Methods for studying the cost of working time include. The Importance of Studying the Cost of Working Time

Examination production possibilities each workplace, studying the experience and the most advanced methods of work, identifying intra-shift losses and obtaining the necessary materials for the development of standards and norms requires systematic monitoring and analysis of working time costs.

The choice of specific methods for studying working time largely depends on:

• the content of the production process itself (mechanical or physico-chemical);
• the degree of mechanization of the worker's labor;
• type of production;
• forms of labor organization at the workplace (individual, brigade, multi-machine);
• the frequency of repetition and the duration of the cycle of the production process (processes are cyclic, periodic and continuous).

Diversity production processes and forms of labor organization, different content and repeatability of the expenditure of working time, as well as the goals of their study, necessitate the use of unequal methods and techniques of observation, different equipment. Methods of study and varieties of monitoring the cost of working time can be classified according to the following criteria (Table 1).

The method of continuous (continuous) measurements - the most common and universal - used in all production processes with various forms organization of labor and types of study of working time (timing, photography); allows you to get the most complete, detailed and accurate idea not only of the average, but also of the actual costs and losses of working time in terms of their content, magnitude and sequence of execution.

Table 1

Classification of methods for studying the cost of working time

Classification sign	Variety
By observation method	Measurements: solid; selective; periodic; cyclic; momentary observations
	Timing. Photo (working day, equipment usage, production process)
By object of observation	Individual. Group (brigade). Route. multi-machine
According to the form of recording the results of observations	Digital. Index. Graphic. Oscillographic. Combined. Photo and filming
By way of observation	Visually. With the help of appliances. self photography

Method of periodic observations, used for group and route photography, allows you to: obtain data on the number of cases of occurrence of certain costs, loss of working time or equipment downtime. Supervision is carried out simultaneously over the work of a large number of workers or pieces of equipment. Simultaneous coverage is up to 20 objects, sometimes one person can monitor 70 workers.

Sampling method It is mainly used for timekeeping, when individual elements of an operation are studied. It is most widely used in the study of auxiliary time techniques in the conditions of a multi-machine organization of labor, instrumental processes.

Cycle measurement method - a kind of selective observation process - it is used only for timing, when it is necessary to measure the execution time of techniques (actions or movements) with a very short duration, and therefore it is impossible to accurately fix the time of their execution using conventional methods of observation (using stopwatches). Here, time measurements are made by groups of individual techniques.

Method of instant observations the cost of loss of working time and use of equipment over time is based on probability theory and is a kind of sampling method. In order for the results of observations to reflect the actual use of working time, the following conditions must be observed:

• observations of certain expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible;
• the number of observations (sample size) should be large enough to reliably characterize the observed phenomenon as a whole.

These conditions are ensured if, when determining the number of observations, the rules of statistics for sample surveys are applied. The volume of observations is determined by the formula:

where: M - sample size (number of measurements per unit of observation to be recorded) or number of momentary observations, tabular values;

TO - the utilization rate of working hours. The value of this coefficient is taken from the data of earlier observations or is taken approximately;

(1 - TO) - the share of breaks or downtime, i.e. the probability of finding a worker or machine inactive; R - the permissible value of the relative error of the results of observation, which in the practice of studying working hours and the use of equipment in time is taken within 3-10% (in the formula it is put down in fractions of a unit - 0.03-0.1); a is the coefficient associated with reliability, i.e. with the confidence probability of non-exit of the observation error R beyond the established limits.

Usually, in the practice of photography of working time, it is enough to limit oneself to the probability of one or another event within 0.84-0.95, i.e. 84-95 cases out of 100, the error will not go beyond the acceptable range. With a further increase in reliability, the number of observations will increase dramatically. Therefore, sometimes it is advisable to go for some reduction in the accuracy of the results of observations.

Under the conditions of a stable technological process and multiple repetition of the elements of the cost of working time, it is possible to take a = 1.4, which corresponds to a confidence probability of 0.84. With the sample size obtained with such a, the results will be quite acceptable. They are determined by the formula:

In conditions of an unstable production process (single and small-scale production), the calculation is carried out according to the following formula:

More observations are made in conditions of less sustainable production, less - in production with greater process stability.

According to the object of observation, the following methods are distinguished:

• 1) individual if supervision is carried out over the work of one worker;
• 2) group - the work of several workers or machines is studied;
• 3) brigade- supervision is carried out over a team of workers engaged in the performance of technologically related work at one workplace;
• 4) multi-station - monitoring the work of one worker, engaged in service several cars;
• 5) route - observation is carried out on the work of a worker moving along a certain route, or on the work of several workers located far from each other, which forces the observer to bypass the studied workplaces along a predetermined route.

According to the method of fixing the cost of working time, methods can be distinguished when observations are made by an observer:

• visually using the simplest time devices (clocks, stopwatches);
• with the help of instruments, i.e. fixing the beginning and end of individual elements of the cost of working time with devices different kind;
• fixing the cost of working time by the workers themselves (self-photography).

Recording of the results of observations can be carried out with the help of numbers, indices, graphically, photography and filming, oscillographic and combined recording.

The main types of studying the cost of working time are timing, photography and photo timing. Their most common varieties are given in Table. 2.

Studying the use of working time using these methods consists of the following steps:

• preparation for observation;
• its implementation in accordance with the chosen type;
• processing results;
• analysis of the received data and design of more rational labor processes.

table 2

Varieties of photography and timekeeping

	Method observations	An object observations	Results Recording Form	Way observations
Photo	Solid (continuous)	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Group	Index	With the help of appliances
	Periodic	Brigade	Graphic
	Selective	route	Combined	self photography
	Moment	multi-machine
Timing	Solid	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Brigade	Graphic	With the help of appliances
	Selective	multi-machine	and filming
	Cyclic			Oscilloscope recording, combined

Photo of working hours. Under the photograph of working time (day) is understood the type of study of working time by observing and measuring all costs without exception during the working day or a separate part of it.

The main objectives of photography:

• identifying losses of working time, establishing their causes and developing measures to improve the organization of labor by eliminating losses and wasted time;
• obtaining initial data for the development of standards for preparatory and final time, time for rest and personal needs, service standards;
• determination of the reasons for non-compliance with the norms by workers, study of the best experience, determination of the possibility of combining professions and multi-machine service;
• obtaining source materials in order to establish the most rational organization of workplaces and their maintenance. Consider the methodology for taking photographs of working time

on the example of an individual photograph of a working day.

Regardless of the types of photography, the methodology for its implementation includes the following stages: preparatory, observation, processing of observation results, analysis of observation results.

On the preparatory stage the purpose of photography is determined (detection of loss of working time, development of standards, etc.) and the object of observation is selected in accordance with the goal.

After determining the purpose and object of observation, one should carefully study the working conditions at the workplace, choose a place from which it is convenient to observe the worker without disturbing him, and inform him about the purpose of photography.

On the front side of the observation sheet (photocard), during the period of preparation for taking a photograph, detailed information about the worker, equipment, work performed, organization and maintenance of the workplace, etc. is recorded. . sharply expressed moments of the beginning and end of the operation or category of labor costs in accordance with their classification.

Observation consists in consistent and detailed recording in watchlist everything that happens in the workplace. Photographing is carried out from the moment the work begins, so the observer must come to the site 10-15 minutes before the start of work workplace. The entry is made in text, index or graphically on a time scale (Table 3). The column "Current time" records the end time of the observed time categories.

Table 3

Observation sheet of individual photo of working hours

(fragment)

Processing of the results of observation begins with the calculation of the duration of the individual elements of the cost of time. To do this, the value of the previous element of work is subtracted from the indicators of the current time. For example, for the first element: 7 hours 05 minutes. - 7 h. 00 min. = 5 min. etc.

