Introduction

From the course of physics, I learned that in order for a body to become an artificial satellite of the Earth, it needs to be told a speed equal to 8 km / s (I cosmic speed). If such a speed is imparted to a body in a horizontal direction near the surface of the Earth, then in the absence of an atmosphere it will become a satellite of the Earth, revolving around it in a circular orbit.

Only sufficiently powerful space rockets are able to communicate such a speed to satellites. Currently, thousands of artificial satellites are orbiting the Earth!

And in order to reach other planets, the spacecraft needs to be informed of space velocity II, which is about 11.6 km/s! For example, to reach Mars, which the Americans are going to do soon, you need to fly at such a huge speed for more than eight and a half months! And that's not counting the way back to Earth.

What should be the structure of a spacecraft to achieve such huge, unimaginable speeds?! This topic interested me a lot, and I decided to learn all the subtleties of the design of spaceships. As it turns out, the problems of practical design give rise to new forms of aircraft and require the development of new materials, which in turn create new problems and reveal many interesting aspects of old problems in both fundamental and applied research.

materials

The basis of the development of technology is knowledge of the properties of materials. All spacecraft use a variety of materials in a wide variety of environments.

In the past few years, the number of materials studied and the characteristics of interest to us has increased dramatically. The rapid growth in the number of technical materials used in the creation of spacecraft, as well as the increasing interdependence of spacecraft designs and material properties are illustrated in Table. 1. In 1953, aluminum, magnesium, titanium, steel and special alloys were of interest primarily as aviation materials. Five years later, in 1958, they were widely used in rocket science. In 1963, each of these groups of materials already included hundreds of combinations of elements or components, and the number of materials of interest increased by several thousand. At present, new and improved materials are needed almost everywhere, and the situation is unlikely to change in the future.

Table 1

Materials used in spacecraft structures

Material
Beryllium
Thermal Management Materials
Thermoelectric materials
Photovoltaic materials
Protective coatings
Ceramics
Materials reinforced with threads
Blow away coatings (ablative materials)
Layered materials
Polymers
Refractory metals
Special Alloys
titanium alloys
magnesium alloys
Aluminum alloys

The demand for new knowledge in materials science and technology resonates with our universities, private companies, independent research organizations and various government bodies. Table 2 gives some idea of ​​the nature and scope of NASA's ongoing research into new materials. These works include both fundamental and applied research. The greatest efforts are concentrated in the field of fundamental research in solid state physics and chemistry. Here, the atomic structure of matter, interatomic force interactions, the motion of atoms, and especially the influence of defects commensurate with the size of atoms are of interest.

table 2

Materials Research Program

The next category includes structural materials with high specific strength, such as titanium, aluminum and beryllium, heat-resistant and refractory alloys, ceramics and polymers. A special group should include materials for supersonic transport aviation.

There is an ever-increasing interest in the category of materials used in electronics in the NASA program. Research is underway on superconductors and lasers. In the semiconductor group, both organic and inorganic materials are studied. Research is also being carried out in the field of thermoelectronics.

Finally, the materials research program concludes with a very general consideration of the practical use of materials.

To show the potential applications of the results of materials research in the future, I will focus on studies related to the study of the influence of the spatial arrangement of atoms on the frictional properties of metals.

If it were possible to reduce the friction between metal surfaces in contact, then this would make it possible to improve almost all types of mechanisms with moving parts. In most cases, the friction between the mating surfaces is high and lubrication is applied to reduce it. However, understanding the mechanism of friction between non-lubricated surfaces is also of great interest.

Figure 1 presents some of the results of research conducted at the Lewis Research Center. The experiments were carried out in high vacuum conditions, since atmospheric gases pollute surfaces and drastically change their frictional properties. The first important conclusion is that the friction characteristics of pure metals are highly dependent on their natural atomic structure (see the left side of Fig. 1). When metals solidify, the atoms of some form a hexagonal spatial lattice, while the atoms of others form a cubic one. It has been shown that metals with a hexagonal lattice have much less friction than metals with a cubic lattice.

Fig 1. Effect of atomic structure on dry friction (without lubrication).

Fig.2. Requirements for heat-resistant materials.

Then a number of metals were investigated, the atoms of which are located at the tops of hexagonal prisms with different distances between their bases. Studies have shown that friction decreases with increasing height of the prisms (see the central part of Fig. 1). Metals with the maximum ratio of the distance between the bases of the prisms to the distance between the side faces have the least friction. This experimental result agrees with the conclusions of the theory of deformation of metals.

At the next stage, titanium was chosen as the object of study, which is known to have a hexagonal structure and poor frictional characteristics. In order to improve the frictional characteristics of titanium, they began to study its alloys with other metals, the presence of which was supposed to increase the size of atomic lattices. As expected, with an increase in the distance between the bases of the prisms, the friction sharply decreased (see the right side of Fig. 1). Additional experiments are currently underway to further improve the properties of titanium alloys. For example, we can "order" the alloy, i.e. using heat treatment to arrange the atoms of different elements in a more appropriate way and explore how this will affect friction. New advances in this field will increase the reliability of machines having rotating parts and will presumably open up great possibilities in the future.

