Organizational tools. The use of types of organizational tools for the analysis and design of project management systems
When clarifying the place and role of morphology in the organization's tools, it is important to remember the primacy of the essence of the concepts of process, system, mechanism over the form of their implementation. It manifests itself not only in the fact that the form becomes a concrete result of building a process, creating a system, functioning of a mechanism, but also in the fact that an already ongoing process, a really created system or an operating mechanism can acquire, transform and improve various, individually specialized forms.
At the same time, carrying out one or another classification of a procedural organization becomes the basis for identifying and presenting the composition and content of its elements, their aggregation and application in solving specific problems. This approach is most vividly and variedly revealed as a result of the study and presentation of the organization's tools, to which the next chapter of this textbook is devoted.
Announcement 4.2. Aggregation, impact, activity, change, instrument, combination, cooperation, coordination, technique, set, sequence, consequences, application, adaptation, procedure, result, method, means, subject, technology, universality, unification, factor, function, part, efficiency. Justification, development, testing, adaptation, classification, application and modernization of modern organizational tools.
Justification, development, construction and application of the organization's tools are based on the unity of the universal process of research and impact, the use of its potential, content and results by the widest range of scientists and practice. This allows you to exclude parallelism, improve the consistency of the organization, significantly increase the efficiency of its functioning and development, ensuring the purposeful coordination of the actions of all participants, users and even observers.
The logic of the construction and use of complex organizational tools is laid in the foundations for the development, implementation and application of a specific analysis and assessment methodology. The effectiveness of research is determined by the versatility, diversity and level of development of the instrumental palette, the formation of a wide range of necessary ways to use a wide variety of procedures by assembling these and other components into a single set of applied configurations.
The use of the object approach is inevitably faced with the need to study and resolve the emerging hierarchical contradictions of the organization. In contrast to self-organization, their importance in the construction and use of a universal organization toolkit increases sharply, as it moves into the sphere of the formation and development of management relations. During the practical
A reasonable solution to this problem is necessary to determine the functional manifestation of the coordination unit in the organization's tools and can be conceptually considered on the following model (Fig. 4.2.1).
As can be seen even from a superficial analysis of the construction of this model, the real ratio of organization and coordination is manifested in the presence or absence of hierarchical relations in them. Indeed, only a subordinate can be organized, but the success of interaction also depends on those who are not subordinate to you. The coordination function provides the interconnection of joint actions of various, independent actors to achieve a single goal at this stage (see Appendix 2). In such a manifestation, coordination is not part of the function of the organization, but it is absolutely necessary to develop the use of the organization's tools.
At the same time, further analysis shows that the management influence, rising to a higher level, for which all those participating in this interaction are subordinates, whose joint actions can and must be appropriately organized, most often becomes inadequate, is late or emasculated by the administrative-bureaucratic procedure. In this case, the content of the impact is somehow transformed into an organization that is consistently integrated into a single toolkit, which is far from always justified by the situation and provides an effective solution to the tasks being posed.
The given configuration reflects the ratio of organization and coordination not only in the study, but also in the impact on the object. It allows you to foresee the possibility of interaction and even transformation of the organization and coordination with specific goals and at specific levels of management. The problem of the complex implementation of the organization and coordination tools, ensuring their interaction in processes and control systems will be considered in more detail in the last section of the textbook, here the authors dwell on the differences between them already highlighted above.
The versatility of the organization's tools is manifested not only in the development and application of a single mechanism or its purposeful commutation with functions such as coordination. It, as it was shown at the beginning of this chapter, can also be realized in the most direct way in the absolutely necessary, organic and consistent combination of research and impact on the object. In this regard, the universal toolkit becomes one of the specific and at the same time the most common aggregate manifestations of a particular organization.
Based on the use of a wide palette of a wide variety of configurations of a combination of external tools, means, methods, techniques, procedures for direct impact on the formation and development of organizational relations in real processes and systems, the organization's tools are used in the form of complex universal structures that combine individual components into a well-oiled, purposefully operating mechanism organizations. The basic procedures of such a mechanism are constantly being modernized and augmented by innovative configurations that largely determine the essence and content of organizational changes and the development of an organization.
