The key goal of each enterprise is to extract the maximum possible profit, with minimal operating costs.

Depending on the calculation method used, profitability is divided into several categories. The most significant coefficient in the world of business is the income from the sale of products or services.

Each company in the course of its activities is looking for new and unexplored ways to achieve the maximum level of profitability. But in order to realize this, it is necessary first of all to understand how profit is formed, it is calculated, what situations can influence it, in terms of volumes.

Scope of application

Profit from sales is the end result trading activities firms.

The management of the company should strive to ensure that the end result of the activity, although not the maximum level of profit, is sufficient for the further continuation of work, under normal conditions.

Information sources for profit analysis:

• gains and losses report;
• enterprise balance sheet (accounting);
• the company's financial plan.

By itself, the profit indicator is not capable of giving a deep assessment of the situation, because it is nothing more than a figure expressed in value. For example, for the past audit, the company received an income of about 200 thousand rubles. How good or bad is this indicator?

It is difficult to give an exhaustive answer to such a question, having only a figure of 200,000 rubles. One solution may be to compare the company's performance with its previous reporting periods.

For example, last year, the firm as a result of its economic activity earned 150 thousand rubles. Consequently, the profit indicator increased by fifty thousand rubles, or by thirty-three percent. Answering the previously posed question, the company was able to show more effective results for the past audit.

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How to calculate profit from sales?

In the process of calculating the profit of entrepreneurial activity, a formula is used in which the coefficient acts as the difference between expenses and gross profit.

Gross profit from sales is the difference between the costs (required to sell and create products) and the cash flow.

Cost of sales includes only those lines of expenditure aimed at the direct sale of the product or service offered.

1. Profit from the sale of products - the formula: Prpr \u003d Vpr - UR - KR. Where, KR, UR - commercial and administrative waste; Vpr - the level of gross profit; Ppr - income from the activities of the company.
2. The formula for calculating the company's gross profit: Vpr = VO - Sbst. Where, Сbst is the cost of selling products; In - the amount of revenue.

Example of using the sales profit formula

The company is engaged in the implementation household appliances. Over the past reporting period, two thousand vacuum cleaners were sold, at an average price of five thousand rubles. The revenue for the last audit is:

Vo \u003d 2000 * 5000 \u003d 10,000,000 rubles.

The cost level of one vacuum cleaner is three thousand three hundred rubles, and all products:

Cost price \u003d 2000 * 3300 \u003d 6,600,000 rubles.

Administrative and commercial expenses amount to 1,450,500 and 840,500 rubles, respectively.

Determine the level of gross profit:

Prv \u003d 10,000,000 - 6,600,000 \u003d 3,400,000 rubles.

Let's calculate the profit from the sale of vacuum cleaners:

Prpr \u003d 3,400,000 - 840,500 - 1,450,500 \u003d 1,109,000 rubles.

If all other lines of expenses and tax deductions are subtracted from the profit indicator, then you get net income.

What affects the volume of goods sold?

Before you find out the sources of increasing profits, it is worth understanding why it is primarily dependent.

There are two key categories that affect a company's profits: external and internal.

• The level of sale of goods. In the case of an increase in sales of goods with a high rate of profitability, the profit rate will increase. If you increase sales of goods with a low level of profitability, then the profit margin will decrease.
• The structure of the proposed assortment of goods. The dependency thread is the same as in the case of volume;
• The cost of the goods or services offered. Directly proportional relationship. If the cost of the offered product increases, the profit increases, and vice versa.
• Cost price. In the process of increasing the level of the cost of goods - profit falls, with a decrease in the level of cost - increases.
• Business expenses. The dependency thread is exactly the same as in the case of cost.

It should be noted that each enterprise has a full range of tools aimed at the in-line regulation of the above factors.

TO external reasons applies - the state of the market situation in which the sale of the service / product takes place. No company in the world is able to have a significant impact on such factors.

External causes include:

1. Depreciation rate.
2. State regulation.
3. Conditions and situations of a natural nature.
4. The level of difference between supply and demand (market sentiment).
5. The initial price of raw materials and materials necessary for the production of goods, for its subsequent sale on the market.

External factors do not have a direct impact on the profitability of the enterprise, but they can put pressure on the cost price, as well as the final volume of goods sold.

Ways to increase the profit ratio

In the light market economy, companies have two effective ways to increase profits.

In particular:

• Reducing the cost of the service / product (in the process of creation and subsequent implementation).
• Increasing the volume of sales of manufactured products.
• Diversification production process.
• Entering new markets.
• Elimination of losses and non-production expenses.
• Optimization of the consumption of economic resources.

The level of income received by the company is directly dependent on the volume of goods sold, many managers favor the idea of ​​simply increasing volumes. To effectively implement this approach, it is necessary to conduct the highest quality analysis, determine which products are most in demand among end users, and more importantly, how beneficial they are for the company itself.

If the product has a high rate of return, but there is low demand- it is necessary to carry out a marketing campaign in order to stimulate demand growth.

Important to find target audience, change a number of product characteristics, design solutions.

The more consumers you manage to attract to your product, the higher the final profit will be.

Another effective way, as mentioned above, is to reduce the cost of production. To implement this plan, it is necessary to find suppliers with lower price thresholds in terms of primary raw materials and materials.