While it may appear that we have made great strides recently in the development of heat-resistant materials, progress in space exploration over the next 35 years will be closely linked to the development of new materials that can operate at high temperatures for many hours, and in some cases and years.

Figure 2 shows how important this is. The y-axis shows the operating time in hours, and the abscissa shows the operating temperature in degrees Celsius. In the shaded region from 1100 to 3300° C., the only metallic materials that can be used are refractory metals. On the y-axis, the horizontal line marks the duration of work equal to one year. The area of ​​operating parameters of a nuclear rocket engine is limited by temperatures from 2100 to 3200 ° C and duration of operation from 15 minutes to 6 hours. (These figures are very approximate and are given only as a guideline for determining the boundaries of the operating parameters.)

The area with the inscription "hypersonic aircraft" characterizes the operating conditions of the skin materials. This requires a much longer duration of work. For reusable space vehicles, operation times of only 60 to 80 hours are quoted, but in reality, operation times of the order of thousands of hours may be required in the temperature range from 1320 to 1650 ° C and more.

According to Fig. 2, one can judge the importance of refractory metals for solving the problems posed by the space exploration program. Some of these materials are already in use and I am sure they will be improved and become even more important over time.

It is sometimes heard that modern materials technology is not really a science, but rather a highly developed art. Perhaps this is partly true, but I am sure that materials science and technology have already reached a very high level of development and will play a big role in the life of our country.

Spacecraft structures

Let us now turn to the issues of designing spacecraft. Figure 3 shows the main design problems that arise in the design of modern launch vehicles and spacecraft. These include: loads acting on the structure, flight dynamics and mechanics; development of structures that can withstand high thermal loads; protection from the effects of outer space conditions, as well as the development of new designs and combinations of materials for future applications.

Fig.3. Spacecraft structures.

The development of spacecraft designs is still at an early stage of development and is based on the experience of designing aircraft and ballistic missiles. From Fig. 4 it follows that large modern launch vehicles are in many ways related to ballistic missiles. The distinctive features of their configurations include a large elongation, which reduces atmospheric drag, and a large volume occupied by the fuel. The weight of the propellant can be from 85 to 90% of the launch weight of the launch vehicle. The specific gravity of the structure is very small, so it is essentially a thin-walled flexible shell. With today's high cost per unit weight of a payload placed into orbit or a flight path to the Moon and planets, it is especially beneficial to reduce the weight of the main structure to an acceptable minimum. Design problems are even more acute in the case of using liquid hydrogen and oxygen as fuel components, which have a low specific gravity, as a result of which there is a need for large volumes for fuel placement.

Fig.4. Large launch vehicles.

The designer of future launch vehicles will face many new challenges. Launch vehicles are likely to be larger, more complex and more expensive. To use them repeatedly without high costs for return shipping or repair, important design and material technology problems will need to be solved.

Unusual requirements for different types of spacecraft of the future have already intensified the search for new types of designs and manufacturing processes.

The requirements of protection from the dangers that await us in outer space, such as meteorites, hard and thermal radiation, greatly intensify research carried out with the aim of creating spacecraft designs. For example, during long-term storage of liquid hydrogen and other cryogenic liquids in outer space, leakage of fuel components through the drainage system and meteorite holes in fuel tanks should be practically excluded. Significant progress has been made in the development of insulating materials with exceptionally low thermal conductivity. It is now possible to provide fuel storage during the time spent on the launch pad and several revolutions around the Earth. However, during long-term storage in outer space for a period of up to one year, a very complex problem arises associated with the influx of heat through the structural elements of tanks and pipelines.

Other problems of space flight, such as the problem of folding large spacecraft or parts of them in the process of launching into orbit and then assembling them in outer space, will also require new design solutions. At the same time, neither gravitational nor aerodynamic forces act on the spacecraft during the space flight, which expands the range of possible design solutions. Figure 5 shows an example of an unusual design solution, possible only in outer space. This is one of the options for an orbiting radio telescope, which is much larger than those that could be provided on Earth.

Such devices are needed to study the natural radio emission of stars, galaxies and other celestial objects. One of the radio frequency bands of interest to astronomers lies in the range of 10 MHz and below. Radio waves with this frequency do not pass through the earth's ionosphere. Extremely large orbital antennas are required to receive low-frequency radio emission. The left side of figure 5 shows the dependence of the diameter of the antenna on the frequency of the received radiation. It can be seen that with decreasing frequency, the diameter of the antenna increases, and to receive radio waves with a frequency of less than 10 MHz, antennas with a diameter of more than 1.5 km are needed.

Figure 5. New designs. orbital antennas.

An antenna of this size cannot be put into orbit, and its weight, using conventional design principles, will far exceed the capabilities of the largest launch vehicles. Even taking into account the absence of gravity, the design of such antennas presents great difficulties. For example, if the antenna reflector is made of solid aluminum foil with a thickness of only 0.038 mm, then the weight of the surface material with an antenna diameter of 1.6 km will be 214 tons. Fortunately, due to the low frequency of the received radio emission, the surface of the antenna can be made grating. Recent advances in the field of large openwork designs allow the lattice to be made of thin threads. In this case, the material that forms the surface of the antenna will weigh from 90 to 140 kg. This design will allow you to put the antenna into orbit and then assemble it. At the same time, it is possible to ensure dense packing of the antenna along with stabilization and power supply systems.

