion, question, methods of indirect suggestion, etc.
	Accounting for the characteristics of the addressee	Not implemented		Implemented
	Own feelings of the initiator of the impact in relation to the content of the message, situation and addressees	Hiding		openly expressed
	Features of non-verbal message accompaniment	Unexpressed facial expressions, closed gestures		Open gestures, active facial expressions
	The principle of constructing stages of exposure
	Spatial position of the impact initiator	"Above the addressee" (at the head of the table, at the pulpit, on the podium, etc.)		On the same level (at a round table, next to each other, etc.)
	Spatial position of addressees in mass forms of influence	Each recipient sees only the initiator		Addressees see not only the initiator of the impact, but also each other

Authoritarian influence can only be used within the framework of the implementation of such types of power as legitimate and coercive power. The leader can use the dialogic type of psychological influence in the implementation of such types of power as expert and referent.

As M. R. Bityanova emphasizes, authoritarian influence can have a strong, but short-lived effect. Dialogic impact, not having such effectiveness during communication and immediately after it, produces a greater "effect of consequences" and has a stronger influence on the attitudes, motivations, beliefs and other personal structures of the addressees. The leader's task is to harmoniously combine the authoritarian and dialogic types of influence on followers, taking into account the properties of these types of influence and the scope of their application.

Depending on the goals distinguish imperative, personal and manipulative influences. Comparison of their characteristics (Table 4.3) suggests that the use of manipulative, and often imperative influences reduces the effectiveness of influence.

Table 4.3. Characteristics of manipulative, imperative and personal influences

Manipulative influence	imperative impact	Personal Impact
The outcome is desirable only for the initiator	The outcome is desirable primarily for the initiator, but may affect the interests of the addressee	The outcome may or may not affect the interests of the initiator
	The consent of the addressee is not taken into account	The consent of the addressee or lack thereof is taken into account
Information that disagrees with the desire of the manipulating party is not disclosed		The addressee is provided with all the facts
The object of manipulation is not given the opportunity of free and independent choice	The addressee is obliged to fulfill the direct request of the initiator	The recipient is free to choose

When choosing one or another method of psychological influence as a leader, it is necessary to take into account a number of characteristics (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4. Characteristics of the main methods of psychological influence

The above table makes it possible to choose the leading method of psychological influence, taking into account its characteristic values ​​and possible reactions of the addressee.

Situational-dynamic models of psychological impact

If we consider the psychological impact as a kind of integral system, we can imagine it as a set of situational and structural-dynamic components, the relationship between which determines the effectiveness of the impact.

As situational components of psychological impact are:

• the subject of the impact (that for which this impact should be provided);
• the content of the impact (what is reported);
• relationship between the initiator and addressee of the impact;
• the ability to correctly use its types, forms, methods and tactics (for the initiator of the psychological impact) and the ability to correctly assess the degree of desirability of the impact and, if necessary, build protection against it (for the addressee of the psychological impact);
• knowledge individual characteristics partner but interaction and himself;
• features of the situation of interaction between the initiator and the addressee.

The structural-dynamic components of the psychological impact are (according to V.P. Sheinov):

• engaging in contact presentation of information to the recipient of the impact to activate its specific direction in accordance with the purpose of the impact;
• background factors - the state of consciousness and functional state of the addressee, his inherent automatisms, habitual scenarios of behavior, taking into account which allows you to create a favorable external background of influence (trust in the initiator, his high status, attractiveness, etc.);
• targets of influence - sources of motivation of the addressee: his actual needs and their manifestations - interests, inclinations, desires, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, feelings, emotions, etc., on which the impact is directed;
• motivation for activity the result of the total action of involvement in contact, background factors and impact on the target or the use of special techniques (formation of internal motivation, direct actualization of the desired motive), which pushes the addressee to activity in the direction specified by the initiator (making a decision, performing an action).

Depending on what means of psychological influence are used at the level of each of the selected dynamic components and which intrapersonal processes are leading, six situational-dynamic models of psychological influence can be distinguished (Table 4.5, according to V.P. Sheinov).

As can be seen from this table, the most effective are the logical, personal and spiritually oriented models of the psychological impact of the leader on the followers.

• The table uses the developments of M. R. Bityanova (see: Bityanova M. R. Social psychology: textbook. allowance. 2nd ed., revised. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010).
• Cm.: Bityanova M. R. Social Psychology.
• Cm.: Sheinov V, P. Psychological impact. Mn.: Harvest, 2007.

Krylov Dmitry Andreevich, competitor of the Russian International Academy of Tourism.

The article describes the professional activities in general and the features of the activities of operational staff. Held brief analysis elements of operational activities. The opinions of various authors on the main psychological factors that have a different effect on professional activity detectives. Some important requirements for candidates (characteristic features) are disclosed. The need for further study of the factors indicated in the article, their causes and features of influence is revealed.

Key words: professional activity, professionally important qualities, suitability criteria, operational-investigative activity, operational officer, psychological factors, operational-cognitive situation.