Then, in accordance with the developed indexation of the time spent in the form of a photo card, the corresponding indices are put down for each action of the worker. All elements of work that have the same index are combined into groups and a summary of the costs of the same name is compiled, which characterizes the actual time spent on work (Table 4).

Analysis of the results of observations allows you to establish whether all the costs of working time are necessary and rational when existing organization labor, what are the losses of working time and what measures need to be taken in order to further increase labor productivity. The developed activities are included in the plans with the indication of the performers and the timing of implementation.

Table 4

Form of a summary card of an individual photograph of working time

(conditional example)

working time	Name of time spent	Index	Total continue validity costs,	Normalized Duration costs, min.	Eliminate expenses,
preparatory and final, T p,	Receipt and delivery of an order, drawing
	Industrial briefing
	Equipment setup Total: T pz, min.
	Total: Г„, min.
Operating time, T op

Based on the data obtained, the actual and standard balances of working time are compiled.

An example of the actual balance of working time is presented in Table. 5.

Based on the data of the actual and standard balances of the worker, the following indicators are calculated.

Shift time utilization ratio (K Spanish):

where: T pz - preparatory-final time;

T op - operational time;

T obs- time of service of the workplace;

T ex - time for rest and personal needs is taken into account within the standard;

T cm - duration of the work shift.

Table 5

Actual working time balance

(conditional example)

Time spent	Duration		Designation
Preparatory and final work
Operational work
Including: main
auxiliary
Workplace maintenance
Rest and personal needs
Downtime due to organizational and technical reasons
Loss of working time due to violations labor discipline
Total balance sheet:

(K psh):

where: T psh - time of interruptions caused by violations of the normal course of the process.

The coefficient of loss of working time due to violation of labor discipline (K ntd):

where: T ntd- Time of breaks due to violation of labor discipline.

The percentage of possible increase in labor productivity, subject to the elimination of direct losses of working time (P Fri):

Projected (standard costs) are taken from time standards or based on the results of a photograph of a working day the best worker. If there is no such data, then the avoidable losses and irrational costs of working time are deducted from the actual costs. When compiling the normative balance of working time, no time is provided for breaks due to violations of the normal technological process, and breaks associated with violations of labor discipline. All savings in these categories of working time costs are considered a reserve for increasing operational time.

To calculate the standard balance of working time, the time standards for preparatory and final operations, maintenance of the workplace, rest and personal needs approved for this type of work are used. The operational time is determined, the normative ( T op n):

where: H obs and H osh - respectively, the time standards for servicing the workplace and for rest and personal needs as a percentage of the operational time.

In our example, we conditionally assume that H obs = 6%, N ex = 5%, T pz= 15 min., then

Then, based on this value, the duration of the standard time for servicing the workplace and for personal needs is determined.

All standard costs must be the duration of the working day in minutes.

The normative balance of working time is presented in Table. 6.

Table 6

Normative balance of working hours

(conditional example)

The maximum possible increase in labor productivity while eliminating all losses and unnecessary costs of working time (L pt) calculated by the formula:

where: T opf - actual operating time.

Based on the information received, specific organizational and technical measures are developed aimed at eliminating the causes that cause losses and unnecessary costs of working time. When developing these measures, it is necessary to provide for: the specific content of the measures, the place and timing of their implementation, the responsible executors, the expected reduction in the loss of working time, the change in the current and total amount of one-time (capital) costs, if necessary.

Measures must be economically justified. For this, their expected conditionally annual economic efficiency is calculated.

The methodology for conducting group, route and other types of photography of working time is basically similar to individual photography.

Continuous observation is laborious and requires a large number of observers. This mostly applies to individual photography where one person is watching one worker. The possibilities of group and team photography are somewhat wider. The number of observed workers per one observer in these cases is 15-20 people. In the context of the dynamic development of production, such coverage of workers does not meet modern requirements. All this requires the improvement of methods for studying working time.

The advantages of photography based on the method of momentary observations: simplicity, low labor intensity, the ability to study a large group of workers or equipment by one observer.

The disadvantages include obtaining averaged data on the time spent and an insufficiently complete picture of the causes of time losses. Using the method of momentary observations, the tasks of determining the degree of use of working time and equipment loading, studying the cost structure and establishing the specific weight and absolute values ​​of individual elements of working time costs are solved.

In contrast to the method discussed above, when carrying out momentary observations continuous registration of individual elements of the cost of working time is replaced by a selective one. Observations with this method are carried out as if by chance, so their number should be sufficient to get a reliable idea of ​​the state of the use of working time.

The method of momentary observations includes several stages.

At the preparatory stage, the goal is determined and the objects of observation are selected, the required number of detours is calculated, the observation route and the detour schedule are drawn up.

Number of rounds ( K obx) is determined by dividing the total number of observations ( M) by the number of people or pieces of equipment to be examined ( N).

The duration of one bypass is determined either by direct measurements or by calculation based on tables of microelement standards, where it is given that one step (600 mm) in time (/) takes 0.01 min.

The observation route must be chosen so that during it it would be possible to see all the observed workers or equipment in turn. It should be as short as possible and exclude idle transitions if possible.

When defining it, it is necessary to set fixing points, i.e. those places along the route of the observer, where the recording of what is happening at the workplace will be made. To establish the duration of the observations, a trial round is made along the planned route. Knowing this time and the number of rounds, determine total time necessary for the observation. The main requirement of momentary observations is that the fixation of certain types of expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible. In this regard, it is very important to choose the right time for observations.

If it is known, for example, that the round trip time is 10 minutes, i.e. 6 rounds can be made in an hour, and if these 6 rounds are made in a row, then they will be repeated in a predetermined sequence every 10 minutes, which deprives the observation of the element of chance.

The observation considered in the example will rather refer to continuous rather than selective. Therefore, it is assumed in advance that 1-3 rounds should be carried out in one hour.

Then determine the start time of the bypass. To do this, it is recommended to use a table of random numbers compiled by lottery.

Having written out any of the columns of the table of random numbers (for example, 3, 4, 7, 8, 0, 1, 9), the first number is taken as the start time of the round (in our example, the third minute of the shift). The end time of the round is determined by summing the start time of the round and the duration of one round (7): 3 + T. To find the start time of the second round, a new random number is added to the end time of the first round (3 + T+ 4), etc. In this case, the bypass route remains constant.

All this complicates the preparation for momentary observations. Therefore, it is advisable to use simpler methods of research.

Thus, Polish scientists propose to carry out continuous detours along a permanent route. In connection with the loss of randomness with a rigid alternation of the moments of observation, the possibility of error in the results of the sample increases. In order to reduce it, a calculated number of observations is proposed ( M) multiply by the correction factor C according to the formula:

The correction factor C depending on the time interval between observations has the following values ​​(Table 7).

Correction factor values ​​for correcting the required number of moment observations

Table 7

Thus, the observance of the condition that the number of rounds in each hour of work is the same and the start times of rounds in the same hours of work on different days of observation do not coincide, provides the same possibility of observing all elements of the costs of working time. This condition is especially important to observe in those areas of production where the synchronism of operations takes place, the rhythm and tact of work are determined.

In production, where the relationship and interdependence between jobs does not obey a certain rhythm and tact and is random (for example, repair, mechanical, foundry and other shops), you can do without a table of the start of observation (bypasses). In this case, the observer can arbitrarily choose the start time of the round within a given hour, making only the intended number of rounds per hour per shift.