Hard radiation in outer space will continue to be the main destructive factor for spacecraft launched into space. This destruction is due in part to the bombardment of spacecraft by high-energy protons in the radiation belts, as well as solar flares. The study of the effects arising from such bombardment indicates the need to study the essence of the destruction mechanisms and determine the characteristics of the materials used as protective screens.

Fig.6. New screening principles.
1 - superconducting coils; 2 - magnetic field; 3 - positive charge of the spacecraft; 4 - absorbing screen; 5 - plasma protection.

The development of new methods of protection should also include the study of the possibility of shielding with the help of superconducting magnets, which will make it possible to significantly reduce the weight of protective devices and thereby increase the payload of spacecraft intended for long-term flights.

Figure 6 illustrates this new idea, called plasma shielding. A combination of magnetic and electrostatic fields is used to deflect charged particles such as protons and electrons. The basis of plasma protection is the magnetic field generated by relatively light superconducting coils, which surrounds the entire apparatus. On toroidal space stations, the crew and equipment are located in a zone of low magnetic field strength. The spacecraft is positively charged by the injection of electrons into the surrounding magnetic field. These electrons carry a negative charge equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the spacecraft. Protons carrying a positive charge from outer space surrounding the apparatus will be repelled by the positive charge of the apparatus. Electrons moving in the space surrounding the apparatus could discharge the electrostatic field, but this is prevented by a magnetic field that bends their trajectories.

The dependence of the weight of such protective systems on the volume of the spacecraft is graphically presented in the lower part of Fig.6. For comparison, the corresponding weights of the protective screen, which is a layer of material on the radiation path, are given. Since a magnetic field of very moderate intensity is required to control the movement of the electron flow, the weight of the plasma shield in typical cases will be about 1/20 of the weight of a conventional absorbing screen.

Although the idea of ​​plasma shielding is promising, there are still many uncertainties associated with its operation in outer space. In this regard, theoretical and experimental studies of the possible instability of the electron cloud or interaction with dust and cosmic plasma are currently being carried out. So far, no fundamental difficulties have been discovered, and one can hope that cosmic radiation can be countered with plasma shielding, the weight characteristics of which will be much better than those of other types of shielding.

Entry into the atmosphere

Let us now turn to the problem of the entry of spacecraft into the atmosphere of the Earth and other planets. The main difficulty here, of course, is the protection against heat fluxes that arise during entry into the atmosphere. The colossal kinetic energy of the spacecraft must be converted into other forms of energy, mainly mechanical and thermal, otherwise the apparatus will either burn out or be damaged. Spacecraft entry velocities range from 7.6 to 18.3 km/s. At lower velocities, the main part of the heat flux is the convective heat flux, but at velocities above ~ 12.2 km/s, the heat radiation flux from the bow shock begins to play an important role. Modern heat-shielding materials are effective up to speeds of ~ 11 km/s on vehicles with low lift-to-drag ratio, however, at entry speeds from 15.2 to 18.3 km/s, new materials are required.

Fig. 7 helps to understand why in the future, for solving the problems of reentry into the atmosphere of manned spacecraft, vehicles capable of developing significant lift will be of great interest. The y-axis shows the lift-to-drag ratio L/D (aerodynamic quality) at hypersonic speeds, and the abscissa shows the entry speed. The first signs of a trend towards increasing lift-to-drag ratio are seen in the example of the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo spacecraft. In the future, orbital flights around the Earth are expected to reach the height of synchronous orbits. Ships entering the Earth's atmosphere from this region of outer space will have velocities of up to 10.4 km/sec (in Fig. 7, the vertical line labeled "Synchronous Orbits").

The entry speeds of manned spacecraft returning from other planets, such as Mars, are much higher. With a proper choice of launch time and the use of Venus' gravity, they reach 12.2 - 13.7 km/s, while with a direct return from Mars, speeds exceed 15.2 km/s. The interest in such high reentry velocities is related to the greater flexibility of the method of returning directly from the planet.

Figure 7. Tendencies to increase the aerodynamic quality of spacecraft and the speed of entry into the Earth's atmosphere.

To maintain within reasonable limits the overloads experienced by the spacecraft crew at such high entry speeds, it is necessary to increase the aerodynamic lift force in comparison with the Apollo spacecraft. In addition, an increase in lift (more correctly, lift-to-drag ratio L/D) at high speeds will expand the allowable entry corridors, which narrow to zero for ballistic descent vehicles. With an increase in lift, the accuracy of maneuvering and landing also increases. One of the most important phases of the flight of spacecraft with lift is the landing approach and the landing itself. The flight characteristics of spacecraft with lift at low speeds are so different from those of conventional aircraft that two aircraft, shown in Fig. 8, had to be built to study them. The upper unit has the index HL-10, and the lower one M2-F2.

Rice. 8. Airborne research vehicles HL-10 and M2-F2.