Other, no less effective ways to increase the company's profitability are the automation of the production process, the introduction of new technologies, innovative solutions.

Calculation of profit from the sale of goods: methodology

In the process of planning a development strategy, companies are required to take into account the expected level of profit.

For a qualitative calculation of future profit, it is important to know at what price it will be sold to the end consumer, what volume will be sold.

The easiest way to predict the level of future profit is to calculate the profitability ratio (data for the past time interval are used).

1. Calculation of return on sales by net income (ROM): ROM = (revenue from the sale of goods / cost * 100 percent.
2. Profit before tax - formula: income from goods sold + income / expenses (operating) + income and expenses (non-operating).
3. They often resort to factor analysis profit from sales. Calculation formula: P \u003d K * (C - C). Where, K is the volume goods sold; C - the cost of production; C - the cost of production, with the subsequent sale of the service / product.

Also, today a wide list of various financial and analytical programs is available that allow you to make a high-quality forecast, taking into account all known factors. The best profit planning approach is achieved with a long-term time frame.

Conclusion

Calculation and analysis of the level of profitability of the company is a key element of management entrepreneurial activity. In small firms, such work does not take much money and time, and the manager himself can carry out the simplest calculation of the company's profit. But with a rigorous approach, positive changes will manifest themselves immediately, in the form of increased income and levels of efficiency.

Related video

Company owners can send net profit for the payment of dividends, for employee bonuses, for an increase in the authorized capital, or for other purposes. In this article, we will look at how to account for transactions related to the distribution of profits and pay taxes.

The right to distribute profits belongs to the owners of the company (subclause 3, clause 3, article 91, clause 4, clause 1, article 103 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). To do this, they must hold a general meeting. In a joint-stock company, it is carried out no earlier than two months and no later than six months after the end of the financial year (clause 1, article 47 of Federal Law No. 208-FZ of December 26, 1995 “On joint-stock companies", hereinafter - Law No. 208-FZ). In limited liability companies, the holding period annual meetings a shorter one - from March 1 to April 30 (Article 34 of the Federal Law of February 8, 1998 No. 14-FZ "On Limited Liability Companies", hereinafter - Law No. 14-FZ).

The decision must be documented in the minutes of the general meeting of shareholders (participants). It is clear that in companies created by a single founder, minutes of general meetings are not drawn up (Article 39 of Law No. 14-FZ, clause 3 of Article 47 of Law No. 208-FZ). The sole founder determines the directions of spending the net profit by his written decision.

What can you spend your net income on?

Undistributed (net) profit can be directed:

• for the payment of dividends;
• increase the authorized capital;
• formation of reserve capital;
• repayment of losses of previous years;
• various employee benefits;
• financing of capital investments;
• other goals.

Let us consider in more detail the procedure for distributing profits for some of these purposes.

We pay dividends

The payment of dividends is the main direction of profit distribution.

When Not to Pay Dividends

Before making a decision to pay dividends, you need to check whether the company has the right to do so.

Recall that it is impossible to distribute profits between owners if:

• share capital not fully paid up. In other words, if there is a debt in the debit of account 75 “Settlements with founders”, then profit cannot be distributed;
• at the time of the decision to pay dividends, the value of the company's net assets is less than its authorized capital and reserve fund or will become less as a result of such a decision;
• the company meets the signs of insolvency (bankruptcy) or if such signs appear due to a decision on the distribution of profits. Signs of bankruptcy are given in the Federal Law of October 26, 2002 No. 127-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)". In particular, these include a situation in which the company, within three months from the date of the due date for the fulfillment of monetary obligations under contracts, including taxes and fees, will not be able to satisfy these requirements (clause 2, article 3 of Law No. 127-FZ ).

So, if at least one of these criteria is met, then the amounts paid to the founders are not recognized as dividends, since they were accrued in violation of the law. And they will have to charge taxes from them not at "dividend" rates, but at the usual ones (letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated 10/14/2005 No. 03-03-04 / 1/276).

What documents are used to pay dividends

To calculate dividends, the following documents are required (letter of the Federal Tax Service for Moscow dated February 14, 2007 No. 20-12/013749a):

• a registered charter that provides for the payment of dividends;
• minutes (decision) of the general meeting of shareholders (participants) approving the payment of dividends for a certain year in a certain amount;
• documents confirming the number of shares or share in authorized capital each recipient of dividends;
• financial statements, according to which the company has a net profit in the amount necessary for payment.

The payment of dividends is confirmed by a payment document.

Is it possible to pay dividends from the profits of previous years

The regulatory authorities recognize that the company has the right to pay dividends from the profits of previous years (letters of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated March 20, 2012 No. 03-03-06 / 1/133, the Federal Tax Service of Russia for Moscow dated June 8, 2010 No. 16-15 / 060619@, dated June 23, 2009 No. 16-15/063489).

This position is also supported by the judges (decisions of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the North Caucasian District of January 23, 2007 No. 08-7128/2006, of the East Siberian District of August 11, 2005 No. А33-26614/04-С3-Ф02-3800/05-С1).

Attention!

It makes sense to mention the possibility of distributing the net profit of past years in the charter of the organization.