The observation technique is very simple. Sequentially moving from one workplace to another, the observer at each fixation point notes what he sees, without recording, at what point in time this state was noted and how long it lasted. This requires compliance with some rules:

• 1) each tour must begin exactly at the appointed time, determined by the tour schedule;
• 2) the detour must be carried out along the route with a uniform step, without accelerating or slowing down the walk;
• 3) the observer must record what is happening at the workplace when he is at the fixing point for these workers, and not from another place;
• 4) the volume of observations (the number of rounds) provided for per unit of time (hour, shift) should be strictly observed.

Having completed the entire volume of observations, the received data are processed, which begins with counting the number of moments for each observed element. Then the specific gravity (in percent) of each element is determined. Based on these data, the actual balance of working hours is compiled. Then, by percentage, taking them from the duration of the shift, a balance of time in minutes is drawn up.

Example. During the observation period, 200 man-moments were recorded, including by elements: main work -120 moments or (120: 200) x 100 = 60%: auxiliary work - 20 moments or (20: 200) x 100 = 10%, etc. .P.

After processing the received materials, the actual error of the results obtained is determined. If it turns out to be higher than the specified one, then an additional number of rounds should be carried out in accordance with the adjusted volume of observations, and then the processing of new data.

Self-photography method: the employee himself during a certain time fixes breaks in work, indicates their causes and proposes measures to eliminate them.

The main advantage of the self-photograph of the working day (SFRD) over other methods of studying the use of working time is that it allows you to get the richest variety of concrete proposals from employees to eliminate the causes of intra-shift downtime and improve labor organization.

The success of self-photography depends mainly on proper preparation for it. It is necessary to print forms of self-photography in advance, familiarize employees with the purpose of its implementation, as well as with the methods of keeping records on the observation sheet.

To find the desired value ( R) the formula is used:

where: TO- the actual workload obtained by processing the observation results.

The effectiveness and even the very possibility of mass self-photography is directly dependent on the level of general education and professional training of workers. Self-photography is an effective form of creative initiative of workers aimed at increasing labor productivity.

Self-photography of the working day (SFRD) plays an important role in solving issues of improving the organization and standardization of the work of employees.

The disadvantage of this method is that it fixes the loss of working time due to organizational and technical reasons, i.e. losses beyond the control of the worker.

On the day of the self-photography, there are usually no losses of working time due to the fault of the employee or the employee does not record them. In addition, correctly noting the cause of downtime, the employee cannot always determine how best to eliminate them.

However, despite the noted shortcomings, self-photography is a fairly effective and highly economical means of establishing the actual loss of working time. The mass coverage of workers by this method makes it possible to obtain reliable, representative material to substantiate conclusions about improving the organization of labor and production.

Self-photography can be done in two ways:

• 1) continuous monitoring is carried out by the employee in the form of a diary, in which he consistently records the work performed and the current completion time of each of them;
• 2) each employee is issued an observation sheet, in which a list of his main functions is pre-written. The employee must determine the actual time spent on each function and put their value on the observation sheet. If additional functions arise that are not provided for in the observation sheet, they should also be reflected in it. In order to comprehensively study and analyze the data obtained and, on this basis, improve the organization of labor, it is advisable to combine all types of photographs (working time, equipment use time, production process).

At the enterprises of the country, considerable experience has been accumulated in the use of various photographs of working time, and there is an extensive methodological literature. For a comprehensive identification of production reserves, it is important to conduct comprehensive and targeted photographs of working time. So, when taking a photograph of the production process, the costs of the working time of one or a group of workers, the use of equipment over time and the actual modes of its operation are simultaneously studied.

When conducting complex photography, different in content and purpose, but interconnected labor processes can be studied. For example, the study of the labor processes of the main and serving workers makes it possible to comprehensively address the issues of improving the organization of labor.

Target photographs are widely used in production. Most often they are used to identify shortcomings in the preparation of production, maintenance of jobs and labor discipline. So, when taking a photograph of the beginning and end of the shift, the observer captures the “start of work”, “end of work”, “leaving the workplace”. The duration of observation is only 30-60 minutes, but the data obtained allow us to develop a set of measures aimed at strengthening labor discipline.

An important place in the methodology for taking photographs of working time is occupied by the question of the required number of repeated observations - measurements. When taking photographs of a working day using the method of momentary observations, the calculation of the required number of observations is not difficult. However, in relation to other types of photographs (continuous and selective), the recommendations are general character. So, according to the methodology of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of observations is limited to five. In cases where small requirements are imposed on the accuracy of the observation results, they can be less than five.

If a photograph of working time is taken for categories of industrial and production personnel performing the same functions daily, at least three observations must be made within a month - at the beginning, middle and end of the month.

For employees whose functions are heterogeneous and do not repeat daily, self-photography is recommended for a month. The data obtained during this time reliably characterize the composition of the functions of employees, the cost structure of their working time.

Of practical interest is the determination of the required number of photographs of working time based on the variability of the studied costs of working time and the probability of obtaining observation results within the established error (Table 8).

As can be seen, with a slight fluctuation of the studied costs of working time, it is necessary to conduct observations for at least 6-8 days. The most reliable data will be obtained if photography is taken three days a week (12 times a month).

Table 9

The time interval between rounds, taken with group photos of the working day (FRD)

TIMELINE AND ITS VARIETIES

ITiming- this is the study of operations by observing and studying the costs of working time for the implementation of individual, repeatedly repeated with the manufacture of each unit of production, elements of the operation.

As a rule, these are elements of operational time, mainly manual, preparatory-final and maintenance time of the workplace.

With timekeeping:

• establish time standards for individual operations in the conditions of mass and large-scale production and develop time standards;
• identify and study the best methods and techniques of work;
• study the reasons for non-compliance with established standards and clarify them;
• distribute the work among the workers of the brigade and determine its required composition.

Comparison of the results of timing for a group of workers performing the same operation makes it possible to identify the best ways to perform this operation, to clearly show the workers the advantages and disadvantages in performing each technique. This arouses the interest of workers in rationalizing production and saving time.

Timing object - a production operation performed by a worker or their group at a specific workplace.

Depending on the purpose of the study and the nature of the work performed, observation during timing can be continuous and selective. In practice, there are three methods of timing:

• 1) solid - by current time;
• 2) selective - on separate counts of time spent;
• 3) cyclic - by groups of techniques, actions and movements that have such a short duration that it is impossible to measure the time of their implementation separately.

According to the object of observation, timing can be:

• 1) individual, those. the time of work of one worker employed on one machine is measured;
• 2) brigade, when the time of work of a team engaged in the performance of a common technologically related work at one workplace is studied;
• 3) multitasking work.

When timing is most widely used digital recording. In some cases, graphic notation is supplemented with digital and index marks (combined notation). When conducting observations in order to identify the best, as well as unnecessary and irrationally performed actions and movements of the worker, photo, film, video and oscillographic recording are used.

Timekeeping in some cases can be carried out using various kinds of stopwatches. The counting of the results of measurements is made by the observer visually according to the indications of the stopwatch hand and is entered by him in the observation chart. In other cases, graphic devices such as chronographs and special photographic and film equipment are used. In this case, the observer is freed from counting and recording time readings, since the chronograph shows the total time for each element of the operation, total measurements and gives a chronogram, which fixes the duration of individual costs, their sequence and the overlap that took place in time.

Timing should be carried out after 50-60 minutes. after the start of work, i.e. at the end of the working period. It is also recommended to take measurements 1.5-2.0 hours before the end of work. Compliance with these conditions allows you to more accurately determine the labor costs of the worker or their group, since the observation covers shift periods with an average pace of work, which are determined by the curve of changes in working capacity. It is not advisable to conduct chronometric observations at the beginning and at the end of the shift. Observations on the first and last day of the working week should also be avoided.