These devices are supposed to be raised to a height of about 14 km with the help of B-52 aircraft and dropped at flight speeds corresponding to a Mach number of up to 0.8. The HL-10 and M2-F2 vehicles are equipped with small hydrogen peroxide rocket engines that allow variable lift-to-drag ratio to be simulated. With the help of these engines, it is possible to vary the angle of inclination of the trajectory during the landing approach, as well as the margin of static stability, in order to determine the optimal flight characteristics of future manned spacecraft of a similar configuration. Ships of this shape will have a weight close to the weight of the spacecraft of the future. And a ship similar to these models of spacecraft has already been created, this is the Shuttle orbital spacecraft.

Space Shuttle

Orbital spacecraft "Shuttle" is capable of flying in the Earth's atmosphere at hypersonic speeds. The wings of the apparatus have a multi-spar frame; the reinforced monocoque cockpit, like the wings, is made of aluminum alloy. The doors of the cargo compartment are made of graphite-epoxy composite material. The thermal protection of the device is provided by several thousand light ceramic tiles, which cover parts of the surface exposed to large heat fluxes.

Final remarks

I have tried to give a brief overview of recent advances in the development of new materials, structures and techniques for spacecraft re-entry. This made it possible to point out some directions for future research. And it seems that I myself learned a little about the problems of space exploration with the help of spaceships at the present stage of human development.

In a small town, lost in the desert region of California, an unknown lone amateur is trying to compete with world-famous billionaires and corporations for the right to build spaceships to send cargo to low Earth orbit. He does not have enough assistants and not enough resources. But, despite all the difficulties, he is going to bring his work to the end.

Dave Masten is staring at his computer screen. His finger hovered over the mouse button for a moment. Dave knows that he is about to open a letter from the DARPA agency, and this letter will change his life no matter what it says. He will either receive funding or be forced to give up his dream forever.

Two news

This is a real turning point, because at stake is participation in the DARPA-funded XS-1 program, which aims to build a reusable unmanned spaceplane that can withstand ten launches in ten days, accelerate to speeds in excess of 10 M and, with the help of an additional stage, deliver to low a payload weighing more than 1.5 tons. At the same time, the cost of each launch should not exceed $5 million. Dave Masten - the eternal outsider, a refugee from Silicon Valley, a hermit entrepreneur in the space industry - has never been so close to creating a full space system, like this time. If his company becomes one of the three participants in the XS-1 project, Dave will immediately receive a grant of $ 3 million and additional financial injections next year. And the cost of the future contract may exceed $140 million!

In case of refusal, Dave's company will remain an unknown small firm, eking out a miserable existence and cherishing the fragile dream of building orbital spacecraft. But, even worse, a rare opportunity to realize Masten's idea will be missed. State spaceflight programs have historically favored (in fact, this was a requirement) spacecraft that require an airfield or a huge parachute to land. Masten proposed a vertical takeoff and vertical landing rocket, one that would require neither a landing strip nor a parachute to return to Earth. The XS-1 program presented a good chance to implement this idea, but if luck suddenly turns its back and the chance to participate in it falls to another, then who knows if the government will open up new sources of funding in the future.

So, one email, two completely different paths, one of which leads straight into space. Masten clicks the mouse and begins to read - slowly, delving into every word. When he's done, he turns to the engineers gathered behind him and with a straight face announces: “I have two news, good and bad. The good news is that we have been selected to participate in XS-1! The bad news is that we were selected for XS-1.”

Spaceport Cluster

The terrain in the north of the Mojave Desert is more reminiscent of scenes from a disaster movie: abandoned gas stations, painted with graffiti, and broken roads, on which carcasses of downed animals are found in some places, only reinforce this impression. Mountains flaunting on the horizon in the distance, unforgiving heat of the sun and seemingly endless cloudless blue sky.

However, this confusing void is deceptive: in the western United States is Edwards Air Force Base (R-2508), the nation's premier testing ground. 50,000 square kilometers of closed airspace are now and then cut through by combat aircraft. It was here 68 years ago that Chuck Yeager became the first aviator to exceed the speed of sound in controlled level flight.

The ban on passenger and private jet flights, however, does not apply to residents of the nearby Mojave Aerospace Port, which was designated the country's first commercial spaceport in 2004. Masten also moved here that same year, right after the startup he worked for as a software engineer was bought by communications giant Cisco Systems. Of several vacant buildings offered to Dave when he moved in, Dave chose an abandoned Marine barracks built in the 1940s. The building was in serious need of repair: the roof was leaking and the walls and corners were thickly adorned with cobwebs. For Dave, this was the ideal place: thanks to the high six-meter ceilings, all the aircraft that he and his three employees were constructing at that time could fit here. Another plus was the ability to stake out several launch sites and carry out test launches from them.

For several years, Masten Space Systems was known only to a few space technology experts and a few resident neighbors of the spaceport, including established industry giants such as Scaled Composites, which initiated private investment in space, Richard Branson's Virgin Galactic and Vulcan Stratolaunch Systems Paul Allen. Their spacious hangars are literally crammed with sophisticated equipment that costs more than the entire MSS put together. However, such competition did not prevent Masten's brainchild in 2009 from winning $ 1 million in a competition hosted by NASA to build a lunar lander. After that, they suddenly started talking about the company, and Dave began to receive orders - in addition to NASA, his rockets began to be popular with famous universities in the country and even in the Ministry of Defense - for high-altitude scientific experiments and research.