By the way, according to the Ministry of Finance, dividends from the net profit of previous years can be paid only if this profit was not previously directed to the formation of funds. For example, a fund for the corporatization of employees of a joint-stock company. Otherwise, dividend payments are not considered and, accordingly, are taxed at the usual rates (clauses 1, 2, article 35 of Law No. 208-FZ, letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated 03/20/2012 No. 03-03-06/1/133, dated 04/06/2010 No. 03-03-06/1/235).

Accounting when accruing dividends

When accruing dividends (both annual and quarterly), the following entries are made in accounting:

Debit 84 Credit 75-2

Dividends accrued to the founder, who is not an employee of the organization;

Debit 84 Credit 70

Dividends are accrued to the founder, who is an employee of the organization.

If dividends are accrued but not paid

It happens that the company accrued dividends, but for some reason did not pay. Accrued but not paid dividends must be restored as part of net profit three years after the dividend payment deadline established by the general meeting (a longer period may be specified in the charter, but not more than five years) (clause 5, article 42 of Law No. 208- Federal Law, clause 3, article 28 of Law No. 14-FZ).

The lines will be like this:

Debit 75-2 Credit 84 sub-account "Retained earnings of the reporting year"

Unclaimed dividends were reinstated as part of net income.

When calculating income tax, dividends unclaimed by shareholders (participants) restored as part of profit are not included in income (subclause 3.4, clause 1, article 251 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).

We increase the authorized capital

Net profit can also be used to increase the authorized capital, although in practice such use of net profit is quite rare.

Three conditions for increasing the authorized capital at the expense of profit

When increasing the authorized capital of an LLC at the expense of property, the following requirements must be met (Article 18 of Law No. 14-FZ, clause 9 of the joint resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation No. 90 and the Supreme Arbitration Court of the Russian Federation No. 14 of 09.12.99):

1. The decision to increase the authorized capital in this way must be taken by the general meeting of participants on the basis of the data financial statements company for the year preceding the year during which such a decision was made. At least 2/3 of the LLC participants must vote for it (if the need for a larger number of votes to make such a decision is not provided for by the charter);

2. With an increase in the authorized capital, the nominal value of the shares of all participants in the company increases proportionally without changing the size and ratio of their shares.

3. The amount of the authorized capital increase must not exceed the difference between the value of the company's net assets and the amount of the company's authorized capital and reserve fund.

Example 1

The authorized capital of the company is 1,100,000 rubles. Reserve fund - 400,000 rubles. As of January 1, 2013, the value of net assets was equal to 3,010,152 rubles, the amount of retained earnings was 3,100,000 rubles. Maximum amount increase in the authorized capital - 1,510,152 rubles. .

It is clear that the authorized capital, the size of which the company is going to increase, must be fully paid by the founders.

As for joint-stock companies, the procedure for increasing the authorized capital at the expense of net profit will be slightly different.

The authorized capital of a JSC can be increased by increasing the nominal value of shares or by placing additional shares (clause 1, article 28 of Law No. 208-FZ).

The decision to increase the authorized capital by increasing the nominal value of shares is taken by a simple majority on general meeting shareholders. And the decision to place additional shares can be made either by a simple majority at the general meeting of shareholders or by the company's board of directors unanimously, if the company's charter allows it (Article 28 of Law No. 208-FZ).

Documentation with an increase in the Criminal Code

An increase in the authorized capital of a company provides for the need to amend the charter.

The procedure for making changes is provided for by Federal Law No. 129-FZ dated 08.08.2001 “On state registration legal entities And individual entrepreneurs"(hereinafter - Law No. 129-FZ).

So, documents must be submitted to the registration authority (clause 1, article 17 of Law No. 129-FZ):

• an application for state registration of amendments to the charter, in the form No. P13001 (approved by order of the Federal Tax Service of Russia dated January 25, 2012 No. ММВ-7-6/25@). It must be signed by the person exercising the functions of the sole executive body society;
• decision to amend the articles of association;
• changes made to founding documents legal entity, or constituent documents of a legal entity in new edition in duplicate;
• document confirming the payment of state duty in the amount of 800 rubles. (signature 3, clause 1, article 333.33 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation).

Taxation when increasing the authorized capital

The organization itself, when increasing the authorized capital at the expense of its own property, including at the expense of retained earnings, does not generate income (subclause 3, clause 1, article 251 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, letter of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated 04/09/2007 No. 07-05-06 / 86).

Let's figure out how the increase in the authorized capital of the company will affect its founders. More precisely, whether it will be considered income for tax purposes:

• for LLC participants - the difference between the new and old nominal value of the share;
• for JSC shareholders - the difference between the nominal value of new shares and the original ones.

JSC shareholders - legal entities will not have taxable income, this is expressly stated in subpara. 15 p. 1 art. 251 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. According to this norm, when determining the tax base, income in the form of:

• the cost of additional shares received by the shareholder organization, distributed among shareholders by decision of the general meeting in proportion to the number of shares they own;
• the difference between the nominal value of new shares received in exchange for the original shares and the initial shares of a shareholder in the event of distribution of shares among shareholders upon an increase in the authorized capital of a joint-stock company (without changing the shareholder's share in this company).