When determining the time of chronometric observations, it is necessary to take into account not only changes in the pace of work of the same worker due to workability and fatigue, but also changes in the organizational and technical conditions of the production process. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct observations during the period when there are deviations from the organizational and technical conditions laid down in the development of norms or the organization of workplaces fully complies with scientific requirements.

The choice of the object of observation during timing is determined by the purpose of the study. To study and generalize the best experience, observations are carried out on the best workers. For these purposes, according to the method of engineer Kovalev, the best methods of work of other workers are used and analyzed. To carry out and eliminate the causes of poor performance, observations are made on lagging workers.

If observations are carried out to develop production standards (time), then average workers are selected as the object of observation. Such a choice is recommended to be made simply according to the data on the fulfillment of the working norms of output for the month. Workers who do not meet production standards are not taken into account. For the rest of the workers, the arithmetic mean level of compliance with the norms is calculated. The objects of observation are workers who have a level of compliance with the norms close to the arithmetic mean level. The disadvantage of this technique is the low accuracy of the result, therefore it is used for single and small-scale production, where, with reduced requirements for the accuracy of the norms, simplicity and efficiency of their development are necessary.

In stable production, it is more expedient to select workers with an average pace of work based on the data of preliminary momentary observations.

Preparation for timing observation, in addition to determining the purpose of timing and choosing the object of observation, includes the following points:

• the operation under study is divided into its constituent elements - complexes of techniques, techniques, actions. The degree of dissection depends on the purpose of observation and the type of production;
• after dividing the operation into constituent elements, their exact boundaries or fixing points are established. Fixing points- these are sharply expressed (by sound or visual perception) moments of the beginning and end of the execution of an element of the operation. For example, the touch of a hand on a tool, a part, a button, the sound of a blow when a part is put aside, etc. Right choice fixing points facilitates observation and allows you to more accurately determine the duration of the operation element;
• in order to obtain reliable results of timing, before it is carried out, the issue of the required number of measurements and observations is decided. Their number depends on the duration of the operation element, the type of production, as well as on the requirements for the accuracy of obtaining data.

which are usually given in works on technical regulation, are contradictory. In most cases, the number of timing measurements is set only depending on the duration of the operation. HELL. Galtsov and G.N. Cold is recommended to determine their number, taking into account the duration of the timed operation and the type of production. Using the methods of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of chronometric observations was determined depending on the duration of the elements of the operation and the types of work (manual, machine-manual, active observation). In addition to the duration of the normalized operation, the frequency of elements during the year is also taken into account.

The fluctuation in the number of measurements according to various sources reaches significant values. So, with the duration of the operation up to 1 min. it is recommended to carry out from 10 to 60 measurements (discrepancy by 6 times); up to 6 min. - from 10 to 30 (3 times); up to 10 min. - from 4 to 30 measurements. The presence of such significant differences in the choice of the number of timing measurements indicates the need to use mathematical methods in determining the scope of observations. The use of these methods is also supported by the fact that when determining the optimal number of observations, all authors proceed from the fact that the shorter the duration of the operation, the more observations should be; the greater the repeatability of the operation and the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the materials obtained, the greater the number of measurements should be taken.

Insufficient development of methods for determining the required number of timing observations leads to the fact that the number of observations is often chosen arbitrarily, and the values ​​of the factors under which timing observations are carried out, with the goal of developing standards, are random. As a result, the observational data do not accurately express the dependence of the time spent on the factors influencing them, which affects the quality of the norms and normative materials being developed. The Research Institute of Labor developed recommendations for determining the required number of timing observations. They are based on the theory of experiment planning. Determination of the number of observations according to this method includes the construction of observation plans and the calculation of the number of timing observations for each position of the plan. The construction of observation plans depends on the number of influencing factors in the form of time dependence on these factors. The selection of factors is made on the basis of a logical analysis of their impact on time costs, taking into account previous experience. The type of dependence of the time spent on the selected factors is not known in advance, but in the practice of normalization, a nonlinear dependence is most often encountered.

The timing observation plan is a matrix, the columns of which contain the values ​​of factors (their number is equal to the number of factors), and the rows (positions of the plan) are combinations of factors for which timing observations should be carried out.

Carrying out timing observations according to previously developed plans improves the quality of the developed time standards.

When planning chronometric observation at the stage of its preparation, it is necessary to take into account the level of change in the worker's working capacity during the day. So, measurements should not be taken during the period of working in and reducing efficiency, i.e. at times of low performance. Especially if the length of the measurement period is sufficiently short. The greatest objectivity of the results is achieved when conducting observations in the phase of stable performance.

When conducting chronometric observations, it is necessary to specifically record all changes in the organization and maintenance of workplaces, equipment operation modes, and the structure of production operations.

A detailed description of operations, equipment, tools and other data is entered into the chronocard before the start of observation. Carrying out this work allows you to establish whether the organizational and technical conditions for the performance of work at a given workplace correspond to the design ones, and develop measures for the organization of labor in accordance with the requirements of the NOT ( scientific organization labor).

When preparing for timekeeping observation, the worker should also be familiarized with the purpose of the study and the procedure for conducting it.

The second stage of timing is observation. The observer, having taken a pre-selected place, determines the readings of the current time on the corresponding instruments and writes them down in the observation sheet of the chrono-map for all elements of the operation. He must catch fixing points, fill in the observation sheet, monitor the correctness of the operation. All stops due to the fault of the worker, malfunctions or errors of the observer must be reflected in the chronocard. For this, a section is specially distinguished in the observation sheet: defective measurements, their cause and duration.

The processing of the obtained results begins with the calculation of the duration of the operation elements by subtracting the current time of the previous element from the current time of this element.

After carrying out all the calculations, a series of values ​​for the duration of the elements of the operation is obtained, i.e. timing line. Their number corresponds to the number of elements into which the operation was divided.

In case of significant deviations from the duration of the elements in this time series, which are the result of erroneous (defective) measurements, the time series is cleared, i.e. identification and exclusion from further analysis of defective measurements.

The quality of the obtained materials is determined through the magnitude of fluctuations in the values ​​of the chronological order - the coefficient of stability of the chronological order (K ush) which shows the degree of fluctuation of the maximum duration of the operation element from the minimum. This coefficient is defined as the ratio of the maximum duration of the operation element (T tah) to the minimum (Tmin):

Comparing the actual values ​​of the stability coefficients for each time series with its standard values, the quality of timing is determined. If , then the time series is considered stable, and the observation is carried out qualitatively. If , then from the series it is necessary to exclude one or

both extreme values ​​(maximum or minimum), provided that they did not repeat during the observation more than once. Then the stability coefficient is calculated again and compared with the normative one. If the time series turns out to be unstable again, then the observation must be carried out again. The number of excluded values, including defective ones, should not exceed 15%. The normative coefficients of stability of the time series are characterized by the data given in Table. ten.

Table 10

Normative values ​​of the coefficients of stability of the chrono-series

Serial production at the workplace and duration	Normalized coefficient of stability of the time series for work
the element of work being studied, with	machine	machine-manual	manual
Bulk up to 3
Large series up to 3
Serial
Small-scale

Photochronometry. In one-off and small-scale production, workers often perform a number of tasks during a shift. various works, or completely non-repeating, or repeating an insignificant number of times. This makes timing difficult. To study the cost of working time, in this case, combined observation is used, combining photography with timing. This type of observation and study of the cost of working time, called photochronometry, consists in the fact that in the process of photographing for a certain period of time, differentiated measurements are carried out according to the elements of operational time; throughout the rest of the observation time, the duration of the elements is fixed only in total.