| Rice. 4.2.2. Basic Configuration Models for Organizational Tools | / info / 120952 "> basic models of the chain of sequences for the formation and use of tools, while maintaining the general logic of their construction, can and should be adapted, modified and modernized in accordance with the change and development of goals, objects and conditions of the organization. reflect only the general configuration of the construction and use of a specific toolkit aggregate as a prototype for the design of purposeful applied organizational toolkit. In this approach, the means of an organization, in a particular case, are understood as all the resources used or produced and used management products, with the help of which the achievement of the desired result is ensured. The emphasis here is on building applied models of organization and administration aggregates based on what is shown in Fig. 4.2.2 basic tools. At the same time, the variety of tools used is limited only by the powers and resources available in the system for their implementation and largely determines the overall effectiveness of the development and use of the organization's tools. Similar directions for improving the organization's tools are purposefully, detailed and comprehensively developed by such a discipline as the scientific organization of labor (NOT), which aims to optimize the mutual organization of the subject, means, conditions, product and performer of labor. Along with the already formed and traditionally used techniques and tools in Lately NOT is developing new approaches to self-regulatory organization labor (for example, network or program-targeted) cooperation based on the use of innovative resources of modern information technologies. The directions given above and used in the scientific literature and examples of the manifestation of the organization's tools allow us to draw a conclusion about the objective-subjective nature, the open nature of its formation and development, a wide range of adaptation and application. At the same time, the universality of its perception and use is preserved, ensuring the adequacy of the interaction of various organizations and performers. This allows you to purposefully and permanently improve both the tools themselves and the methodology for their use in various organizations and situations. The concept outlined in this chapter substantiates the idea that, in general, the modern organization's toolkit is a permanent, proactive, specialized and comprehensively developing resource of means of integration, unification and purposeful research and organizational impact on processes and systems. Give an example of the most common aggregations in an organization's toolbox. Compare the use of organizational tools in application situations 1, 4, and 5. The composition, content, relationships of organizational changes are extremely diverse and include the entire possible palette of targeted impacts and their results. Moreover, real organizational changes, as a rule, are ensured by the use of a certain combination of methods and means of influence, substantively adapted to the goals and conditions of their achievement. In this sense, the organization's toolkit becomes the main resource for the development and implementation organizational changes. In solving this problem, one can directly rely on the development of the morphology of the organization. So, in Chapter 3.2, in the model of morphological tools for organizing research and impact, transformation is clearly distinguished as a manifestation of a probabilistically emerging development of an organization and reform as a purposeful organizational change. This makes it possible to structure the analysis of the situation and the synthesis of the impact aimed at its constructive resolution. Chapter 4.2. Organizational toolkit Entrepreneurs and businessmen, no matter at what level of the economy they cooperate with foreign partners, needed knowledge and skills in the development and decision-making related to relationships and interaction with international firms that are involved in the process of international exchange (sale and purchase) of goods or services. ... At this stage, international marketing became the philosophy, methodology and tools for organizing and implementing communication processes in the field of international exchange. However, the complication of relationships, the end-to-end penetration of marketing into all types of company activities, not just sales, the uncertainty of making managerial decisions in foreign conditions, the development of marketing networks demanded a new philosophy and tools for the implementation of international business communications. So international marketing management became philosophy and a means of intensifying international entrepreneurship International marketing management has become an integrated function, the implementation of which is aimed at intensifying the process of formation and reproduction of demand for goods and services, increasing profits in international business. and the internationalization of the economies of the countries - business partners.Globalization reflects the formation and development of convergent and divergent processes in the sphere of interaction of national cultures and their international ionization. Despite the fact that national and international marketing are based on the same principles and tools for organizing marketing activities, the difference between them is determined more by the diversity and dissimilarity of communications between countries than by the difference in regional business communications within a particular country. In this context, we can say that marketing within the country should be based on the concept of intensive nationalization of market relations, i.e., taking into account internal, national characteristics and culture, and international marketing - on the concept of internationalization of international market relations, taking into account the peculiarities of the functioning of national business networks other countries, the principles of international expansion of national networks, international penetration and international integration. Unfortunately, domestic management science did not "suffer" from pragmatism. Its characteristic feature was and is an all-consuming schematism, not supported either by a scientifically grounded concept of managerial activity, or by the corresponding specific tools for organizing labor in each social object and their interacting totality. Time management tools should not be confused with their media. So, a laptop, a PDA or a simple organizer are only representatives of electronic and paper carriers of tools for organizing time. Even if the changes were not so dramatic, leaders would still have to consider the environment, since the organization as an open system depends on the outside world for the supply of resources, energy, people, and consumers. Since the survival of the organization depends on leadership, the manager must be able to identify the significant factors in the environment that will affect his organization. Moreover, he must suggest suitable ways of responding to external influences. Throughout this book, you will become familiar with the tools and methods at the disposal of a leader for planning, organizing, motivating and controlling the internal environment in response to external changes. The ability to understand in time which project is not worth developing further can solve the issue raised in the section heading. Using information in electronic form avoids the huge cost of unnecessary research and improves the quality of early decisions - which is very important because in the field of research and development, each next step is usually more expensive than the previous one. The use of electronic systems allows a biotech company to test its luck more often, which means it increases its chances of success. Such an organization needs to strive to improve the quality of projects that are candidates for further development. If any of them turns out to be unproductive, it is necessary to stop it as early as possible and give the green light to the other. Through the use of information tools, it is possible to significantly reduce false starts and improve screening efficiency, thereby increasing the percentage of future drugs in drug development. At every stage of development social production we have to deal with the solution of problems of choosing the best, most effective option for capital investments, ensuring an increase in the economy of the national economy, an enterprise. To carry out calculations and assess options for economic decisions, scientifically based methods and economic tools are required. In industry and construction, the economic efficiency of capital investments and new technology is determined by industry and industry as a whole, individual enterprises and associations, oil and gas fields, construction organizations, organizational and technical measures in the following cases The conceptual relationship of the theory of organization with other areas of knowledge, as already noted at the beginning of this chapter and the content of the previous chapter, is most fully manifested in the formation and application of tools for their research. The practical implementation of the application of the theory of organization as a toolkit is confidently expressed in the construction, structuring and presentation of such industrial disciplines as technology, and socially applied disciplines such as conflictology or political science. This convincingly testifies to the universality of the formulation and application of the organization's tools in any area of knowledge and field of practice. V real life, even when the attention is not specially focused on the use of such tools, in the representations of the intellectual organization of his own consciousness, the individual does not care, one way or another, scrolls the upcoming deputies and their possible consequences, which in itself is already modeling. It is this nature that determines the key place, the determining role and strategic perspective of the formation and development of modeling as one of the fundamental units of the modern presentation of the universal toolkit of the organization. To the extent that one person is dependent on another, he or she is potentially subject to the power of that other person. Within organizations, one person maximizes others by controlling access to information, people, and tools that we define as follows The main features in the formation of the sequence is the observance of the methodological, logical, organizational and informational unity. Optimization of models on network graphs, taking into account the available resources allocated for design, can be recommended as a toolkit used to link and control the design progress of complex tasks. Normative framework functioning in the personnel management service of the SAOI should be recorded in the relevant methodological and regulatory documents of the organization. They should formulate general provisions and the content of tasks implemented in an automated mode, instructions for users to solve individual problems, a description of the forms of input and output documents. As competition grows in our information-driven economy, customer information is becoming an increasingly important manufacturing resource. Every company and every knowledge worker has a responsibility to make the most of the data it can. Many new users cannot afford the high costs of database tools or highly skilled, narrow-minded professionals. Fortunately, as the adoption of data mining tools on such a massive platform as the personal computer, it is inevitable that prices will fall rapidly, with an explosive growth in the popularity of this toolkit in companies of all sizes and in their divisions. Soon every user in the business world will be able to carry out complex information processing, previously available only to organizations that can shell out a lot of money for it. Data mining will go everywhere, come standard |
Understanding Corridor Networks
In the so-called corridor network schedules, a part of the entire complex of works or individual performing works can be taken as a corridor (Fig. 4.12).