But with LLC participants - legal entities, the situation is different. About them in the sub. 15 p. 1 art. 251 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation is not mentioned. There are clarifications from the Ministry of Finance that when increasing the authorized capital at the expense of retained earnings of previous years, participants receive non-operating income, from which income tax must be paid (letters of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated May 30, 2013 No. 03-03-06/1/19742, dated 09/26/2011 No. 03-03-06/1/588).

However, judges in some decisions express the opinion that the participants do not receive any income from an increase in the authorized capital at the expense of net profit. They note that the profit in this case does not go to the participants, but remains a separate property of the company. Participants only increase the nominal value of their shares. Shareholders will receive real economic benefit only when any of the property rights is realized.

This means that an organization - a member of a company does not have economic benefits and income, as well as a taxable base for calculating profits, because an increase in capital due to retained earnings of a company that does not change real shares participants in the authorized capital, does not lead to a change in their property (obligatory) rights (Resolution of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Volga District dated February 16, 2009 No. A65-11409 / 2006). However, relying on this court decision is risky - so far we are not talking about established practice on this issue or any trend.

For LLC participants - individuals, when increasing capital due to retained earnings of previous years, income arises in the form of the difference between the initial and new nominal value of their shares.

The date of receipt of income is the date of state registration of the increase in the authorized capital of the company. On this date, the organization that is the source of income must calculate, withhold from the taxpayer and pay the amount of personal income tax in general order(Letters of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated January 26, 2007 No. 03-03-06/1/33, dated December 19, 2006 No. 03-05-01-04/336). The same is true for JSC shareholders.

It will be quite problematic to challenge this opinion in court. Previously, the courts supported taxpayers. The judges pointed out that an increase in the nominal value of a share in the authorized capital of an LLC due to retained earnings in relation to a participant cannot be regarded as income individual(Resolutions of the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Urals District of May 28, 2007 No. Ф09-3942/07-С2, of the East Siberian District of July 25, 2006 No. А33-18719/05-Ф02-3629/06-С1, of the Moscow District of February 26, 2009 No. КА- A41/1046-09).

However, in Ruling No. 81-O-O of January 16, 2009, the Constitutional Court of the Russian Federation expressed a different position. The court recognized that exemption from taxes by its nature is a benefit, which is an exception to the principles of universality and equality of taxation arising from the Constitution of the Russian Federation, by virtue of which everyone is obliged to pay a legally established tax from the corresponding object of taxation. Establishing the benefits is the exclusive prerogative of the legislator. And with an increase in the authorized capital at the expense of retained earnings, the benefit is not provided. Arbitration courts began to follow this trend.

Thus, the Federal Antimonopoly Service of the Volga District decided that income in the form of the difference between the initial and new nominal value of the share formed in connection with the increase in the authorized capital of the company due to retained earnings of previous years, as well as the contribution of the participant, is subject to personal income tax (Decree No. A78-928/2010).

Accounting with an increase in the Criminal Code

When the authorized capital is increased, the following entries are made in accounting:

Debit 84 Credit 80

The increase in the authorized capital at the expense of net profit after the registration of the change is reflected.

We form reserve capital

Reserve capital - part equity, allocated from the profit of the organization to cover possible losses and losses. The amount of reserve capital and the procedure for its formation are determined by the legislation of the Russian Federation and the charter of the organization.

Joint-stock companies are obliged to create a reserve fund (capital) at the expense of net profit. At least 5% of net profit must be directed to the reserve fund (capital) annually. Deductions may be terminated when the reserve fund (capital) reaches the amount stipulated by the charter of the joint-stock company. Minimum size reserve fund (capital) of JSC - 5% of the authorized capital (clause 1, article 35 of Law No. 208-FZ).

The reserve fund of a JSC is intended to cover its losses, as well as to redeem the company's bonds and buy back the company's shares (clause 1, article 35 of Law No. 208-FZ).

An LLC can also create a reserve fund (capital), but it is not obliged to do so. The society determines its size and the order of formation independently (Article 30 of Law No. 14-FZ).

There is no mandatory contribution requirement for LLCs.

Accounting when forming a reserve fund

When forming the reserve capital in accounting, the following entries are made:

Debit 84 Credit 82

The net profit was directed to the formation of a reserve fund (capital) in accordance with the standards approved by the charter.

We cover the losses of previous years

When directing net profit to cover losses of previous years, the following entries are made in accounting:

Debit 84 subaccount "Retained earnings of the reporting year" Credit 84 subaccount "Uncovered loss of previous years"

Directed net profit to pay off losses of previous years.

We use net income to purchase property

At the general meeting, shareholders of a joint-stock company or participants in an LLC may decide to allocate part of retained earnings for the acquisition of non-current assets. Owners have the right to make such decisions. But the question arises, what should an accountant do with account 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss)”. In the Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts (approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated October 31, 2000 No. 94n), in the accounting regulations, as well as in other regulations there are only a few cases when you can make a posting with the debit of account 84:

1) dividends have been accrued to shareholders or members of the company;

2) a reserve fund was created (replenished) on account 82 “Reserve capital”;

3) a loss was received based on the results of the reporting period;

4) after approval annual accounts a significant error was corrected (clause 9 PBU 22/2010 "Correction of errors in accounting and reporting");

5) a significant change in accounting policy is retrospectively reflected (clauses 14, 15 of PBU 1/2008 "Accounting policy of the organization");

6) the authorized capital of a JSC or LLC has been increased at the expense of the company's property.