With photochronometry, it is possible to use the method of continuous measurements and the method of selective measurements. Photochronometry can cover the work of one worker, a team of workers and a multi-machine operator. In this case, digital, graphic and combined recording is used. Processing of the results of observations in this case is carried out:

• when determining the execution time of the elements of the operation in the same way as with timing;
• when determining other costs - by the method used when processing these photographs of the working day.

The time of observation depends on the purposes of photo timing. Existing Methods chronometric observations, photo timing and photographs of the working day using stopwatches as a means of recording time at the present time can no longer fully meet the requirements of the organization and regulation of labor for a number of reasons:

• very high labor intensity and duration of collection and processing of materials will not allow developing norms in a short time labor costs for new types of work, to maintain the necessary level of progressiveness of the norms;
• conducting a large number of chronometric observations has a psychologically negative effect on workers and in some cases leads to a decrease in the established pace of the operation;
• the insignificant duration of the performance of individual labor movements in the conditions of mass production is hardly recorded even by a highly qualified observer. When timing such elements, the subjective perception of the observer has a significant influence.

Compliance with the methods used to study the costs of the worker

time to modern production requirements requires the development of other approaches to study the cost of working time and the use of modern technical means of collecting initial information.

To calculate the labor rate, it is necessary to have information that can be obtained on the basis of a study of the use of working time. In practice, when studying the cost of working time, two methods are used: direct measurements and momentary observations. On the basis of direct measurements of the cost of working time, the duration of the employee's employment with certain works and the loss of time for various reasons are determined. Direct measurements are carried out with the help of photography of working time, self-photography, timing, photo timing, filming.

Conducting observations for each of their types includes several stages: preparation for observation, conducting, processing and analyzing the results of the study.

Working time photo - a type of observation, during which all the time spent during a shift or part of it is studied. They can be individual, group and brigade.

The purpose of the photo - identifying losses of working time, establishing the causes that caused them, developing measures to eliminate losses, obtaining data for the development of time standards and the number of employees.

When taking a photograph of working time, all types of work performed are recorded in a special observation sheet with an accuracy of one minute (the beginning and end of this work or downtime). Photo processing consists in determining the composition and structure of working time and identifying losses, drawing up a balance of working time and designing a new, rational balance. To do this, the data obtained are grouped according to the types of work performed (operational, maintenance of the workplace, preparatory and final work, rest and personal needs), work not provided for by the production task, and downtime. Their share is calculated, and the data obtained are compared with the normative ones, and based on the development of organizational and technical measures, they are brought into line if there are deviations. The higher the share of operational work, the better the use working time.

Self-photograph of working time carried out by the employee. It performs the functions of an observer on its own. This method of studying the cost of working time is very effective for identifying losses caused by shortcomings in the organization of production, downtime due to the lack of raw materials, equipment breakdowns, does not require the involvement of specialists. At the same time, the photograph itself does not allow revealing reliable losses of working time due to the fault of the employee himself.

Timing - a method for studying the cost of working time with cyclically repeating elements labor process. This may be operational, preparatory and final work or work to maintain the workplace. Timing is used to calculate and clarify existing labor standards; checking the norms established by calculation; learning best practices with a view to disseminating them. The use of timing observations, as practice has shown, is economically feasible in large-scale and mass production due to the high labor intensity of its implementation.

Timing is called continuous if all elements are its object operational time, and selective, if individual elements of operational time or technological operation are measured.

In preparation for timing, the work under study is divided into elements (techniques, transitions, or other completed actions). The degree of division of work into constituent elements is determined by the characteristics of production. Then the boundaries between the elements of the labor process are set, which are called fixing points.

The accuracy of measurements during timing observations is usually 0.1 s. To obtain reliable data on the time spent, it is necessary to time each element of the labor process 10 or more times. As a result of research for each element of the labor process, a series of figures is obtained, called the time series. When evaluating this series, the degree of its stability is important, which is determined on the basis of the calculation of the stability coefficient K u:

Ky=Tmax/Tmin

where Tmax and Tmin- are the maximum and minimum duration of the observed element of the operation, s.

The result obtained is compared with the standard. If the stability coefficient exceeds it, then the maximum and minimum values ​​​​are excluded from the series. Then, according to the remaining data, the stability of the time series is re-checked. If this time it does not exceed the established standard, the series is considered stable.

Based on the remaining time costs, the arithmetic mean duration of the element is calculated, which will be considered the time spent on the execution of the element of the workflow. Timekeeping is carried out with the help of stopwatches, photo and film equipment.

Photochronometry is a combination of working time photography and timekeeping. It allows you to get data on the cost structure of the employee's working time during the shift, on the duration of individual elements of the labor process.

Filming the labor process is carried out in order to study the efficiency and rationality of the employee's labor movements, to measure the time spent on individual elements of work. Since the speed of the film in filming is constant - 24 frames per second, then by frame-by-frame counting, it is possible to very accurately establish the time spent on individual elements of the labor process.

When observing a large number of objects, it is advisable to use method of lument observations, allowing to determine the value of the cost of working time, without resorting to their direct measurement. The study consists in the fact that the observer, passing through the workshop, fixes the moments of work or idle time of all workers in the workshop, determining their duration. After conducting a sequential tour of the workplaces, the observer receives information on how many people were currently busy with operational work, maintenance of workplaces, preparatory and final work, how many people were idle for some reason. In the course of monitoring, it is important to correctly determine the nature of the costs of working time and the reasons for downtime of workers. The study of the use of working time by the method of momentary observations makes it possible to obtain information that is of a probabilistic nature. To obtain more reliable information, it is necessary to record at least 20 moments for each observed employee.

The study of the cost of working time and the time of using equipment is carried out directly at each workplace through observations (analytical research method) in order to:
. identifying the cost structure of working time, eliminating losses and its unproductive costs by making fuller use of the capabilities of equipment, technology, organization of labor and production;
. assessment of the applied techniques and methods of work;
. definitions the best option the content and sequence of execution of individual elements of operations;
. calculation of norms and standards;
. establishing the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant overfulfillment of the norms.
All methods of studying the cost of working time can be divided into two groups:
1) methods of direct observation;
2) the method of momentary observations.
Direct observation methods include:
. timing;
. photo of the working day;
. self-photo of the working day;
. photochronometry.
Timing is a way of studying the time spent on the execution of cyclically repeated manual and machine-manual elements of an operation. It is used to design a rational composition and structure of the operation, establish their normal duration and develop on this basis the standards used in the calculation of technically sound time standards. Timing is used to check the norms established by calculation, mainly in mass and large-scale production, as well as to control the level of fulfillment of time norms and adjust these norms. In addition, timekeeping is used in the study best practices work for their dissemination.
Timing can be continuous and selective. With continuous measure all the methods of the operation in their technological sequence during the operational time; with selective timing during the execution of the operation, only individual tricks are measured, regardless of their sequence, but in such a way that the duration of all the tricks of the operation is ultimately determined.
Timing consists of the following steps:
. preparation for observation;
. observation;
. processing of timing observations;
. analysis of the results, conclusions, establishment of norms and design of operational time standards.
Preparation for chronometric observation consists in choosing the object of observation, dividing the operation into its constituent elements, determining fixing points, establishing the number of necessary measurements, and providing appropriate organizational and technical conditions for working at the workplace. A fixing point is the moment of coincidence of the end of the last movement of the previous reception (complex) with the beginning of the first movement of the subsequent reception of the operation. The establishment of fixation points is necessary for the correct measurement of the duration of receptions.
The required number of measurements is set for each element of the operation, it depends on the required data accuracy. To obtain the most reliable data, more observations should be made (Table 1).