The belonging of the work to a particular corridor is determined by its horizontal position (or segment) in this corridor, as shown in Fig. 4.13.
So, in the figure we see that jobs 1-2 and 2-4 are performed along node "a", since the horizontal segments of these jobs lie in the plane of the corridor of node "a". Works 1-3 and 3-4 are performed along the node "b", since the horizontal segments of these works lie in the plane of the corridor of the node "b".
Rice. 4.12.
Rice. 4.13.
So, Executor 1 on the chart is represented by a triangle. Artist 2 is indicated by a square. Artist 3 is indicated by a circle. Thus, any figure standing at the beginning of a work denotes a specific performer of this work. So, work 1-2 on node "a" is performed by Contractor 1. Work 3-4 on node "b" is performed by Contractor 2, and so on.
Rice. 4.15.
As seen, corridor network schedule carries much more information than a regular network. This quality allows it to be used in cases where a simple network schedule is not enough to perform management functions.
Network Matrix
The network matrix is corridor-scale network schedule organized in the context of work performers.
The network matrix allows you to link the logical-temporal structure and organizational structure of the organization's management into a single complex tool.
The use of network matrices in the project management process makes it possible to present this process in a visual form, as well as to identify the features of the situation, the structure of the necessary work and acceptable means and methods for their implementation, to analyze the relationship between the performers and the work, to prepare a scientifically based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire complex of works on solving the problem. Such a plan allows more efficient use of available resources, since the analysis network matrix and the definition of critical work and time reserves for non-critical work make it possible to reallocate resources in order to better use and reduce the time required for the implementation of tasks. It also becomes possible to quickly process large amounts of accounting data using computer technology and provide the company's management with timely and comprehensive information about the actual state of work facilitating the adjustment of the decisions taken; predict the progress of work on the critical path and focus the attention of managers at various levels on them. Using the mathematical apparatus, it is possible to determine the degree of probability of the plan's implementation and correctly distribute responsibility among the hierarchical levels of management.
The network matrix is a graphical representation of processes project management, where all the operations, the execution of which is necessary to achieve the final goal, are shown in a certain technological sequence and interdependence. The network matrix is combined with a calendar-scale time grid, which has horizontal and vertical corridors. Horizontal corridors characterize the level of management, structural unit or official performing a particular operation of the process of preparing, making and implementing a decision; vertical - the stage and individual operations of the decision-making process, taking place in time.
Network Matrix is a kind of network graphics. Therefore, when building a network matrix, the same three basic concepts are used as when building network diagrams:
- work (including expectation and dependence);
- event;
- path.
All rules for building network diagrams apply to network matrices as well.
Building a network matrix
For the correct construction of the network matrix, in addition to general rules When constructing network diagrams, several special rules should be followed that directly relate to network matrices as a corridor-scale variety of network models.
The belonging of the work (arrows) to one or another horizontal corridor is determined by its horizontal position or its scale-free horizontal section in this corridor. The belonging of a work (arrows) to a vertical corridor is determined by the vertical boundaries of the corridor, stage or operation, i.e. vertical lines defining the matrix time scale.
Rice. 4.17.
After building the network matrix, all known methods for calculating analytical parameters and optimizing the model can be applied to it.
Organizational toolkit project management: network modeling, PERT method, RAZU matrix, information technology management models
The network matrix is a graphical representation of the project implementation processes, where all work (management, production) is shown in a specific technological sequence and the necessary relationship and dependencies
One of the most effective tools in project management is the so-called net matrices ( higher level of development of "network diagrams"). They will allow you to present the entire process of project implementation in a very visual form, as well as identify the composition and structure of work and acceptable means and methods for their implementation, analyze the relationship between performers and work, prepare a scientifically based coordinated plan for the implementation of the entire complex of work on the project for more effective use of existing resources and time reduction.
It is also possible to quickly process information arrays using computer technology and provide the project management with timely and comprehensive information about the actual state of work, which makes it easier to correct the decisions made; predict the progress of work on the critical path and focus on them the attention of project managers. Using the mathematical apparatus, it is possible to determine the degree of probability of project implementation and correctly distribute responsibility according to the hierarchical levels of management.
The basis of the project management system is matrix of separation of administrative tasks of management. ONCE Using this matrix in the project management system, it is possible to divide the responsibilities, rights and responsibilities of all project participants in the project team and, on this basis, build an organizational and dynamic structure and information system.
The matrix for dividing administrative management tasks is a table in which the names of positions, departments and services are located, and the tasks performed by these performers are listed. The conventional sign denotes the attitude of each department of the service or a specific employee to the solution of a specific task.
The activities for the implementation of management functions in the design of the RAZU matrix are as follows:
responsibility for solving a particular task of project management;
I am the sole decision and personal responsibility for the solution of a particular problem (with a signature);
! - personal responsibility for solving a particular problem in the collegial form of decision-making (with a signature);
R - participation in a collegial solution of this problem without the right to sign.
P - planning;
О - organization;
K - control;
X - coordination of joint efforts of the participants in the process;
A - activation.