Computer mock-up of the XS-1 VTOL spacecraft designed by Masten Space Systems

After the official inclusion in the XS-1 program, the authority of MSS grew even stronger - in competition with the Boeing Corporation and the large military-industrial company Northrop Grumman, Masten looked very solid. In addition to these industry giants, Blue Origin, a private aerospace company owned by Jeff Bezos, is involved in the project through a partnership with Boeing, as well as the already mentioned Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic, collaborating with Northrop Grumman. MSS itself decided to join forces with another small company from Mojave - XCOR Aerospace. So, in the race to create a reusable space truck, Dave had to clash with the most venerable and well-endowed corporations. Only thirteen months remained until the next stage - the evaluation of intermediate results and the decision on further funding.

Better than Boeing

The MSS building is in the same condition as when it was occupied by Masten. The roof is still leaking, and you can accidentally stumble upon a poisonous spider. There are toolboxes around the perimeter. Apart from banners with the name of the company, a board covered with equations, and an American flag, there is nothing on the walls. The center of the hangar is occupied by the Xaero-B rocket, which rests on four metal legs, above which there are two volumetric spherical tanks. One of them is filled with isopropyl alcohol, the other is filled with liquid oxygen. Slightly higher in a circle are additional tanks with helium. They are necessary for the operation of the engines of the jet control system, designed to control the spatial position of the ship. The engine at the bottom of the rocket is mounted in a gimbal to keep this strange insect-like structure steerable.

Several employees are busy preparing Xaero-B for a joint experiment with the University of Colorado (Boulder, USA), in which it is planned to test whether the ship can communicate with ground-based telescopes and participate in the search for exoplanets.

Masten's company attracts a certain type of mechanical engineer who is a true fan of his craft. “I did an internship at Boeing in the engine department for the 777,” says 26-year-old engineer Kyle Nyberg. Boeing is a very good company. But to be honest, I don't like sitting in the office all day long. I imagined that the next 40 years of my life would go like this, and I got really scared. At a small private company like MSS, engineers can experience a whole gamut of emotions when implementing their ideas - from euphoria to complete disappointment. You rarely see this anywhere."

Refueling at the Lagrange point

Masten's main focus has always been the creation of a rocket designed to carry cargo, not astronauts, a kind of "workhorse". Such ships will definitely be needed, for example, to transport oxygen and hydrogen from the lunar surface to a gas station, which will one day be placed in one of the Lagrange points between the Earth and the Moon. That is why Masten lays in his development the principle of vertical takeoff and landing. “This is the only way I know of that will work on the surface of any solid body in the solar system,” he explains. “You can’t land a plane or a shuttle on the moon!”

In addition, VTOL makes it easier to reuse the spacecraft. Some of Masten's rockets have already made several hundred flights, preparing for a re-launch takes no more than one day. Under the terms of the XS-1 program, you need to make ten launches within ten days - for MSS this has long been commonplace. Here Dave is far ahead of his competitors, who have not yet managed to do this even once.

Humility and diligence

So, DARPA announced that all three participants in the XS-1 program were admitted to Phase 1B, for which each company will receive an additional $6 million. The main tasks of Phase 1 were to carry out design work and prepare infrastructure - in other words, it was necessary to demonstrate that the company will be able to work in XS-1. In phase 1B, participants must move on to trial runs, collect relevant data, and continue to refine the design to show how they plan to achieve the final goal. Phase 1B results are due next summer, with the first flight of the XS-1 into orbit scheduled for 2018.

No matter what the outcome of this competition is, the very fact that Dave has managed to get this far could turn the industry of private space projects upside down. “This is a game-changer,” said Hannah Kerner, executive director of the Space Frontier Foundation and a former NASA engineer. "DARPA has not only given private companies the opportunity to participate in the government's space program, but has also recognized emerging small companies as potentially serious players." Even if you forget about participation in XS-1 for a moment, MSS is still difficult to call an outsider company. In August, it opened a new office at Cape Canaveral, a space center in Florida that has recently begun to function as a hub for commercial space launches. In the same business center, located near the Kennedy Space Center, the office of SpaceX is located.

Despite this, MSS is still short on people and resources, and is still a group of romantic engineers who drill, hammer and solder in their hangar next door to rich big companies. And involuntarily you start to root for them - you want them to succeed.

"I think we will definitely compete with our competitors," - that's all that Masten answered the question about the chances of success in the XS-1. He sees no reason to promise mountains of gold, although many of his colleagues in the shop have already become a habit. Many succeed because they can speak beautifully. Dave is not one of them - he is calm, hardworking, modest, but just like his rivals, he is passionately eager to realize his ideas.

Today, space flights do not belong to fantastic stories, but, unfortunately, a modern spaceship is still very different from those shown in films.

This article is intended for persons over 18 years of age.

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Russian spaceships and

Spaceships of the future

Spaceship: what is it

On the

Spaceship, how does it work?