For other cases, the Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts provide for the reservation of retained earnings.

To track the direction of the use of funds, you need to organize analytical accounting for account 84. Sub-accounts are created for it.

The total balance of this account at the time of acquisition does not change, since investments from net income do not lead to a decrease in the balance sheet currency. Analytical accounting on account 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss)”, namely: “Profit to be distributed”, “Use of profit” allows you to control the presence and expenditure of retained earnings:

Debit 84 sub-account "Profit to be distributed" Credit 84 sub-account "Use of profit"

The use of net profit is reflected (the date of reflection of property in accounting).

Example 2

JSC "Kometa" for 2012 received a net profit of 4,000,000 rubles. On April 30, 2013, at the general meeting of shareholders, it was decided to distribute part of the net profit received for 2012, namely: net profit in the amount of 590,000 rubles. was used to finance capital investments. On May 15, 2013, at the expense of these funds, the organization purchased commercial equipment worth 590,000 rubles. (including VAT 90,000 rubles).

The following entries were made in the accounting of JSC "Komety".

Debit 08 Credit 60

- 500,000 rubles. - Purchased production equipment;

Debit 19 Credit 60

- 90,000 rubles. - "input" VAT is taken into account;

Debit 60 Credit 51

- 590,000 rubles. - transferred to the supplier funds for commercial equipment;

Debit 84 sub-account "Profit to be distributed" Credit 84 sub-account "Use of profit"

- 590,000 rubles. - reflects the use of net profit aimed at financing capital investments;

Debit 01 Credit 08

- 500,000 rubles. - the equipment was put into operation;

Debit 68 subaccount "VAT settlements" Credit 19

- 90,000 rubles. - submitted for the deduction of "input" VAT on commercial equipment.

Thus, the balance of retained earnings for 2012 is 3,410,000 rubles. (4,000,000 rubles - 590,000 rubles). The founders can use this amount at their discretion.

Yu.A. Inozemtseva, expert in accounting and taxation

How to "spend" net income correctly

As you know, the net profit (NP) of the company is distributed by the owners. But whatever their decision, the accountant must reflect it in accounting and reporting. The catch is that accounting regulations only talk about how to calculate profits. clause 83 of the Regulations, approved. Order of the Ministry of Finance dated July 29, 1998 No. 34n. During the year, it accumulates on the credit of account 99 “Profit and Loss”, and when compiling annual financial statements, the amount of net profit is debited from account 99 to the credit of account 84 “Retained earnings”. The credit balance on account 84 is your retained earnings (RRP). But about how to “spend” the profit, practically nothing is said in the accounting regulations, there is only a mention in the Chart of Accounts.

The procedure for the distribution of PE is established by the Laws on JSC and LLC sub. 11 p. 1 art. 48 of the Law of December 26, 1995 No. 208-FZ (hereinafter referred to as the JSC Law); sub. 7 p. 2 art. 33 of the Law of 08.02.98 No. 14-FZ (hereinafter - the Law on LLC). At the same time, joint-stock companies are obliged to send part of the emergency to the reserve fund, and LLCs can do this at will. pp. 1, 2 art. 35 of the JSC Law; paragraph 1 of Art. 30 of the LLC Law. The rest of the profit shareholders (participants) can distribute at their own discretion. So, under certain conditions, they can send profits to pay dividends in articles 42, 43 of the JSC Law; paragraph 1 of Art. 28, art. 29, paragraph 1 of Art. 30 of the LLC Law. And sometimes the owners decide to direct the PE to purchase new fixed assets or pay bonuses to employees. But the Laws on JSC and LLC do not say how in these cases to reflect the distribution of NRP in accounting.

To understand this issue, let's first talk about what NRP is from a reporting point of view.

What is capital and profit

Retained earnings are part of the capital of the organization, it is reflected in section III "Capital and reserves" of the balance sheet.

The standards establish rules only for the recognition of assets and liabilities, and capital is the arithmetic difference between them. There are no capital accounting rules in either RAS or IFRS.

In turn, profit is the difference between income and expenses and paragraph 7 of IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements.

As in the case of capital, the standards establish only the rules for accounting for income and expenses, and profit is a derived value.

Accounting for income is regulated by a special standard PBU 9/99, and expenses - PBU 10/99. Moreover, the concepts of "income" and "expenses" are also defined using the categories "assets" and "liabilities".

Thus, the income of an organization is an increase in its economic benefits as a result of the receipt of assets or the repayment of liabilities, with the exception of contributions by a participant in clause 2 PBU 9/99. As can be seen from the formula for calculating capital, as a result of the receipt of assets or the repayment of liabilities, capital increases.

The organization's expenses, on the contrary, are a decrease in its economic benefits as a result of the disposal of assets and (or) the incurrence of liabilities, with the exception of a decrease in contributions by decision of the participants (property owners) clause 2 PBU 10/99. As a result of the disposal of assets or the incurrence of liabilities, the capital of the organization decreases.