С - approval, sighting;
T - performance;
M - preparation of proposals;
+ - settlement operations required to perform the function (task);
- - does not participate in the work.
Project management technology design, i.e. fixing the sequence and relationship of the solution of management tasks, possibly using the so-called information technology model (ITM).
The main stages of ITM development:
1) development of information tables.
2) Formation of information technology models based on information tables
When developing a project management ITM, it is necessary to: reflect the interrelation of tasks in the decision-making process; to ensure a clear distribution of job duties and responsibilities (the RAZU matrix); determine the types and forms of documents resulting from solving problems.
3) Formation of a consolidated project management model. To build this model, you must: select target functions management; define supporting subsystems; establish the place of each task (from information tables) in the model. Project marketing. Marketing plan in the project. Feasibility study of the project: content, purpose. Business plan of the investment project: content, purpose.
Information Technology Model (ITM)
The information technology model (ITM) is a table consisting of six blocks:
1) 1 block: Calendar days- the timing of the solution of the management problem (as a rule, this is the deadline for the provision of the resulting documentation (all terms are taken from the network schedule or the work schedule));
2) Block 2: Input information - taken on the basis of the second column of the information table;
3) 3 block: Performers - filled in on the basis of the fifth column of the information table;
4) 4 block: Management task - filled in on the basis of the first column of the information table;
5) 5 block: Resulting documentation - filled in on the basis of the fourth column of the information table;
6) 6 block: Consumers of the resulting documentation - filled in on the basis of the seventh column of the information table;
Each task (with all its elements: initial information, performers, etc.) has its own vertical bar. All information in the information technology model (ITM) is represented by the following symbols:
1) - incoming information, performers, consumers;
2) - management tasks;
3) - resulting documentation;
74. Project cost management at the stage of its implementation: basic and additional indicators of the earned value method.
Project monitoring should include an earned value method to analyze and assess the current status and progress of the project and be carried out by comparing the actual values \ u200b \ u200bwith the baseline targets. Earned value key metrics, such as earned value, actual costs, and planned volumes, allow not only recording actual results, but also predicting the future state of a project and making the right management decisions based on these forecasts.
The basic indicators of the earned value method are:
Planned value (PVj \
Earned Value (EV) \ Earned Value shows the actual amount of work performed, expressed in terms of the planned cost of that work, as of the key date.
Actual Cost (AC). Actual costs show the actual (actual) cost of the work performed, i.e. the aggregate of all costs incurred in the course of work to date. Sometimes actual costs are referred to as the amount of resources that needed to be used on the current date or within a certain period of time.
Additional indicators:
Such derived (calculated) indicators usually include the following analytical and forecast indicators:
Variances:
Schedule Variance (SV),
Cost Variance - CV,
Variance at Completion (VAC);
Indices:
Schedule Performance Index (SPI),
Index of budget execution (Cost Performance Index - CPI),
To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI);
Forecasts:
Estimated duration of the project (Time Estimate at Completion - EAC t),
Estimated cost of the project (Estimate at Completion - EAC),
Variance at Completion (VAC).
When calculating analytical indicators, the indicator of the full budget of the project (Budget at Completion - BAC) is also used, which characterizes the total amount of all planned volumes of work of the project, the final value of the baseline plan for the implementation of the project.
| Questions operational management project | Earned value method metrics |
| Is the project behind or ahead of schedule? | Deviation on schedule (by time) (SV) |
| How efficient is your time? | Schedule Execution Index (SPI) |
| What is the likely duration of the project? | Estimated duration of the project (EAC () |
| Is the project on or off budget? | Variation in cost (in value) (CV) |
| How efficient are the resources? | Budget Performance Index (CPI) |
| How efficiently should resources be used to successfully complete the project? | Necessary Performance Index (TCPI) |
| What is the expected cost of the project? | Forecasted project cost (EAC) |
| Will the project be completed on or off budget? | Deviation on completion (VAC) |
The relationship between the business plan and the feasibility study.
A business plan is a form generally accepted in world economic practice for presenting business proposals and projects, containing detailed information on production, sales and financial activities firms and an assessment of the prospects, conditions and forms of cooperation based on the balance of the firm's own economic interests and the interests of partners, investors, consumers and competitors.
It is obvious that the development of a business plan, a set of calculated indicators is the initial information for a feasibility study. Thus, an organic relationship between the parameters of the business plan and the parameters of the feasibility study (with the technical and economic parameters of the project) project.
Mandatory elements of a business plan are:
1. Development of a project idea
2. Description of the idea (essence) of the project
3. Analysis of the production capabilities of the company in the implementation of the project
4. Market assessment
5. Development of a marketing plan
6. Development of a production plan
7. Development of an organizational plan
8. Calculation of feasibility study indicators
9. Development of a financial plan
10. Risk assessment
11. General conclusions and proposals (summary)
Thus, in the process of working out the sections of the business plan, the initial data for the feasibility study are formed.
Having received all the necessary data for a feasibility study, the feasibility study indicators are calculated ( net profit, profitability, internal efficiency ratio, maximum cash outflow, return period of capital investments, break-even point). If the calculations show technical and economic efficiency, then they begin to form the final version of the business plan.
If the feasibility study indicators do not meet the requirements of technical and economic efficiency, then the initial data are specified or a decision is made about the inexpediency of the project.
Feasibility study is the main project document for the construction of facilities. Based on the feasibility study approved in the prescribed manner, a tender documentation and contract bidding is being held , consists contract (contract) contract, opens financing construction and being developed working documentation .
· Business plan is a program of actions for the implementation of entire business projects that are in constant interaction with the external environment.