The mass of modern spacecraft is directly related to how high they fly. The main task of manned spacecraft is safety.

The SOYUZ descent vehicle became the first space series of the Soviet Union. During this period, an arms race was going on between the USSR and the USA. If we compare the size and approach to the issue of construction, then the leadership of the USSR did everything for the speedy conquest of space. It is clear why similar devices are not being built today. It is unlikely that someone will undertake to build according to a scheme in which there is no personal space for astronauts. Modern spacecraft are equipped with both crew rest rooms and a descent capsule, the main task of which is to make it as soft as possible during the landing.

The first spaceship: the history of creation

Tsiolkovsky is rightly considered the father of astronautics. Based on his teachings, Goddrad built a rocket engine.

Scientists who worked in the Soviet Union were the first to design and launch an artificial satellite. They were also the first to invent the possibility of launching a living creature into space. The states are aware that the Union was the first to create an aircraft capable of going into space with a person. The father of rocket science is rightly called Korolev, who went down in history as the one who figured out how to overcome gravity and was able to create the first manned spacecraft. Today, even kids know in what year the first ship with a person on board was launched, but few people remember the contribution of the Queen to this process.

The crew and their safety during the flight

The main task today is the safety of the crew, because they spend a lot of time at flight altitude. When building an aircraft, it is important what metal it is made of. The following types of metals are used in rocket science:

1. Aluminum - allows you to significantly increase the size of the spacecraft, as it is lightweight.
2. Iron - perfectly copes with all the loads on the ship's hull.
3. Copper has a high thermal conductivity.
4. Silver - reliably binds copper and steel.
5. Tanks for liquid oxygen and hydrogen are made from titanium alloys.

A modern life support system allows you to create a familiar atmosphere for a person. Many boys see how they fly in space, forgetting about the very large overload of the astronaut at the start.

The largest space ship in the world

Among warships, fighters and interceptors are very popular. A modern cargo ship has the following classification:

1. The probe is a research ship.
2. Capsule - cargo compartment for delivery or rescue operations of the crew.
3. The module is launched into orbit by an unmanned carrier. Modern modules are divided into 3 categories.
4. Rocket. The prototype for the creation was military development.
5. Shuttle - reusable structures for the delivery of the necessary cargo.
6. Stations are the largest spaceships. Today, not only Russians, but also French, Chinese and others are in outer space.

Buran - a spaceship that went down in history

Vostok was the first spacecraft to go into space. After the Federation of Rocket Science of the USSR, the production of Soyuz ships began. Much later, Clippers and Rus began to be produced. The federation places great hopes on all these manned projects.

In 1960, the Vostok spacecraft by its flight proved the possibility of man entering space. On April 12, 1961, Vostok 1 orbited the Earth. But the question of who flew on the ship Vostok 1, for some reason, causes difficulty. Maybe the fact is that we simply do not know that Gagarin made his first flight on this ship? In the same year, for the first time, the Vostok 2 spacecraft entered orbit, in which there were two cosmonauts at once, one of whom went beyond the ship in space. It was progress. And already in 1965 Voskhod 2 was able to go into outer space. The history of the Sunrise 2 ship was filmed.

Vostok 3 set a new world record for the longest time a ship spent in space. The last ship in the series was Vostok 6.

The American shuttle of the Apollo series opened new horizons. After all, in 1968, Apollo 11 was the first to land on the moon. Today there are several projects for the development of spaceplanes of the future, such as Hermes and Columbus.

Salyut is a series of interorbital space stations of the Soviet Union. Salyut 7 is known for having crashed.

The next spaceship, whose history is of interest, was Buran, by the way, I wonder where he is now. In 1988 he made his first and last flight. After repeated analysis and transportation, Buran's path of movement was lost. The last known location of the Buran spacecraft is in Sochi, work on it has been mothballed. However, the storm around this project has not yet subsided, and the further fate of the abandoned Buran project is of interest to many. And in Moscow, an interactive museum complex was created inside the model of the Buran spacecraft at VDNKh.

Gemini - a series of ships of American designers. They replaced the Mercury project and were able to make a spiral in orbit.

American ships with the name Space Shuttle have become a kind of shuttles, making more than 100 flights between objects. The second Space Shuttle was the Challenger.

One cannot but be interested in the history of the planet Nibiru, which is recognized as a warden ship. Nibiru has already twice approached a dangerous distance to Earth, but both times the collision was avoided.

Dragon is a spacecraft that was supposed to fly to the planet Mars in 2018. In 2014, the federation, citing the technical characteristics and condition of the Dragon ship, postponed the launch. Not so long ago, another event happened: the Boeing company made a statement that it had also begun development work on the creation of a rover.

The first reusable station wagon in history was to be an apparatus called Zarya. Zarya is the first development of a reusable transport ship, on which the federation had very high hopes.

A breakthrough is the possibility of using nuclear installations in space. For these purposes, work began on the transport and energy module. In parallel, developments are underway on the Prometheus project - a compact nuclear reactor for rockets and spacecraft.

China's Shenzhou 11 launched in 2016 with two astronauts to spend 33 days in space.