Of course, this is only general definitions income and expenses, for their recognition it is necessary to comply with certain conditions established in PBU 9/99 and 10/99, but we will not consider them in this article.

Note that the increase or decrease in the economic benefits of the organization that occurred as a result of transactions with its owners (for example, the payment of dividends) is not recognized as income or expenses. True, this is directly stated only in IFRS, but in fact this rule also applies to RAS. 109 IAS 1 Presentation of Financial Statements.

OUTPUT

Capital, including NRP, is not the property of an organization, but abstract financial categories that represent the arithmetic difference between assets and liabilities (income and expenses).

We distribute profit

The question arises: if profit is not money, but an abstract indicator financial reporting, then how can it be distributed or “spent” on something? Conventionally, we can say that profit is “spent” when its value in the balance sheet decreases. This happens when paying dividends and creating a reserve fund. Let's consider these and other options for profit distribution, as well as their impact on reporting indicators.

Dividends

The most common way to distribute profits is to pay dividends. As we have already said, the outflow of assets in connection with the payment of dividends is not recognized as an expense of the organization. Therefore, the accrual of dividends to participants is directly related to the reduction of the NRP and the capital of the organization, is reflected in the posting: debit of account 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss)” - credit of account 75 “Settlements with founders”.

For information on how to correctly calculate and pay dividends to LLC participants, read:

Dividends can be paid in cash or property, but in any case, the payment of dividends will lead to a decrease in the assets of the organization paragraph 1 of Art. 42 JSC Law. When paying in money, the posting will be as follows: debit of account 75 “Settlements with founders” - credit of account 51 “Settlement accounts”. And the payment of dividends by property (for example, goods) is reflected as a sale by postings:

• debit of account 76 "Settlements with various debtors and creditors" - credit of account 90-1 "Revenue" - revenue from the sale of goods transferred as payment of dividends was recognized;
• debit of account 90-2 "Cost of sales" - credit of account 41 "Goods" - written off the cost of goods;
• debit of account 75 "Settlements with founders" - credit of account 76 "Settlements with various debtors and creditors" - the debt to the participant for the payment of dividends was set off.

OUTPUT

The distribution of profits to dividends leads to a decrease in capital (including EIR line 1370) and assets.

reserve fund

As we have already said, JSCs are obliged to create a reserve fund. Its size must be at least 5% of the authorized capital of the company, and the charter of the joint-stock company may determine a larger amount of the fund yes paragraph 1 of Art. 35 of the JSC Law. If an LLC creates a reserve fund, then its size is determined solely by the charter paragraph 1 of Art. 30 of the LLC Law.

The reserve fund is created by posting: debit of account 84 "Retained earnings (uncovered loss)" - credit of account 82 "Reserve capital". And it is reflected in the balance sheet in line 1360 in section III "Capital and reserves".

Thus, from the point of view of financial reporting, the creation of a reserve fund leads to a redistribution of amounts within section III of the balance sheet (part of the NRP is, as it were, “shifted” to another capital item). As a result of this redistribution, the organization's balance sheet structure improves. After all, only NRP can be distributed as dividends, and the reserve fund will theoretically remain in the capital forever. Since, despite what is written in the Laws on JSC and LLC, it is impossible to spend the reserve capital. And in the asset balance, the reserve fund corresponds to the resources (property, money) provided own funds organizations, which is definitely a good thing.

From a financial (but not legal) point of view, a reserve fund can be compared to authorized capital. It is no coincidence that in the JSC Law, when it comes to the requirements for the balance sheet structure (for example, when deciding on the payment of dividends), the reserve fund is mentioned along with the authorized capital. For example, on the date of the decision to pay dividends net assets must not be less than the sum of the authorized and reserve capital paragraph 1 of Art. 43 JSC Law.

The reserve fund can be used to cover losses if the owners decide to do so. On the date of its adoption, a posting is made: the debit of account 82 “Reserve capital” - the credit of account 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss)”. The decision by the owners to pay off losses at the expense of reserve capital must be disclosed in the explanatory notes to the financial statements. clause 10 PBU 7/98. As you understand, as a result of using the reserve fund, as well as when creating it, the capital of the organization will not change. Covering losses at the expense of the reserve fund has rather a psychological effect - a "break-even" balance sheet looks more attractive to investors.

In addition, according to the Law on Joint Stock Companies, the funds of the reserve fund can be used to redeem bonds and buy back shares. However, in our opinion, this statement does not make sense. After all, to redeem bonds (or buy back shares) means to pay money to their holder. Consequently, only assets, and not an item of capital, can be directed to the redemption and redemption of securities.

The issue of bonds is reflected in the same way as raising a loan by posting on the debit of account 51 “Settlement accounts” and the credit of account 66 “Settlements on short-term loans and loans» clause 1 PBU 15/2008.

Accordingly, the redemption of bonds is reflected in the posting: debit of account 66 “Settlements on short-term loans and borrowings” - credit of account 51 “Settlement accounts”. As a result, assets and liabilities on the balance sheet decrease simultaneously. Capital items are not affected by this operation. True, the commentary to account 82 of the Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts states that the repayment of bonds at the expense of the reserve fund is reflected in the posting: debit of account 82 “Reserve capital” - credit of account 66 “Settlements on short-term loans and borrowings”. However, we cannot agree with this. Indeed, as we have already said, the credit of account 66 reflects the issue of bonds, and not their redemption.