· Feasibility study is a slightly more localized version of the business plan. The main task of the feasibility study is assessment and description of the economic feasibility of the project , which will be implemented within one enterprise (which may ultimately require the development of a separate business plan).
| Parameter | Feasibility study | Business plan |
| Tasks performed | · Comparison of investment and technical characteristics the project | · Search for sources of additional funding · Comprehensive assessment of the business project · Establishment of communications with stakeholders |
| Potential reader | · Management · Business owners · Key technical staff | Banks Venture funds Business angels Owners Partners |
| Typical structure | · general information about the project · commercial viability of the project · structure and cost items associated with the project · production capacity / project plan · need for funding | · Concept, overview, summary. · Description of the base enterprise. · Product description. · Market analysis, marketing and sales. · Production plan. · Organizational plan. · Environment and regulatory information. · Financial plan. · Project risks and their minimization. Schedule of the project implementation |
| In what situations may you need? | · Purchase of new automated coffee machines · Updates software assembly line Development of a new feeding mechanism for sheet materials for cutting Use of a new type of waterproof ink for large format printers | Opening of a new business-format hairdressing salon Establishing a shoe factory in China Opening a new furniture store specializing in furniture made from interchangeable color modules Establishing a chain of café-restaurants with changing interiors and menus Opening a new super-budget grocery store within walking distance Build a factory for polyethylene processing |
ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Topic of the article: | ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS |
| Category (thematic category) | Technologies |
3.1 Network Matrices
Network Matrices are the most effective tool in project management. Οʜᴎ represent a higher level of scientific development of network diagrams and are used at all stages life cycle project.
In the network matrix, design work is depicted graphically in a specific sequence and taking into account the relationships and dependencies between them. As an example, we will give a fragment of the network matrix (Fig. 9).
Rice. 9 Fragment of the network matrix
The network matrix is aligned with the calendar-scale time grid. The horizontal “corridors” of the grid correspond to officials, business units or levels of management. Vertical "corridors" correspond to separate time intervals.
When constructing a matrix, three basic concepts- work͵ event and path.
Work- ϶ᴛᴏ a time and resource consuming process. On the graph, it is depicted as a solid arrow.
Work also includes expectation and addiction.
Expectation- ϶ᴛᴏ process requiring time consuming but does not require resources. On the chart, it is indicated by a dashed arrow indicating the waiting time.
Addiction (fictitious work) indicates only the existence of a connection between jobs, when the start of work depends on the completion of other jobs. There is no need for time and resources.... Dependency is indicated by a dotted arrow without indication of time.
Event is designated, as a rule, in the form of a circle and represents the result of the performance of all the work included in it. In this case, the event allows you to start all the outgoing jobs.
From the given example (Fig. 9) it can be seen that within the framework of the control process there are four events, with event 1 being initial, events 2 and 3 intermediate, and event 4 final. These events are related to the execution of works, and works 1-2 and 2-4 are performed by the director, works 1-3 and 3-4 - by his deputy, and work 1-4 - by the chief engineer.
The sequence of works from original event before the final forms path... The path that has the longest duration in the network matrix is usually called critical and is indicated, as a rule, by a thickened or double arrow.
When building network matrices, it is extremely important to adhere to the following basic rules.
· The rule of designation of works.
It is not allowed to designate parallel jobs with the same code (Fig. 10a). This means that there should only be one arrow between two adjacent events. Otherwise, it is extremely important to introduce an additional event and dependence into the matrix and separate one of the works with them (Fig.10b).
· Rule of prohibition of "dead ends".
There should be no events in the network matrix from which no work comes out (except for the final network event). The presence of such events means that extra work or there is an error in the technology of their implementation.
· Rule of prohibition of unsecured events.
There should be no events in the network matrix that do not include any work (except for the original network event). In this case, the start condition will not be set for jobs that exit from such unsecured events. Consequently, the work will not be completed.
· Delivery picture rule.
Supply- ϶ᴛᴏ the result obtained outside the project management system. The delivery is depicted as a circle with a cross inside. In the example shown (Fig. 10c), delivery is required to perform work 2-3. As a rule, next to the circle of the delivery indicate the number of the specification disclosing its content.
· The rule of organizational and technological links between works.
The network matrix takes into account only the directly indicated relationship between activities (Fig. 10d). To show that work 4-5 should be preceded not only by work 3-4, but also by work 1-2, the matrix additionally indicates the relationship between events 2 and 4.
· Technological rule for constructing network matrices.
To build a network matrix, it is extremely important to establish what work should be completed before the start of this work, which ones have been started after its completion, which are extremely important to perform simultaneously with this work.
· Event encoding rule.
All events in the matrix must have separate numbers. For this, events are encoded as integers without gaps. In this case, the next event is assigned a next number only after assigning numbers to all previous events.
· Rules for specifying jobs, expectations and dependencies:
1) the arrow (work) must always be directed from an event with a lower number to an event with a higher number;
2) the belonging of the work (arrows) to a certain horizontal "corridor" is set by its horizontal section;
3) the duration of work or waiting is determined by the horizontal projection of the distance between the corresponding events;
4) the dependencies between jobs without waiting are indicated by vertical arrows. Moreover, their projection on the time axis is equal to zero;
5) tilt of the arrows along the time axis to the left is not allowed.
Let us consider the procedure for constructing a network matrix using the example of the fragment "Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust" (Table 1).
Table 1
"Preparation of proposals for improving the organization of project management in a construction trust" (option)
Let's transfer the presented works to the network matrix, taking into account their sequence, duration and performers (Fig. 11).
Figure 11 - Network matrix of the fragment of the project "Preparation of proposals for
improving the organization of project management in a construction trust "
The advantage of the network matrix is a visual display of the time parameters of the project͵ the knowledge of which is extremely important for maneuvering project resources and project management as a whole.
Dotted lines on network graphics show reserves of time when performing work.
Jobs that do not have time reserves form critical path... For the considered example (Fig. 11), one of the critical paths is the sequence of works: 1 - 3 - 6 - 11 - 13. Their total duration is 6 days.