Preparation for observation ends with the entry into the observation list of the elements of the operation under study in their technological sequence.
In the process of observation, the duration of each normalized element of the operation (movement, technique or complex of techniques) is measured and recorded. To measure the duration, stopwatches, chronometers and special time recorders (multi-dial pointers and digital instruments), devices for printing information on special forms or punched tape and film equipment are used. The duration of the elements of the operation is determined by the current time or individual readings. When recording at the current time, data is entered into the observation sheet that fixes the moment of the end of the first and the beginning of subsequent elements of the operation without stopping the chronometer or stopwatch. The duration of the elements of the operation, necessary to obtain time series, is revealed later, in the process of processing the time observation data.
With selective timing, during the execution of the operation, the duration of only individual normalized elements is fixed. In this case, the stopwatch or chronometer is started up with the beginning of this element of the operation and turned off simultaneously with its end.
Timekeeping observations should begin at a steady, rational pace of work, when all the stipulated conditions are met and labor techniques are mastered.
The observer fixes the duration of the normalized elements of the operation, and also notes the duration of breaks and various deviations that occurred during timing in a special column of the chronomap.
As a result of chronometric observations for each element of the operation, recorded data on the duration of its execution are accumulated. Repeatedly recorded duration of the same element of the operation forms a time series. When timing, special attention is paid to manual and machine-manual methods of operation, machine methods are determined by calculation.
The time series obtained during the observation process are analyzed and subjected to statistical processing. The analysis and processing of time series is performed in the following order:
1) compose rows with a sufficient number of measurements;
2) establish the degree of stability of the series;
3) calculate the standard of the estimated duration of each element;
4) identify the possibility of combining the elements of the operation;
5) establish the norm of operational time.
In the practice of normalization, the degree of stability of a series is usually determined by the stability coefficient, which is the ratio of the maximum measurement size in time series to the minimum. The resulting actual stability coefficient for each element of the operation is compared with the standard coefficient (Table 2).

If the actual coefficient exceeds the normative value, the time series is considered unstable and timing for this element of the operation should be repeated.
According to the time series, recognized as stable, the arithmetic mean duration of the operation element is determined.
Analysis of the results of observation consists in identifying the possibility of eliminating individual elements of the operation that are not necessary, replacing a number of elements with more rational ones in time, in establishing the possibility of overlapping in time of individual elements self made operating time of the equipment.
A photograph of working time (FW) is a method of studying the labor process in order to identify the costs of working time during the period under study (usually a shift). With this method, the main attention is paid to determining the loss of working time, as well as studying the costs of preparatory and final time, the time of servicing the workplace and the time required for rest. The photograph of working time is carried out for the purpose of:
. compiling the actual balance of working time (shift) by identifying all its costs for this period, grouping them into time categories (preparatory and final, main, auxiliary, break times, etc.);
. identifying the causes of losses and waste of time with the subsequent development of measures to eliminate them;
. designing a normal balance of working time, providing for the improvement of the use of working time by eliminating losses;
. obtaining the data necessary for normalizing the preparatory and final time, the time for servicing the workplace and breaks, for compiling standard tables for these categories of time;
. determining the number of workers required to service individual units, or the number of pieces of equipment serviced by one worker.
During the working hours, they monitor the operation of mechanisms and the workers serving them and make appropriate entries in the observation sheet of photographs of working time. At the end of the observation, the received data is processed: a summary of time is compiled by categories of working hours; develop organizational and technical measures; design a normal working time balance; systematize the data necessary for the preparation of standards for the preparatory and final time, time for maintenance of the workplace, time for rest.
The level of detail in the records depends on the purpose of conducting the PDF and on the type of production. In single and small-scale production, less detail is allowed than in high-volume and mass production, where a more accurate analysis of time costs is needed. But they always record in detail all interruptions in work, indicating their reasons. The results of photographs of working time for the purposes of analysis are grouped into categories of working time.
To facilitate the processing of observation results, use conventions categories of time - indices developed in accordance with the classification of time costs (Table 3).

There are the following types of photographs of working time:
. individual, when one worker serves as the object of observation;
. group, when the object of observation is a group of workers performing the same or different operations independently of each other;
. route-group photo;
. self-photo.
In an individual STF, the observer examines the use of time by one worker during a shift or other period of time. When it is carried out, registration is carried out with an accuracy of one minute. The absolute advantage of this type of PDF is the high accuracy of the data obtained (by types and categories of working hours), the possibility of identifying the causes and perpetrators of the resulting losses. But information about the structure of the working day of one worker, who, knowing about the observation, wittingly or unwittingly distorts the true state of things, gives practically nothing for evaluating the use of working time by all workers in the unit as a whole.
A group photograph of a working day is carried out in cases where it is required to monitor the use of a shift fund of time by several workers located in a limited area (machine operators in the area visible to the registrar, assembler teams, etc.). It provides a more complete coverage of the object in space and more cost-effective data collection than individual.
Route-group is such a PDF, in which the registrar moves along a certain route, fixing the use of the shift fund of time for a group of workers. Its use is expedient for monitoring auxiliary and service workers moving within the service area assigned to them. The use of a route-group PDF for monitoring stationary workplaces does not make much sense, since the method of momentary observations is more effective here.
The essence of self-photography is that one or more employees themselves register their own shift time costs. Self-photography, carried out by workers, is to some extent close to simple sheets: it also studies not the entire fund of working time, but only a certain part of it - downtime and the reasons for their occurrence. The disadvantages of self-photography include subjective nature, low accuracy and incompleteness of the information received.
A photo of working time is carried out in the following order:
1) preparation for observation, which consists in a detailed study and description of the object of observation and the production environment;
2) observation in the form of sequential registration of all time spent;
3) processing of received data.
In the process of observation, the observation sheet records all the actions of the performer and breaks in the order in which they actually occur. In the column "Current time" the end time of the observed elements of working time is indicated.
When processing the data in the observation sheet, according to the record of the time spent, their index is set and by subtracting the previous time from the next one, the amount of costs is determined. Based on these data, a summary of the time spent is compiled, and then the actual and standard balance of working time is established.
Next, an analysis of the results of observation is carried out: actual costs are compared with standard values; irrational costs and loss of working time are determined; their causes are established; actions are suggested to ensure troubleshooting.
As a result, the compaction of working time is achieved, which can be characterized by the coefficient of compaction and the coefficient of a possible increase in labor productivity by eliminating time losses.
The growth of labor productivity (P) for each proposal aimed at eliminating losses and unproductive costs of working time is calculated by the formula