OUTPUT

The creation of a reserve fund at the expense of PE and its use to pay off losses leads to a redistribution of amounts within capital items. It is impossible to use the reserve fund for other purposes (for example, to redeem bonds).

Accumulation and consumption funds

Sometimes owners want to use NRP to purchase new fixed assets, pay bonuses to employees, or donate to charity. Usually in such cases they decide to create so-called accumulation and consumption funds.

The accountant needs to reflect the decision of the owners in the accounting. But how to do this, because such funds are not mentioned either in the Laws on JSC and LLC, or in the current regulations on accounting. Let's say right away that you can not create any funds in accounting.

TELLING PARTICIPANTS

Pure profits can only be spent on dividends. It is not necessary to create consumption and accumulation funds from net profit, since “live” money, and not profit, is still spent on the acquisition of assets.

The very concept of funds at the expense of profit came to us from Soviet accounting. For example, Soviet enterprises created production development funds, the funds of which were directed to the purchase of new equipment. The Instructions to the Chart of Accounts of 1985 state that the funds of such a fund intended for the purchase of equipment should be kept in a bank in a special account e

Every entrepreneur should know what is the income and profit of the enterprise, as well as how they differ from revenue.

Profit and income are the main financial indicators of the economic activity of various organizations, regardless of the form of ownership. They can give an idea of ​​the overall profitability of the enterprise.

The costs of social and industrial development of the firm must be financed from profits. The source of financing of the state budget is the corporate income tax.

What is revenue (turnover)

Proceeds - funds received (proceeded) by an enterprise, firm, entrepreneur from the sale of goods and services, sales proceeds. That is, this is the entire amount of money that turned out after the sale of the goods.

Example of revenue (turnover), Petya sold 100 phones for 10,000 rubles. The revenue will be 100 * 10,000 = 1,000,000 rubles.

Revenue from the sale of certain products is divided into two main types - net and gross:

• Under Net Revenue implied amount Money after all possible deductions, taxes, discounts and the value of the returned goods.
• Gross revenue- is the total amount of cash receipts after the sale of certain products or services.

Income \u003d is revenue (turnover) - the cost price (or purchase price) of goods or services. Taxes are also deducted from this amount. Material costs are the funds that have been spent on the purchase of products or necessary equipment. These costs include a variety of deductions. social character. extradition wages has nothing to do with this category.

Income Example, let's say the cost of Petya's phones is 5000 rubles. Only 100 pieces, which he sold for 10,000 rubles each. Then income \u003d 100 * (10,000 - 5,000) \u003d 500,000 rubles.

Payment costs work force and profit are the main components of the income of a particular enterprise. Market value goods and general market conditions have a direct impact on the level of income of the organization. Possible receipts from individuals and legal entities do not belong to the revenue side of the company.

If the income is subject to tax payments, then after their deduction there remains an amount that includes the following elements:

• insurance and investment income. These are the amounts received in the course of investment activities and the cost of insurance premiums.
• Consumer funds whose activities require spending on the social sphere.

Income can be marginal, total and average.

• marginal revenue is the difference by which the total income of the organization changes after the sale of a certain unit of goods. Demonstrates the overall payback of the company.
• Total income- this is the final result of the economic activity of the company, the difference between the cost of goods and production costs.
• Average income received after the sale of one unit of goods. It is equal to the price of a particular sold product.

Experts also distinguish the concept of other income. These include a variety of penalties, interest for placing a deposit.

What is profit

Profit is the difference between costs and revenues, where the latter are an indicator of financial activity.

Profit example, Petya's income from the sale of phones amounted to 500,000 rubles. But you still need to pay taxes, pay the salary of the manager, pay the rent, etc.

Maximizing profits has always been one of the main goals of a successful businessman. It is considered the most important estimated generalizing indicator of the activity of a particular company.

This concept includes the following main components:

• Profit from the sale of property and the sale of material assets.
• Funds that were received from additional (non-core) activities of the organization. Meaning securities, dividends, funds from the rental of real estate.
• The difference between the funds that were received from the implementation certain product and its true value.

If it was found that the profit of the enterprise is zero, the costs can be considered the result of such economic activity. The limiting indicator of this concept can be obtained by selling an additional copy of the product.

There are several main functions of the profit of the enterprise:

• Provides funds for the development of the company.
• Forms taxes on the profits of commercial enterprises.
• Shows the final economic result of the activities of a conventional enterprise.

For productive profit management, experts recommend taking into account its marginal indicator, which you need to focus on. Some business leaders actively practice downgrading pricing policy. But this should not be exacerbated. With a large demand for goods, the profitability of the enterprise as a whole can drop catastrophically.

Experts advise offering their customers inexpensive analogues of goods and services that are considered the most in demand. Such measures will help maintain the attractiveness of products and the normal price category.