Fundamental psychological factors influencing professional activities of field agents

The article describes professional activities in general and peculiarities of activities of field agents; makes a short analysis of elements of field activities; reflects opinions of various authors with regard to fundamental psychological factors influencing in various aspects of professional activities of field agents; reveals some significant requirements to candidates (character peculiarities); detects the necessity of further study of factors noted in the article, causes and peculiarities of influence thereof.

Key words: professional activities, professionally important qualities, criteria for applicability, investigative activities, field agent, psychological factors, investigative-cognitive situation.

Activity, as a rule, is considered in psychology as a methodological category that provides an understanding of many problems of the formation and development of the human psyche. In this case, activity is understood as a form active relationship subject to reality, aimed at achieving a consciously set goal related to the creation of socially significant values ​​and the development of social experience.

The relevance of the study of professional activity in Russian psychology was noticed a long time ago, back in 1965 by K.K. Platonov, who noted that "for a long time there was a shortage in psychology. She taught well what psychological qualities of a person should be studied, but she taught very little what features of activity should be observed in order to study these personality qualities."

The demands made by the profession on a person are objective. However, their formation is carried out with the participation and under the influence of man. Thus, the problem of the requirements that this or that activity makes is a problem that has not only an objective, but also a subjective component. The subjective component of professional requirements on the part of the profession is the formation of the so-called professionally important qualities (hereinafter - PVK) of the individual. Under the data of the subject's ITC are the qualities included in the process of activity and affecting the effectiveness of its implementation in terms of the main parameters - productivity, quality, reliability.

It must be remembered that many types of professional activities are provided with a set of PVK.

It can be assumed that this problem is of greatest importance for those types of activities that are difficult to algorithmize, including the professional activities of operational employees.

In connection with the definition of a complex of professionally important qualities that can ensure the maximum efficiency of each specific activity, there is an acute problem of clear differentiation various kinds professional activity itself, as well as the search for criteria for its effectiveness.

At the same time, the division of professions into types and types led to the need to identify absolute and relative requirements for the individual. It must be borne in mind that there are professions that contain some absolute, non-compensated requirements. It is impossible to conceive of a training that would ultimately produce an adaptation to these requirements. Professions that do not impose absolute requirements are relative. If this is so, it can be assumed that the qualities of a person, which determine his absolute suitability, lie outside the limits of those skills that a person is able to develop in the process of carrying out activities.

To define the concept of absolute suitability, risk appetite is essential. So, in search of criteria for absolute suitability, many authors came to the conclusion that a certain range of conditions was identified that would make it possible to clearly enough diagnose the parameters of a person's absolute suitability. These parameters included the parameters of the speed and pace of activity (including the speed of adaptation and development of stylistic features of behavior), as well as the stressful nature of stimuli, which can also be considered as markers of a person's psychophysiological characteristics.

However, quite often (especially in foreign psychology) it is the idea of ​​relative rather than absolute fitness that is interpreted as unsuitability for the profession as a whole and is most often used as a sufficient reason to prevent a person from working in this profession. Absolute unsuitability (as well as absolute suitability) is quite rare. However, as a rule, it is determined by the main (or decisive) feature for a given profession. Some authors believe that the principle of absolute or relative suitability may be decisive for the further development of professional requirements by various professions. This is especially true for many specialties represented in the system of operational bodies.

The most adequate form of allocation of PVK in accordance with certain rules dictated by the profession is the compilation of professiograms, which are a set (or synthesis) of professional selection criteria.

Among the variety of professions, a special place is occupied by the activities of operational employees.

The object of the study of the professional characteristics of this category of persons were, among other things, representatives of the departments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Federal Customs Service, the Federal Drug Control Service, the Federal Penitentiary Service, the FSO, the FSB, and the Foreign Intelligence Service of Russia.

For a complete understanding of the problems of psychological study of the characteristics of the professional activities of security officers, it is necessary to know their main tasks, which primarily include:

• identification, prevention and suppression of crimes by jurisdiction, as well as the identification and identification of persons who prepare them, commit or have committed them;
• the implementation of the search for persons hiding from the bodies of inquiry, investigation and court, evading criminal punishment, as well as the search for missing citizens;
• obtaining information about events or actions that pose a threat to the state, military, economic or environmental security of the Russian Federation.

The following methods are used as the main methods of obtaining information in accordance with the Federal Law "On operational-search activity": a survey of citizens; inquiry; collection of samples for comparative study; test purchase; research of objects and documents; observation; identification of the person; inspection of premises, buildings, structures, terrain and vehicles; control postal items; listening to telephone conversations; removal of information from technical communication channels; operational implementation; controlled delivery; operational experiment.

In this regard, the activities of the detectives consist of:

• establishing interpersonal contacts (35%);
• operational-search activities (50 - 60%);
• work with documents (15 - 25%).

S.N. Tikhomirov in his work analyzes in detail the features of the activities of employees of operational units. The author believes that search and operational search activity is one of the main means of legal knowledge of hidden threats to the interests of the individual, society and the state. The author cites common features activities of operational staff. He refers to them:

• legal regulation of activities;
• the presence of power;
• lack of time;
• unproductive obligatory waste of time and money;
• sociability;
• presence of negative emotions.