where Top.n, Top.f - projected and actual operational time.
The choice of the object of observation when photographing working time depends on the goal. To justify the standards of preparatory and final time and time for maintenance of the workplace, the objects of observation should be advanced workers who know how to rationally use their working time. To develop organizational and technical measures for the elimination of losses and the consolidation of working time, observational data on all workers are used.
According to the technique of conducting observations, a photograph of a working day can be:
. continuous, when time measurements are carried out continuously throughout the entire observation period;
. discontinuous (route), in which time measurements are made at certain, relatively small intervals; such a PDF is used for workers (or teams) who do not have permanent jobs (for example, for transport teams, etc.).
Photochronometry is a combined method of studying the costs of shift time by observation, in which all the costs of working time during the shift are recorded simultaneously. At the same time, the actions of the worker, which directly constitute the labor operation, are studied by the observer especially carefully, and their duration is fixed, as in timekeeping, by continuous recording. Photochronometry is used to study the time spent for the same purposes as the PDF and timing. Photochronometry can be individual and group. With individual photochronometry, the time spent on work and an operation performed by one performer is studied; with group - the time spent on interconnected work carried out by a group of workers.
The most effective is the combination of chronometric and momentary observation of the use of a changeable time fund, i.e., momentary photo timing. At the same time, the advantages of momentary observation (that is, the absence of a negative effect of the constant presence of the registrar near the workplace that distorts the production rhythm) and conventional photo timing are organically combined.
The latter consist in the presence of a dual purpose of such observation: to reveal the full value of intra-shift losses of working time and to establish the true level of labor productivity. Their simultaneous presence puts workers and foremen in front of a difficult dilemma: either minimize (during the period of momentary photo timing) intra-shift losses of working time and thereby demonstrate real labor productivity, or vice versa. In principle, momentary photochronometry makes it possible to determine the maximum achievable levels of extensive and intensive use of working time.
The method of momentary observations, based on the application of probability theory and mathematical statistics to the study of working hours, consists in the simultaneous observation of a large number of objects, the state of which is recorded periodically, at a predetermined interval. To study the cost of working time using this method, it is necessary to establish the duration, interval and route of observation.
The reliability of the data obtained is determined by the required number of observations, i.e., the number of moments or measurements. In mass and large-scale production, they are satisfied with the confidence level of the expected result, equal to 0.84. Then the formula for determining the number of moments (M) will look like this:

where a is a coefficient that determines the level of probability of finding an error within the established limits (for large-scale production, a = 2); k - the share of the studied type of time expenditure in the total duration of working time; p is the allowable value of the relative error of the observation results (usually taken within 3-10% of k).
For serial and small-scale production, the confidence probability is taken equal to 0.92, a = 3. Then the number of moments is calculated by the formula

To determine the number of observation moments, depending on the type of production, special tables have been developed.
Momentary observations are carried out in the following order:
1) determine the required number of moments according to the formulas given above, or tables;
2) calculate the length of the bypass route in meters (L) and the number of observation objects during one bypass (m);
3) calculate the duration of one round:

where 0.6 is the average length of one step, m; 0.01 - average duration of one step, min;
4) count the number of observation moments for one shift:

where Tcm - shift duration, min; kv - coefficient taking into account the time mismatch (taken within 0.5-0.7);
5) determine the duration of observation in shifts:

When choosing a site and route of observation, it should be ensured good review all equipment located on it and all workplaces. The composition of the equipment at the site and the sequence of operations can be any, but the nature of the work is different. When the observer sequentially walks around the objects located on his site, the state of each of them at that moment is recorded in the map of momentary observations.
The overall result of shift observation is determined by counting the number of marks (fixed moments) for each of the indices and each machine (workplace, etc.). The result is entered in the last columns of the map of momentary observations. Each of the marks corresponds to a certain time interval. By multiplying the number of marks by the duration of the interval, the duration of each type of time expenditure is obtained.
According to the calculation, they make up the actual balance of working time. Analysis of the results of observation is carried out in the same way as with an individual photograph of working time.
After compiling the balance of working hours, it is necessary to check whether the data obtained meet the conditions of the accepted marginal error.
Relative value limit error is calculated by the formula

The method of instantaneous observations compared with continuous observation has a number of advantages:
. simplicity of observations, low labor intensity of processing observation materials;
. the possibility of studying by one observer the costs of working time of a large number of objects.
The disadvantages of the method include the lack of data on the sequence certain types the cost of working time and the number of their repetitions.

Questions for self-control

1. What is meant by working time? What is its composition?
2. What classifications of the contractor's working time exist?
3. What methods are used to study the cost of working time?
4. What is timing? Its purpose, types, procedure.
5. What does the stability coefficient of the time series show?
6. What is photo timing? What is its purpose?
7. What are the goals of working day photography?
8. What is the essence of self-photography?
9. What are the advantages of the method of momentary observations in comparison with the methods of continuous observation?

work and time of use of the equipment. The basis for this study is the appropriate classification of these costs into categories. It creates a certain uniformity, which allows the use of uniform methods for studying and analyzing costs or losses of working time, uniform regulatory materials and methods of labor rationing. As satisfying the requirements of all industries, differentiated classifications of the costs of the contractor's working time are accepted.

The shift working time for the performer of work is divided into the work time of the performer (during which the worker performs one or another work provided or not provided for by the production task) and the time of breaks in the work of the performer (during which the worker does not work). The structure of the working hours of the worker is shown in the figure.

Rice. 9.1.

The work time for the performance of the production task consists of the following categories of costs of the work executor's working time.

Preparatory-final time (T pz) is the time spent by the worker to prepare for the performance of the given work and the actions associated with its completion. This type of working time costs includes the time: obtaining a production assignment, tools, fixtures and technological documentation; familiarization with the work, technological documentation, drawing; receiving instruction on the procedure for carrying out work; adjusting the equipment for the appropriate mode of operation; trial processing of the part on the machine; removal of fixtures, tools; surrender finished products OTK; delivery of technological documentation and drawings. A feature of this category of time costs is that its value does not depend on the amount of work performed on this task, i.e., these are one-time costs for a batch of manufactured products. Therefore, in large-scale and mass production per unit of production, it is insignificant in magnitude and is usually not taken into account when setting standards.

Operational time (T op). This is the time spent directly on the performance of a given work (operation), repeated with each unit or a certain volume of products or work. It is divided into main and auxiliary time during machine work.

Main time (T o). This is the time spent by the worker on quality and quantitative change the object of labor, its state and position in space.

Auxiliary time (T in). This is the time spent by the worker on activities that ensure the completion of the main work. It is repeated either with each processed unit of production, or with a certain volume of it. Auxiliary time includes: loading equipment with raw materials and semi-finished products; unloading and eating finished products; installation and fixing of parts; detachment and removal of the part; movement of the object of labor within the working area; equipment management; movement of individual mechanisms of equipment; rearrangement of the working tool, if this is repeated with each unit of production; quality control of manufactured products; movement (transitions) of the worker necessary to perform operations, and other similar work.

Service time of the workplace (T obs). This is the time spent by a worker tending to the workplace and maintaining it in a condition that ensures productive work during the shift. In machine and automated production processes, this time is subdivided into time Maintenance and time of organizational service.

Maintenance time (T tech). This is the time spent on the care of the workplace, equipment and tools necessary for a specific task. It includes the time spent on sharpening and replacing worn tools, adjusting and adjusting equipment during operation, cleaning up production waste, inspecting, testing, cleaning, washing, lubricating equipment, etc.

Organizational service time (T org). This is the time spent by the worker to maintain the workplace in working order during the shift. It does not depend on the characteristics of a particular operation and includes the time spent: on the reception and delivery of a shift; layout at the beginning and cleaning at the end of the change of tools, documentation and other materials and items necessary for work; movement within the workplace of containers with blanks or finished goods and etc.

Time spent by a worker observing the operation of equipment. in mechanized and automated production this time has a significant share. It can be active and passive.

The time of active monitoring of the operation of the equipment (T an). This is the time during which the worker closely monitors the operation of the equipment, the progress of the technological process, compliance with the specified parameters in order to ensure required quality products and equipment performance. During this time, the worker does not perform physical work, but his presence at the workplace is necessary.

The time of passive monitoring of the operation of the equipment (T mon). This is the time during which there is no need for constant monitoring of the operation of the equipment or technological process, but the worker does it for lack of other work. The time of passive monitoring of the operation of the equipment should be the subject of particularly careful study, since its reduction or use to perform other necessary work is a significant reserve for increasing labor productivity.