This financial indicator has several classifications. As a result of economic activity:

• Minimum allowable and maximum possible, which occurs at minimum cost and maximum profit.
• Regulatory- This is the standard minimum indicator provided by the enterprise.
• under-received- a loss that was formed due to the fact that one of the participants in the transaction violated its obligations.

Profits may or may not be taxed. It is differentiated into economic and accounting, depending on the costs. The first is the difference between accounting profit and additional, forced expenses.

As for the second option, it is positioned as the difference between the costs incurred and the income of the enterprise.

Gross profit is the difference between the total income of a particular organization and the amount of costs. Net income can be calculated by subtracting all related expenses from gross income.

About EBIT and EBITDA earnings

These are two more types of profit, which should be separately emphasized.

Profit EBIT is positioned as an intermediate value between gross and net indicators. Some believe that this is operating profit and are mistaken. This concept can also include non-operating profit. The amount of EBIT profit can be calculated based on the sum of profit and loss before taxes. This indicator must be positive.

The value of profit directly depends on the depreciation rate and how it is calculated.

EBITDA is earnings before interest, depreciation and taxes, showing only cash inflows. This analytical indicator is calculated on the basis of the financial statements of an organization and is the main indicator of how profitable the company's activities are as a whole, regardless of various debts and depreciation methods.

Having determined EBITDA, it is possible to calculate the organization's debt burden. To do this, the debt indicators are divided by the nominal profit.

The indicated values ​​of EBIT and EBITDA are reduced to one - "reduction to a common denominator" economic indicators organizations from different countries. tax systems different states are not similar to each other. This means that income tax rates will also not be equivalent. The introduction of EBIT and EBITDA profits into accounting practice makes it possible to correct this situation.

Experts in the economic field have a generalized point of view on how to maximize profits for a particular firm. We need to balance marginal revenue with marginal cost. In this case, the profit of the enterprise should be maximum. But still it is individual for different organizations.

The most successful traders earn only 40% of all their trades. Don't be surprised, most trades you make end up losing money. How then do traders manage to make money if more than half of the decisions they make turn out to be wrong? The fact is that in futures transactions, the size of the guarantee fee is very small, and even a slight price movement in an undesirable direction forces the trader to liquidate the position. Therefore, sometimes you have to move by touch: make several deals until you “catch” a profitable price movement.

Suppose a trader believes that the price of gold should rise from $300 to $500. He buys the contract at $300, deciding he can risk no more than $10. The price drops to $290 and the trader liquidates his contract. Then he opens another long position at $295 and again loses $10. Finally, the third contract he bought for $305 increases in price to the desired $500, or $195. So, our trader bought contracts three times. The first two trades were unsuccessful and gave him a total loss of $20. But the third position turned out to be successful and brought a profit of $195. Although only one trade out of three was successful, overall trading on the "gold" market was successful for the trader, bringing a profit of $175 ($195 - $20). Moving from nominal to actual profit, the trader made $17,500 ($175 x 100 ounces).

Here we come close to the problem of the ratio of possible profits and losses. Since most trades are unprofitable, you can succeed in the futures market only if, in monetary terms, profitable trades will exceed losing ones. This can be achieved by analyzing the ratio of possible profits and losses.

For each potential transaction, the rate of return is determined. The rate of return must then be balanced against the potential loss if the market goes in the wrong direction. Usually this ratio is set as 3:1, that is, the potential profit must be at least three times the potential loss. Otherwise, entry into the market should be abandoned. If in the gold contract example the predetermined risk was $10, then the potential profit would have to be at least $30.

Some traders, when calculating the ratio of possible profit and loss, include a probabilistic factor in it. They argue that it is not enough to simply determine profit and loss rates, believing that the values ​​​​of potential profit and loss should be multiplied by the percentage probability (that they will occur). Although from a statistical point of view, this approach looks quite logical, at the same time, it turns out that a trader is able not only to assess the possibility of potential profit and loss in advance, but also to assign percentage values ​​to them.

"Keep profitable positions as long as possible, close losing ones in time" is one of the oldest aphorisms in futures trading, which is directly related to our topic. Big profits in the commodity futures market can only be made by following the most stable market trends. Since only a relatively small number of trades during the year can generate significant profits, it is necessary to try to maximize these profits by "keeping profitable f positions as long as possible". On the other hand, it is necessary to minimize losses in unsuccessful transactions. It is surprising that so many traders tend to do the opposite.

More on the topic POSSIBLE PROFIT AND LOSS RATIO:

1. 7.6. Operational analysis of profit as part of marginal income
2. 2.9. Analysis of the information contained in the appendix to the balance sheet and income statement
3. Influence of the asymmetry of tax legislation in terms of imperfect tax compensation for losses on the investment decisions of enterprises
4. CHAPTER ELEVEN. Obstacles to the equation of the rate of profit and their overcoming.
5. [c) MASSIE. INTEREST AS A PART OF PROFIT. EXPLANATION OF THE HEIGHT OF INTEREST BY THE LEVEL OF PROFIT]
6. RAMSEY ON THE DIVISION OF "GROSS PROFIT" INTO "NET PROFIT" (PERCENT) AND "BUSINESS PROFIT". APPOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN HIS VIEWS ON "SUPERVISION WORK", ON "RISK INSURANCE", AND ON "SUPERPROFIT"!