The duration of the critical path allows you to determine the directive duration of the project:
where is the duration of the critical path;
The likelihood of the project being implemented under the given conditions. The normal value of this indicator is in the range from 0.6 to 1.0;
Duration variance i-th work as part of the critical path.
The actual duration of an individual work is a random variable with a normal distribution law. Its parameters can be calculated using approximate formulas:
where,,, - the most probable, optimistic, expected and pessimistic duration of work, respectively;
Dispersion of the actual running time.
Main settings network model
The main parameters of the network model include:
Event number (N);
The early date of the onset of the event - ϶ᴛᴏ the earliest possible moment of the onset j-th event and it is determined by the time of execution of all work preceding this event. It is obvious that the early date of the onset of the event may come when all the work of the maximum travel time will be completed:
T (P) j = max (T (P) i + t ij), for (i, j) ÎV + j,
where V + j, is the set of arcs on the network model included in the event j;
The late date of the onset of the event - ϶ᴛᴏ the latest of the permissible moments of the onset i-th event, at which it is still possible to complete all subsequent work without exceeding the deadline for the entire project. Determination of the late timing of the occurrence of events is carried out strictly sequentially in descending order of event numbers, starting with the final event, according to the formula:
T (P) i = min (T (P) j - t ij), for (i, j) ÎV - i,
where V - i, is the set of arcs on the network model, emerging from event i;
Reserve - ϶ᴛᴏ the difference between the late and early dates of the event:
R k = T (P) k - T (P) k.
The network model parameters are specified at the vertices as follows:
Let us consider the definition of the basic parameters of the network model using the example of a project, the initial data for which are presented in Table 2.
table 2
Initial data for the project
| Job number | Job title | Previous work number | Duration, days |
| Coordination of customer requirements | - | ||
| Development of documentation and building design | - | ||
| Completion design work | |||
| Foundation works | |||
| Landscape design | |||
| Construction of the fence | 2, 3 | ||
| Construction of the first floor | |||
| Completion of work on the construction of the fence | |||
| Installation of entrance gates | |||
| Completion of work on the construction of the first floor | |||
| Installing a garage door | 8, 10 | ||
| Installing the rafter system | |||
| Landscaping | |||
| Installation of roof, windows and doors | 9, 11, 12 | ||
| Internal work and delivery of the project to the customer | 13, 14 |
The network model of this project is shown in Fig. 12.
3.3 Matrix for dividing administrative management tasks
For a clear division of job duties and responsibilities in the process of project management, a matrix for the division of administrative management tasks (the RAZU matrix) is being developed.
The RAZU matrix is a table, the names of the rows of which indicate the control problems to be solved, and in the name of the graphs - performers ( officials, divisions and services). At the intersection of the lines and the graph, a conventional sign denotes the attitude of the corresponding performer to the corresponding task (Table 3).
Table 3
Matrix for separation of administrative tasks of management (option)
Consider a possible version of the conventional symbols of the RAZU matrix for various aspects of management.
· Symbols for determining responsibility for solving a problem:
I am the sole decision (signed) and personal responsibility;
! - personal responsibility and participation in collegial decision-making (signed);
R - participation in collegial decision-making without the right to sign.
· Symbols for identifying activities for the implementation of tasks:
P - planning;
О - organization;
K - control;
X - coordination;
A - activation.
· Symbols for identifying training activities and maintenance implementation of tasks:
С - approval, sighting;
T - direct execution;
M - preparation of proposals;
± - calculations;
- - non-participation in work.
To determine the attitude of each performer to each management task, an expert survey is used, most often on the basis of a preference matrix.
Preference matrix - ϶ᴛᴏ square matrix, the rows and columns of which correspond to the set of conventional symbols of the RAZU matrix (Table 4). Each element of the preference matrix is an integer:
0 - if the character corresponding to the line is less preferred than the character corresponding to the column;
1 - if the signs are equal;
2 - if the character corresponding to the line is preferable to the character corresponding to the column.
Table 4
| Symbols | T | I AM | P | O | X | A | TO | ! | Total |
| T | |||||||||
| I AM | |||||||||
| P | |||||||||
| O | |||||||||
| X | |||||||||
| A | |||||||||
| TO | |||||||||
| ! |
It follows from the table that, for example, the symbol "T" is preferable to the symbols "I", "P", "O", "A" and "K", is equivalent to the symbol "X" and is inferior to the symbol "!".
Obviously, all symbols are equivalent to themselves, in this regard, the diagonal of the matrix is unity.
For each row of the matrix, the sum of the values of its elements is calculated and this sum is considered as an assessment of the significance of the corresponding symbol by a separate expert.
Each expert fills in a preference matrix for each performer. Further, in relation to an individual performer for each symbol, the average value of its significance is calculated based on the assessments of all experts. Typically, this is the arithmetic mean or median. On the basis of the average values, the symbols are assigned ranks and one of them with the highest rank is selected, or several - in the case of the same ranks.
Determination of the coefficients of the complexity of the solution of control problems ( TO r) is also performed on the basis of filling in the preference matrix by experts. In this case, the tasks are compared in terms of their complexity. As a result, for each task, the average conditional value of labor intensity is obtained. When this value is divided by the sum of similar values for all tasks, the value TO T.
PROJECT PLANNING
4.1 Basic concepts and definitions
The essence of planning consists of:
a) setting goals and ways to achieve them based on the formation of a set of works (measures, actions) that must be performed;
b) the application of methods and means for the implementation of these works;
c) linking the resources required for their implementation;
d) coordination of actions of organizations - participants of the project.
Planning activities cover all stages of project creation and execution. It begins with the participation of the project manager (project manager) in the process of developing the project concept continues with the selection of strategic decisions on the project, as well as with the development of its details, including the preparation of contract proposals, the conclusion of contracts, the execution of work, and ends at the end of the project.