When analyzing the cost of working time for equipment maintenance and calculating the norms of time, overlapped and non-overlapped time is distinguished.

Overlapping time is lead time workers of certain labor methods during the period of automatic operation of the equipment. Overlapping can be the main (active observation) and auxiliary time, as well as time related to other types of work time costs.

Non-overlapping time is lead time auxiliary works and works on maintenance of workplaces when the equipment is stopped.

Operating time not provided for by the production task (T nz). This is the time spent by an employee on casual and unproductive work. It is subdivided like this.

Lead time casual work (T cf). This is the time spent on the performance of work not provided for by the production task, but caused by the production need (for example, transportation finished product, performed instead of an auxiliary worker).

Lead time unproductive work (T nr). This is the time spent on performing work that is not provided for by the production task and not caused by production necessity (for example, the time for correcting a manufacturing defect).

The performance of random and unproductive work does not provide an increase in production or improve its quality and is not included in the piece time. These costs should be the subject of special attention, since their reduction is a reserve for increasing labor productivity.

Break times are divided as follows.

Scheduled break times. Includes the time of breaks in work due to the technology and organization of the production process (T pt), for example, a break in the work of the crane operator while the workers are slinging the load being lifted. This category also includes time for rest and personal needs of the contractor (T otd).

The time of unscheduled breaks in work. This is the time of interruptions in work caused by a violation of the normal course of the production process. It includes the time of breaks caused by shortcomings in the organization of production (T pnt): untimely supply of materials, raw materials to the workplace, equipment malfunction, power outages, etc., and the time of breaks in work caused by violations of labor discipline (T pnd ): being late for work, absenteeism from the workplace, leaving work early, etc.

When analyzing the cost of working time in order to identify and subsequently eliminate the loss of working time and their causes, all the working time of the contractor is divided into productive costs and lost working time. The first group includes the time of work to fulfill the production task and the time of regulated breaks. These costs are the object of rationing and are included in the structure of the time norm. Lost work time includes lead time unproductive work and unscheduled breaks. These costs are subject to analysis in order to eliminate or minimize them.

9.2. Methods for studying the cost of working time

The study of the cost of working time and the time of using the equipment is carried out in order to:

• identifying the cost structure of working time, eliminating losses and unproductive costs of working time by making fuller use of the capabilities of equipment, technology, organization of labor and production;
• identifying and evaluating the applied methods and techniques of labor;
• determination of the optimal variant of the content and sequence of execution of individual elements of the operation;
• calculation of norms and standards;
• identifying the reasons for non-fulfillment or significant overfulfillment of the norms.

Depending on the purpose, the number of objects of observation, the degree of detail of the studied costs of working time, the following types of observation are used:

• photograph of working time;
• self-photography;
• timing.

The study of production processes with the help of observation is one of the most important stages in the work on technical regulation and organization of labor.

The study of the costs of working time using equipment is carried out mainly by two methods: the method of direct measurements of time costs, i.e., measuring the duration of each element of work or breaks, and the method of momentary observations, i.e., fixing only the number of moments of repetition of categories or groups of time costs, observed during bypasses of performers and equipment.

These methods include working time photography, working day photography (self-photography); timing of individual operations; photochronometry, photography of working time - the study by observation of all elements of the work process and the time spent by the performer (team) when performing one or a group of processes during a work shift, several shifts, a cycle or several cycles.

The object of study in photography of the workflow is the entire process or groups of processes, studied in terms of the technology used and the organization of their implementation. A photograph of the working process should be used during observations in order to establish technically justified time standards for the performance of individual operations, as well as for regulated and technological breaks. In addition, this method of observation is used in all studies where an in-depth qualitative characterization of the observed processes is required.

Work day photo- the study of all, without exception, the cost of working time during the entire work shift (including loss of time), recorded in their actual sequence. In most cases, with such a photograph, only the total time of work is recorded without dividing it into processes and operations. At the same time, the methods of implementation, technology and organization of the process as a whole are not studied in detail. When photographing a working day, the main attention should be paid to determining the magnitude and establishing the causes of the loss of working time. A photograph of a working day can be used to find out the reasons for low productivity in cases where the main loss of time at a given workplace occurs due to downtime.

At self-photographs working day the worker himself registers the time spent on the performance of work, as well as the loss of time, indicating the reasons that caused them. It can be used to involve workers more widely in the development and implementation of measures to improve the organization of labor.

Timing of individual operations- the study of individual operations with their division into techniques. The main purpose of timekeeping is an in-depth study of the most important operations that have a large share in the balance of working time, with the aim of identifying advanced techniques and rationalizing them, determining the normal duration of operations to establish production standards. The main advantage of the timing of individual operations is the ability to obtain a significantly larger number of measurements of the cost of working time to perform a unit of work for each operation than with a photograph of the workflow, which is very important when using mathematical methods for processing research data in order to design labor costs.

Photochronometry- a combined method of studying the cost of working time. It should be used in cases where, in the study of the workflow, it is necessary to study some operations in detail. In the course of such observation, as in the case of a photograph of a working day, all the expenditures of working time are measured and at the same time timekeeping is carried out for a separate operation as a whole and for the most important and frequently repeated elements for study.

Depending on the number of observed objects and observers, the objectives of the observation and the nature of the work process, the following methods of conducting observations are used:

• depending on the number of objects observed by one observer - individual and group;
• depending on the number of observers simultaneously monitoring the execution of the work process (processes), - single, duplicated and complex;
• depending on the location of the observer and the object during the observation - stationary, route and picket.

Individual way photography is used in cases where the object of observation is one working or one mechanism for observations that require increased accuracy in measuring time and the degree of division of the working process. Such a study is usually used for the purpose of developing standards or analyzing their implementation, as well as in the study of advanced labor methods.

Group way photography is used when one observer observes the work of a group of workers (links, teams) that are in the observer's field of vision and are united by the commonality of the work being performed. The main purpose of a group photograph is to study the organization of the work of the brigade, identify the causes and duration of lost working time, and study other issues that do not require great accuracy in measuring time.

When about solitary The method of observation is carried out by one observer, regardless of the number of workers or machines he observes.

Due to the collapse of the network of regulatory research organizations during the period of market reforms and the significant curtailment of work in this area, normative base in terms of work has significantly narrowed, and most importantly, it has become aging and in some cases does not meet modern requirements.

In accordance with modern requirements, the tasks of improving the organization of regulation can be formulated as follows:

1. the maximum possible expansion of the scope of labor rationing, ensuring the measurement and evaluation of labor costs for all types of activities and types of work performed;
2. high quality of established labor standards, their maximum approximation to social necessary costs labor;
3. comprehensive (scientific) validity of labor standards based on a more complete account of both organizational and technical, and economic, psycho-physiological and social factors;
4. humanization of labor standards. contributing to the development of the individual, maximally satisfying his creative and material needs;
5. widespread use of electronic computing technology and computerization in the design of technological and organizational documentation, time standards in various production conditions.

The implementation of these requirements necessitates the management of labor rationing at the state level.

Calculation of the share of production growth due to increased labor productivity. The growth in production is due to the growth of labor productivity.

The percentage of output growth due to increased labor productivity is important economic indicator is determined by the following formula:

where P num - percentage increase in the number of employees;

P prod - the percentage increase in the volume of production.

If absolute data on the change in the number of employees is not given, then the percentage change in their number can be determined by the headcount index, which is equal to

where I number is the index of change in the number;

I prod - index of change in the volume of manufactured products;

I p. t. - the index of changes in labor productivity.