See pages where the term sphere of control is mentioned. Internal variables Specialized division of labor

Every organization has an internal and external environment.

Internal variables are situational factors within an organization.

The main variables within the organization itself that require management attention are goals, structure, tasks, technology, and people.

Goals- specific end states or desired outcome that the group seeks to achieve by working together. V different organizations are put different goals. For example, in order to make a profit, "business" must formulate goals in areas such as market share, new product development, service quality, leadership training and selection, and social responsibility. Non-profit organizations, having a variety of goals, pay more attention to social responsibility.

The goals of the departments should make a specific contribution to the goals of the organization as a whole, and not conflict with the goals of its other departments.

The structure is an internal variable.

The structure of an organization is a logical relationship between levels of management and functional areas, built in a form that allows you to most effectively achieve the goals of the organization.

There are two main concepts of structure:

1. Specialized division of labor
2. Sphere of control

Specialized division of labor

Most modern organizations the division of labor does not mean a random distribution among the available people. characteristic feature is a specialized division of labor - the assignment of this work to specialists, i.e. for those who are able to perform it best from the point of view of the organization as a whole.

In all but the smallest organizations there is a horizontal division of labor along specialized lines. If the organization is large enough in size, specialists are usually grouped together within a functional area.

The choice of functional areas determines the basic structure of the organization and to a large extent - the possibility of its successful operation. The efficiency and feasibility of the ways in which work is divided among people - from top to bottom, down to the very first level of an organization - in many cases determines how productive an organization can be compared to its competitors. No less important is how the vertical division of labor is carried out.

Vertical division of labor, i.e. determination of the work of coordination from the direct execution of tasks is necessary for the successful labor work. The deliberate vertical division of labor results in a hierarchy of managerial levels. The central characteristic of this hierarchy is the formal subordination of individuals at each level. The hierarchy permeates the entire organization, descending to the level of non-managerial personnel.

Rice. 5.1. Organization structure

Sphere of Control- it important aspect organizational structure.

A wide sphere of control is if a fairly large number of people are subordinate to one leader, as a result of which this sphere has a flat management structure.

Narrow sphere of control - few people are subordinate to each leader, i.e. layered structure.

Task is a prescribed job, a series of jobs, or a piece of work that must be done in advance established way and within predetermined time frames. Tasks are assigned not to the employee, but to his position. But they are considered as a necessary contribution to the achievement of the goals of the organization. It is believed that if the task is carried out in such a way and in such time as prescribed, the organization will operate successfully.

Tasks divided into three categories:

1. work with people (the task of the master);
2. work with objects (machines, raw materials, tools);
3. work with information (tasks of the treasurer of the corporation).

Rice. 5.2. Interdependence of positions, structure and goals

Rice. 5.3. Flat organization structure

Technology. Charles Perrow describes technology as a means of transforming raw materials - be they people, information, or physical materials - into desired products and services. Lewis Davies offers a broad similar description: "Technology is the combination of skills, equipment, infrastructure, tools, and related technical knowledge necessary to bring about desired transformations in materials, information, or people." Thus, technology is a means of converting materials, raw materials, energy and information into the desired end product.

Tasks and technology are closely related. Completing a task involves using specific technology as a means of transforming the material.

Rice. 5.4. High organizational structure

Rice. 5.5. The relationship of technology, tasks, structure and goals

People are a central factor in any management model, including the situational approach.

Three aspects of the human variable in the situational approach to management:

a) the behavior of individuals;

b) the behavior of people in groups;

c) the nature of the behavior of the leader, the functioning of the manager in the role of leader and its influence on the behavior of individuals and groups.

Rice. 5.6. Factors affecting individual behavior and performance

Capabilities- it individual qualities of a person that contribute to successful activity can be inherited (intellectual abilities and some physical data), and also acquired with experience. Predisposition and giftedness are closely related to ability. Abilities are manifested and formed in activity.

Values- these are general beliefs, belief about what is good or bad, or what is indifferent in life. Acquired through training.

Needs- this is an internal state of psychological or physiological feeling of insufficiency of something.

expectations. Based on past experience and an assessment of the current situation, people form expectations about the results of their behavior. Consciously or subconsciously, they decide how likely or how unrealistic the accomplishment of something meaningful to them. These expectations have a significant impact on their current behavior.

Perception is the intellectual awareness of stimuli derived from sensations. Perception determines whether a person feels a need and what his expectations are in a given situation.

Predisposition, giftedness are closely related to ability. Predisposition- this is the available potential of a person in relation to the performance of any particular work. Management disposition is very important in identifying candidates for management training.

Attitude, according to psychologist Daryl Bem, "what we like and what we don't like, like our dislike or attachment to objects, people, groups, or any perceived aspect of our environment." Relationships shape our biased perception of the environment and thus influence behavior.

Rice. 5.7. Relationship of Internal Variables

Sociotechnical subsystems. External variables strongly influence the organization. And the interconnectedness of internal variables would be more correct to consider as a model of internal sociotechnical subsystems of the organization. Internal variables are called sociotechnical subsystems, because have a social component (people) and a technical component (other internal variables).

External environment of the organization

The external environment of an organization includes elements such as customers, competitors, government agencies, suppliers and their technologies, financial institutions and sources labor resources, socio-cultural environment relevant to the organization's operations.