On the planning stage all the necessary parameters for the implementation of the project are determined:
Duration for each of the controlled elements of the project;
The need for labor, material and technical and financial resources;
Delivery time of raw materials, materials, components and technological equipment;
Terms and volumes of attracting design, construction and other organizations.
Project planning processes and procedures should ensure that the project is feasible within the specified time frame with minimum cost, within the framework of the normative resource costs and with the proper quality.
In a well-organized project, a specific governing body should be responsible for the implementation of each goal: the project manager for all goals (project mission), responsible executors for particular goals, etc. That is, the tree of the whole project should coincide with the structure of the subsection. the name of the organization responsible for the implementation of the project. For this, a so-called responsibility matrix is being developed, which determines functional responsibilities performers on the project, specifies a set of works, for the implementation of which they are personally responsible.
The higher the level of the management body, the more generalized, aggregated indicators it makes decisions on the management of subordinate units. With an increase in the hierarchy level, the time interval between the issuance of planned targets, the control of their execution, etc., increases. work independently, regardless of subdivisions of the same or neighboring level. The independent functioning of subdivisions must be provided with certain reserves of resources, which are also extremely important to plan.
The main purpose of planning consists in building a model for the implementation of the project. It is necessary to coordinate the activities of the project participants with its help, the order in which the work should be performed is determined, etc.
Planning is a set of procedures interconnected by mutual relations.
Posted on ref.rf
The first step in project planning is the development of initial plans, which are the basis for developing a project budget determining resource requirements, organizing project support concluding contracts, etc.
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Project planning precedes project control and is the basis for its application, since a comparison is made between planned and actual indicators.
4.2 Planning processes
Planning is one of the most important processes for a project͵ as the result of its implementation is usually a unique object, product or service. The scope and detail of planning is determined by the usefulness of the information that can be obtained as a result of the process and depends on the content (intent) of the project.
These processes can be repeated and form part of an iterative procedure performed until a certain result is achieved. For example, if the original completion date of a project is unacceptable, then the required resources, cost, and sometimes the scope of the project must be changed. The result in this case will be the agreed terms, volumes, nomenclature of resources, budget and content of the project͵ corresponding to its goals. The planning process itself should not be fully algorithmic and automated, as it contains many undefined parameters and often depends on random factors. For this reason, the plan options proposed as a result of planning may differ if they are developed by different teams, specialists in which assess the impact of external factors on the project differently.
Basic planning processes can be repeated several times, both during the whole project and its individual phases. The main planning processes include:
♦ planning the content of the project and documenting it;
♦ description of the content of the project determination of the basic stages of the project implementation their decomposition into smaller and manageable elements;
♦ drawing up estimates, estimating the cost of resources required to carry out the work of the project;
♦ definition of works, formation of a list of specific works that ensure the achievement of the goals of the project;
♦ arrangement (sequence) of works, definition and documentation technological dependencies and work restrictions;
♦ assessment of the duration of work, labor costs and other resources required to complete individual works;
♦ calculation of the schedule, analysis of technological dependencies of work performance, duration of work and resource requirements;
♦ resource planning, determining what resources (people, equipment, materials) and in what quantities will be required to complete the work of the project. Determine when the work is being completed given resource constraints;
♦ budgeting linking estimated costs to specific types of activities;
♦ creation (development) of a project plan collection of the results of other planning processes and their integration into a common document.
Supporting planning processes performed on an as needed basis. These include:
♦ quality planning, defining quality standards appropriate to this project, and finding ways to achieve them;
♦ organizational planning (design), definition, survey, documentation and distribution of project roles, responsibilities and reporting lines;
♦ recruitment of personnel, formation of a project team at all stages of the project life cycle a set of necessary human resources included in the project and working in it;
♦ planning communications, determining the information and communication needs of the project participants: who and what information is needed, when and how it should be delivered to them;
♦ identification and assessment of risks, determination of which uncertainty factor and to what extent may affect the progress of the project implementation determination of favorable and unfavorable scenarios for project implementation documenting risks;
♦ planning of supplies, determining what, how, when and with the help of whom to purchase and supply;
♦ planning proposals, documenting product requirements and identifying potential suppliers.
4.3 Planning levels
Determination of planning levels is also a subject of planning and is carried out for each specific project, taking into account its specifics, scale, geography, timing, etc. In the course of this process, the type and number of planning levels corresponding to the selected work packages for the project, their substantive and temporal relationships are determined.
Plans (schedules, networks) as an expression of the results of planning processes should form in the aggregate some pyramidal structure with the properties of aggregating information differentiated by levels of awareness management, echeloned by development time (short-term, medium-term and long-term). The planning levels and the planning system should be built using the principles ʼʼ feedbackʼʼ that provide constant comparison of planned data with actual data and have great flexibility, relevance and efficiency.
Aggregation of network schedules (schedules) is an important and highly effective tool for managing complex projects. With the help of this tool, project participants can receive network plans of various degrees of aggregation, in volume and content, corresponding to their rights and responsibilities for the project. Simplified aggregation of network plans for three levels should be presented in the form of some information pyramid (Fig. 13). Here, based on the detailed network plan (at the bottom of the pyramid), the plan is transferred to the next level of management only with key stages (milestones).
Network plans are scaled up because the overall network plan consists of many private network plans. In each of these private plans, the longest path is determined. These paths are then put in place for the individual parts of the network. With this gradual aggregation, multi-tier network plans are obtained.
The following types of plans are usually distinguished:
♦ conceptual plan;
♦ strategic plan for the implementation of the project;
♦ tactical (detailed, operational) plans.