At the same time, work on operational accounting includes tasks of varying degrees of complexity, various directions, and various deadlines. The complexity of the activities of the operational-search units lies in the fact that these numerous tasks are solved in the face of constantly changing and becoming more complex operational and investigative situations, as well as opposition from interested parties.

In addition, the activities of operational officers are characterized by a broad social orientation, efficiency, focus on overcoming possible opposition, the presence of power, a high degree of risk, an increased level of responsibility for decisions made, as well as a pronounced cognitive and search orientation.

Thus, these factors of activity require the presence of certain character traits among operational employees. The most effective activity in the implementation of the cognitive-search orientation can be observed in individuals with personality dissonance, which consists in a combination of manifestations of anxiety and psychopathic traits. So, psychopathic manifestations allow in complete confidence use the powers granted, as well as conduct a survey of citizens from dominant positions. Building a conversation in this direction, with reasoned arguments, a demonstration of self-confidence, tactful offensiveness, in many cases, contributes to obtaining more complete and reliable operationally significant information from the interlocutor in connection with the formation of empathy in the latter for the operational officer.

But do not focus on these qualities. Demonstrativeness and paranoia also play an important role in effective work with people and competent planning of work on operational materials.

S.N. Tikhomirov also believes that, by their nature, operational-cognitive situations can belong to two classes. They can be algorithmic (requiring predetermined modes of action) or problematic (requiring heuristic activity in a situation of uncertainty). The activity of operational employees is characterized by the presence of a large number of problematic situations containing data that are formed outside the idea of ​​the situation (unpredictable circumstances).

In order to optimally resolve such situations, operational employees are required to have such qualities as quick orientation in the environment, knowledge of the psychology of subjects and objects of illegal activity, and the ability to work with different types of people. In addition, it is worth noting the presence of general, as well as special abilities.

Yu.V. Chufarovsky refers to the activities of operational employees: cognitive activity; practical activities aimed at identifying, verifying and evaluating facts and phenomena; certification activity. In his opinion, in terms of content, all three types of activity are diverse and make demands on completely different personal characteristics.

Thus, the activities of the employees of the operational units are multi-purpose, carried out in conditions of lack of time, insufficiency of the necessary or redundancy of side information, complex environment and implies the presence of two areas of response - static and dynamic reactions, involving the active development of cognitive processes.

IN Lately works devoted to the socio-psychological aspects of the activities of operational staff appeared. So yes. Litvakovsky, considering the specific activities of employees associated with various specific types of information collection, including with the help of technical means, notes that a modern operational worker must also have a high potential of technical knowledge and skills in order to achieve the tasks assigned to him. At the same time, the requirements for PVK are growing immeasurably.

This type of activity is characterized, first of all, by the contradiction between the desire of operational employees to choose the type of activity and methods of its implementation, on the one hand, and the rigidity of the system of relations between the organization and management of activities, on the other.

The informational aspect of the activities of operational staff (including the ability to work with the entire array of the information data bank) is currently underdeveloped. Possibilities of technical equipment of activity are reduced. This affects the quality of the activities of operational staff, because. there is no completeness of information about the elements of illegal activity. At the same time, only 25% of employees are aware of the need to create and develop an information and analytical base. Based on the conclusions made, some of the presented authors propose a multilevel system.

An important psychological factor influencing the professional activity of operational staff is the process of professional deformation. This topic is of great relevance at the present time. One of the pronounced elements of deformation is value orientations. Thus, some of the operational staff with experience in the fight against economic crimes, by virtue of the acquired professional knowledge, they take the path of promoting or organizing illegal activities. It should also be noted the problems associated with the non-realization of personal professional growth, which, due to pronounced psychopathic traits, can lead to subsequent alcoholization.

In addition, one should always remember about the spontaneous, unforeseen change in the "look" of the profession, which is able to lead to its disorganization and change its features.

However, taking into account the above, it should be noted that the analysis psychological factors that affect the professional activities of operational staff is not sufficiently represented in the literature. At the same time, analysis of the data of analytical reviews shows that within this professional group there are a huge number of problem areas. As a rule, it is possible to emphasize a number of problems in this issue in the specifics of the activities of related professions related to communication with people.

Based on the foregoing, it can be said that the professional activities of operational officers are among the most intense types of activities and require not relative, but absolute suitability of candidates. At the same time, all components of professional activity, the nature and working conditions are very difficult to modify and improve. This allows us to conclude that only a small part of candidates can meet such requirements. This state of affairs requires additional study of the psychological factors and conditions that affect the professional activities of employees.

Literature

1. Litvakovsky D.A. Improving operational-search activities to prevent and solve crimes in the economic sphere based on the use of computer technology. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Academy of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, 1998.
2. Platonov K.K. On the system of psychology. M., 1972.
3. Platonov K.K. Ability problem. M., 1972.
4. Rozov V.I. Fundamentals of psychology for law enforcement: Tutorial. K.: KNT, 2013.
5. Tikhomirov S.N. Psychological features of professional thinking of employees of police operational apparatuses: Lecture. M.: MUI of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, 1997.
6. Chufarovsky Yu.F. Tutorial. M.: Prospect; TK Welby, 2006.