Spacecraft speed (km/h)

The minimum speed with which you can go into orbit around the Earth is 8 km / s. Today there is no need to develop the fastest ship in the world, since we are at the very beginning of outer space. After all, the maximum height that we could reach in space is only 500 km. The record for the fastest movement in space was set in 1969, and so far it has not been possible to break it. On the Apollo 10 spacecraft, three astronauts were returning home after orbiting the moon. The capsule that was supposed to deliver them from the flight managed to reach a speed of 39.897 km / h. For comparison, let's consider how fast a space station flies. As much as possible, it can develop up to 27,600 km / h.

Abandoned spaceships

Today, for spacecraft that have become unusable, a cemetery has been created in the Pacific Ocean, where dozens of abandoned spaceships can find their last shelter. spaceship disasters

Disasters happen in space, often taking lives. The most frequent, oddly enough, are accidents that occur due to collisions with space debris. On impact, the object's orbit is displaced and causes crash and damage, often resulting in an explosion. The most famous disaster is the death of the manned American spacecraft Challenger.

Nuclear engine for spaceships 2017

Today, scientists are working on projects to create an atomic electric motor. These developments involve the conquest of space with the help of photonic engines. Russian scientists are planning to start testing a thermonuclear engine in the near future.

Spaceships of Russia and the USA

The rapid interest in space arose during the Cold War between the USSR and the USA. American scientists recognized worthy rivals in their Russian colleagues. Soviet rocket science continued to develop, and after the collapse of the state, Russia became its successor. Of course, the spacecraft that Russian cosmonauts fly are significantly different from the first ships. Moreover, today, thanks to the successful developments of American scientists, spacecraft have become reusable.

Spaceships of the future

Today, there is increasing interest in projects that will enable humanity to make longer journeys. Modern developments are already preparing ships for interstellar expeditions.

Where are spaceships launched from?

To see with your own eyes the launch of a spacecraft at the start is the dream of many. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the first launch does not always lead to the desired result. But thanks to the Internet, we can see how the ship takes off. Considering the fact that those watching the launch of a manned spacecraft should be far enough away, we can imagine that we are on the takeoff site.

Spaceship: what is it like inside?

Today, thanks to museum exhibits, we can personally see the structure of such ships as the Soyuz. Of course, from the inside, the first ships were very simple. The interior of more modern options is designed in soothing colors. The device of any spacecraft is sure to scare us with a lot of levers and buttons. And this adds pride for those who were able to remember how the ship works, and, moreover, learned how to manage it.

What spaceships are flying now?

New spaceships with their appearance confirm that fantasy has become reality. Today, no one will be surprised by the fact that the docking of spacecraft is a reality. And few people remember that the world's first such docking took place back in 1967...

Kostov Matvey

Participant of urban scientific readings for children of primary school age in the section "Space World". The student talks about the structure of the spacecraft "Vostok", "Voskhod" and "Soyuz".

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City scientific readings for children of primary school age

Section "Space World"

Topic: "Design of spaceships"

Class 3 B MBOU-gymnasium No. 2

Scientific adviser Mosolova G.V., primary school teacher

Tula 2013

Introduction

I am very interested in the design of spaceships. Firstly, because it is a large and complex apparatus, on the creation of which many scientists and engineers are working. Secondly, for several hours or even days, the ship becomes a home for an astronaut, where normal human conditions are necessary - the astronaut must breathe, drink, eat, sleep. During the flight, the astronaut is required to turn the ship around and change the orbit at his own discretion, that is, the ship must be easily controlled when moving in space. Thirdly, in the future I would like to design spaceships myself.

The spacecraft is designed to fly one or more people into outer space and safely return to Earth after completing the mission.

The technical requirements for a spacecraft are more stringent than for any other spacecraft. Flight conditions (G-forces, temperature conditions, pressure, etc.) must be maintained for them very accurately so that a threat to human life is not created.

An important feature of a manned spacecraft is the presence of an emergency rescue system.

Manned spacecraft have been created only in Russia, the USA and China, since this task is of high complexity and cost. And only Russia and the USA have reusable manned spacecraft systems.

In this work, I tried to talk about the design of the Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz spacecraft.

"East"

A series of Soviet spacecraft "Vostok" is designed for manned flights in near-Earth orbit. They were created under the leadership of General Designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev from 1958 to 1963.

The first manned flight of the Vostok spacecraft with Yu.A. Gagarin on board took place on April 12, 1961, it was the first spacecraft in the world that made it possible to carry out a manned flight into space.

The main scientific tasks for the Vostok spacecraft were: studying the effects of orbital flight conditions on the astronaut's condition and performance, testing the design and systems, testing the basic principles of building spacecraft.

The total mass of the spacecraft is 4.73 tons, the length is 4.4 m, and the maximum diameter is 2.43 m.