Conceptual planning, the result of which is the conceptual plan, is the process of developing the basic documentation for the project, technical requirements, estimates, enlarged calendar plans, control and management procedures. Conceptual planning is carried out in initial period life cycle of the project.
Strategic planning is a process of developing strategic, integrated, long-term plans.
Detailed (operational, tactical) planning associated with the development of tactical, detailed plans (schedules) for operational management at the level of responsible performers.
Plan (aggregation) levels must correspond to the management levels. The higher the level, the more aggregated, generalized information is used for management. Each of the levels has its own representation of the input data, which are usually:
Contractual requirements and obligations;
Description of available resources and restrictions on their use (timing, intensity, placement, etc.);
Valuation and cost models;
Documentation for similar workings.
Strategic planning level is related to two main questions:
What are we going to do?
How do we do it?
As a rule, the private (specific) goals of the project may change as it is being implemented, while strategic goals the project͵ its mission remains unchanged. For this reason, the strategic planning phase is emphasized. Here, the utmost clarity should be obtained on the project, on the main stages of its implementation, on the goals to be achieved.
Strategic planning model may contain several substages (fig. 14). Sub-stages of strategic planning may not have a definite, predetermined sequence. As a rule, they are performed several times, when the information obtained after the next stage of the analysis or the execution of the procedure is used at the next stage, again returns to the previous or previous stages with already specified or some additional information.
SWOT analysis methods(Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats - benefits, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) are often used for the purpose of strategic planning, in particular for assessing the specific parameters of the organization itself and its environment. To conduct a SWOT analysis, use table 5. To fill it out, it is extremely important to answer the following questions:
♦ What are our advantages, how can we realize them?
♦ What are our weaknesses, how can we reduce their influence?
♦ What opportunities exist, how can we benefit from them?
♦ what could prevent threats?
♦ What could we do to overcome the problem?
Table 5
SWOT analysis table
Based on the results of the SWOT analysis, in particular, it is possible to determine which of the strategies should be attributed to the strategy for a specific project.
Twelve possible strategies for projects:
♦ construction oriented;
♦ financing-based, involving the use of non-trivial financing schemes, possibly with the use of debt obligations or subsidies, and also with a particular focus on financial flows or the cost of capital;
♦ state;
♦ design, when design technology provides significant advantages over other technologies;
♦ built on a customer-contractor relationship, in which various forms partnership relations between the customer and the contractor;
♦ technological, focused on the use of the most modern, but also more at risk technologies;
♦ focused on commissioning;
♦ ensuring the optimization of the ratio of costs, quality and terms;
♦ resource-oriented, especially with limited or high cost of resources, their scarcity and uniqueness;
♦ focused on the scale of the problems being solved or on a given volume, for example, providing a given number of jobs in the region;
♦ focused on chance or unforeseen emergencies;
♦ passive, when there is no strategy as such and behavior at all environment unpredictable.
4.4 Work breakdown structure
Work breakdown (decomposition) structure (CPP)(WBS - Work Breakdown Structure) - a hierarchical structure of the sequential decomposition of the project into subprojects, work packages at various levels, packages of detailed works. SRP is a basic tool for creating a project management system, as it allows solving problems of organizing work, allocating responsibility, estimating cost, creating a reporting system, effectively maintaining the procedures for collecting information on work performance and displaying the results in an information management system to summarize work schedules, costs, resources, and completion dates.
CPP allows you to align the project plan with the customer's needs, presented in the form of specifications or job descriptions. On the other hand, CPP is a convenient management tool for a project manager, as it allows:
♦ define activities, work packages that ensure the achievement of sub-objectives (private objectives) of the project;
♦ check whether all objectives will be achieved as a result of the project;
♦ create a convenient reporting structure corresponding to the objectives of the project;
♦ define, at the appropriate level of detail in the plan, milestones (key results) that should become milestones for the project;
♦ to distribute responsibility for achieving the goals of the project among its performers and thereby ensure that all work on the project is responsible and does not fall out of sight;
♦ Provide team members with an understanding of the overall goals and objectives of the project.
Work packages usually correspond to the most lower level CPP detailing and consist of detailed works. Work packages, if extremely important, can be subdivided into steps. Neither detailed work, nor, let alone steps, are elements of a CPP.
SRP development is carried out either from top to bottom, or from bottom to top, or both approaches are used simultaneously. The iterative process used for this purpose can include various approaches to information retrieval. For example, the method of “brainstorming” is used, carried out both within the project team and with the involvement of representatives of other project participants. As a result of the construction of the SRP, all the goals of the project should be taken into account and all necessary prerequisites for its successful implementation.
CPP detail level depends on the content of the project the qualifications and experience of the project team the management system used, the principles of allocation of responsibility in the project team the existing document management and reporting system, etc. works in the most general form.
Project hierarchical structure͵ created on the basis of SRP, allows you to apply procedures for collecting and processing information on the progress of work on a project in accordance with management levels, work packages, milestones, etc., to summarize information on work schedules, costs, resources and deadlines.
Project management system should include the ability to present information on the planned and actual project data in accordance with the structure of the CPP, except, of course, standard layouts built on the basis of filters by project indicators (timing, resources, responsible, etc.).
CPP decomposition can be based on:
♦ components of the product (object service, line of business) obtained as a result of the project;
♦ process or functional elements of the activities of the organization implementing the project;
♦ stages of the project life cycle main phases;
♦ subdivisions of the organizational structure;
♦ geographic location for spatially distributed projects.
In practice, combined CPP structures are used, built using several decomposition bases.
The art of project decomposition consists in the skillful coordination of the basic structures of the project, which include, above all:
Organizational structure (OBS - Organization Breakdown Structure);
The structure
ORGANIZATIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT TOOLS - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "ORGANIZATIONAL TOOLS FOR PROJECT MANAGEMENT" 2017, 2018.
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