The spacecraft consisted of a spherical descent vehicle (2.46 tons in weight and 2.3 m in diameter), which also served as an orbital compartment and a conical instrument compartment. The compartments were mechanically connected to each other using metal bands and pyrotechnic locks. The ship was equipped with systems: automatic and manual control, automatic orientation to the Sun, manual orientation to the Earth, life support, command and logic control, power supply, thermal control and landing. To ensure the tasks of human work in outer space, the ship was equipped with autonomous and radio telemetry equipment for monitoring and recording parameters characterizing the state of the astronaut, structures and systems, ultra-shortwave and short-wave equipment for two-way radiotelephone communication of the astronaut with ground stations, a command radio link, a program-time device, a television system with two transmitting cameras for observing the astronaut from the Earth, a radio system for monitoring the parameters of the orbit and direction finding of the spacecraft, a TDU-1 braking propulsion system, and other systems. The weight of the spacecraft, together with the last stage of the launch vehicle, was 6.17 tons, and their length in conjunction was 7.35 m.

The descent vehicle had two windows, one of which was located on the entrance hatch, just above the cosmonaut's head, and the other, equipped with a special orientation system, in the floor at his feet. The astronaut, dressed in a spacesuit, was placed in a special ejection seat. At the last stage of landing, after braking the descent vehicle in the atmosphere, at an altitude of 7 km, the cosmonaut ejected from the cabin and made a parachute landing. In addition, the possibility of landing an astronaut inside the descent vehicle was provided. The descent vehicle had its own parachute, but was not equipped with the means to perform a soft landing, which threatened the person remaining in it with a serious bruise during a joint landing.

In the event of failure of automatic systems, the astronaut could switch to manual control. The Vostok ships were not adapted for manned flights to the moon, and also did not allow the possibility of flights of people who had not undergone special training.

"Sunrise"

Multi-seat Voskhod spacecraft carried out flights in near-Earth orbit. These ships actually repeated the ships of the Vostok series and consisted of a spherical descent vehicle with a diameter of 2.3 meters, in which the astronauts were accommodated, and a conical instrument compartment (weight 2.27 tons, length 2.25 m and width 2.43 m. ), which contained the fuel tanks and propulsion system. In the Voskhod-1 spacecraft, the cosmonauts settled down without space suits to save space. The first space crew included the designer of the descent vehicles Konstantin Feoktistov.

"Union"

"Soyuz" - a series of multi-seat spacecraft for flights in near-Earth orbit.

The Soyuz rocket and space complex began to be designed in 1962 as a ship of the Soviet program for flying around the moon.

The ships of this series consist of three modules: an instrument-aggregate compartment, a descent vehicle, and a utility compartment.

The power supply system consists of solar panels and batteries.

The descent vehicle contains places for astronauts, life support systems, control systems, and a parachute system. The length of the compartment is 2.24 m, the diameter is 2.2 m. The household compartment has a length of 3.4 m, a diameter of 2.25 m.

Conclusion

All the best and most modern developments of mankind, the latest advanced technologies and on-board equipment are used on spacecraft.

Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz were replaced by more advanced orbital stations of a new generation and new capabilities.

They opened another page in the history of not only Russian but also world cosmonautics, they united cosmonauts from many countries.

Later, "Shuttles", "Burans" and other spacecraft appeared, but it was these three described in my work that served as the basis for the development of modern aircraft.

I really hope that when I grow up, I can also create or help create a new ultra-modern spacecraft that will fly to very distant galaxies.

Bibliography

1. Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Astronomer. Moscow. 2006 Compiled by Erpylev N.P.;
2. Encyclopedia for children. Cosmonautics. Moscow. 2010
3. Great feats. Series "Encyclopedia of discoveries and adventures". Moscow. 2008

The structure of the spacecraft "Vostok 1"

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. -- M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969--1978.

1. Antenna of the command radio link system. 2. Communication antenna. 3. Casing of electrical connectors 4. Entrance hatch. 5. Container with food. 6. Tie-down straps. 7. Ribbon antennas. 8. Brake motor. 9. Communication antennas. 10. Service hatches. 11 Instrument compartment with main systems. 12. Ignition wiring. 13. Pneumatic system cylinders (16 pcs.) for the life support system. 14. Ejection seat. 15. Radio antenna. 16. Porthole with an optical guide. 17. Technological hatch. 18. Television camera. 19. Thermal protection from ablative material. 20. Block of electronic equipment.

BRIEF DETAILS ABOUT THE SHIP

Registration number	1961-Mu-1/00103
Start date and time (Universal Time)	06h07m. 04/12/1961
Starting point	Baikonur, site 1
launch vehicle
Ship mass (kg)
Initial orbit parameters:
Orbital inclination (degree)
Period of circulation (minutes)
Perigee (km)
Apogee (km)
Date and time of astronaut landing (Universal Time)	07h55m. 04/12/1961
Landing place	To the north-west. from the village Smelovka, Saratov region
astronaut flight time
Distance traveled (km)
Number of orbits around the earth
Briefly about the flight	The first manned flight into space.

List of used literature

1. Glushko V.P. "Development of rocket science and astronautics in the USSR", Moscow, 1987

2. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. -- M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969--1978.

3. Bobkov V.N. From the history of aviation and astronautics. Issue 72. Spaceships of the Vostok and Voskhod type. Experimental studies based on them.

4. Manned spacecraft "Vostok" and "Voskhod" / In the book. "Rocket and space corporation "Energia" named after S.P. Korolev. B. m. [Korolev], 1996, pp. 20 -118.