Characteristics of the external environment

1. Factor interconnectivity: the strength with which a change in one factor affects other factors
2. Complexity: the number and variety of factors that affect the organization in a meaningful way
3. Mobility: Relative rate of environmental change
4. Uncertainty: the relative amount of information about the environment and confidence in its relevance

Rice. 5.8. Model of the influence of the external environment on the organization

The interrelationship of environmental factors is the level of force with which a change in one factor affects others. Just as a change in any internal variable can affect others, a change in one environmental factor can change others.

The gender of the complexity of the external environment is understood as the number of factors to which the organization is obliged to respond, as well as the level of variance of each factor.

Mobility of the environment is the rate at which changes occur in the organization's environment. Many researchers point out that the environment of modern organizations is changing at an accelerating rate.

The uncertainty of the external environment is a function of the amount of information that an organization (or person) has about a particular factor, as well as a function of confidence in this information. If there is little information or doubts about its accuracy, the environment becomes more uncertain than in a situation where there is adequate information and there is reason to believe that it is highly reliable.

The direct impact environment includes factors that directly affect the operations of the entity and are directly affected by the operations of the entity.

Rice. 5.9. Direct impact environment

Suppliers. Organization is a mechanism for transforming inputs into outputs. The main types of inputs are materials, equipment, capital, labor. The dependency between an organization and a network of suppliers providing the input of these resources is one of the most striking examples of the direct impact of the environment on the operations and success of an organization.

Consumers. The very survival and justification of the existence of an organization depends on its ability to find a consumer of the results of its activities and satisfy its needs. The importance of consumers to business is clear. It is no coincidence that they say: "The consumer is the king in the market."

Competitors is an external factor, the influence of which cannot be disputed. The management of every enterprise understands that if the needs of consumers are not met as effectively as competitors do, the enterprise will not stay afloat for a long time.

laws and government agencies. Each organization has a specific legal status, being a sole proprietorship, a company, a corporation, etc., and it is this that determines how an organization can conduct its business and what taxes it must pay. The state of legislation is often characterized not only by its complexity, but also by mobility, and sometimes even uncertainty.

Organizations are required to comply not only with federal and state laws, but also with the requirements of authorities state regulation. These bodies ensure the enforcement of laws in their respective areas of competence, and also introduce own requirements often also having the force of law.

Environment of indirect influence- These are factors that do not directly affect the operations of the organization, but still affect them indirectly. The indirect impact environment is usually more complex than the direct impact environment.

Rice. 5.10. Environment of indirect influence

Technology is both an internal variable and an external factor of great importance. Technological innovations affect the efficiency with which products can be made and sold; on the rate of obsolescence of the product; how information can be collected, stored and distributed; what kind of services and new products customers expect from the organization.

The state of the economy affects the cost of all inputs and the ability of consumers to buy certain goods and services; can greatly affect the ability of an organization to obtain capital for its needs.

sociocultural factors. Any organization operates in at least one cultural environment. Therefore, sociocultural factors, among which attitudes predominate, life values and traditions affect the organization.

political factors. Certain aspects of the political environment are of particular importance to leaders. One of them is the mood of the administration, legislative bodies and courts in relation to business. Another element of the political environment is special interest groups and lobbyists.

International environment

Development of international business management. International business management extends to areas of activity that are associated with the movement of resources, goods, services and work force across national borders. Resources that are moved include raw materials, capital, people, and technology. If we talk about goods, then these can be finished components, products, semi-finished products. Accounting, legal and banking activities fall into the category of relocated services. Specialists are also moving - primarily technical and managers.

Varieties of international business

Export. The easiest way to enter international markets is to export products, i.e. its sale to other countries.

Licensing. The company can sell a license to manufacture its products foreign company or to the state through a royalty agreement.

Joint ventures. The organization of a joint venture is that two or more companies or states invest in production facilities. The participants are equal partners in the business and receive profit depending on the share of the block of shares of each in the joint venture.

Direct investment. The strongest commitment international business arises when management decides to launch their firm's products overseas and retain full control over production, marketing, finance, and other key functions.

Multinational corporations own and operate businesses in other countries.

Factors of the international environment

Culture. Culture is understood as the dominant system of values, beliefs, customs and prevailing attitudes shared by all in society. Each society has its own culture, the influence of which affects the style of everyday life.

Economy. Some of the economic factors that may affect doing business abroad include: wages, fare, exchange rate, inflation and bank interest rates, GNP, taxation and general economic development. There are other factors related to the international environment, although not of a purely economic nature, factors: population size, levels of literacy and training, quality and quantity natural resources, the level of technology development, features of competition.

Laws and state regulation. Just as organizations are subject to domestic laws, so are firms that international markets are forced to reckon with a multitude of laws and regulations.

Political situation. The domestic market is influenced by political events and decisions, similarly, political factors can affect international business operations.

Experience shows that successful organizations predetermine the purpose of the activity, which must be understood and supported by all members of the company. The mission, policy and purpose of the company are defining and contribute to the dynamism and high level of activity, durability, customer focus. If the goal is supported by the whole team, then it is achievable, real.

During the war years, the Australian psychologist Franke, having ended up in a German concentration camp (a Jew), studied the psychology of survival. He found that prisoners who had a clear goal of surviving (escaping, waiting for liberators, etc.) survived more successfully under relatively identical conditions. Goals must be clear and realistic. The success of the organization is ensured by the unity of all employees to achieve the goal; a leader-manager who provides attention to employees and consumers, who, if necessary, knows how to take risks; get everyone involved; development of human and material potential; investing in people.

Special conditions of detention: SCP-1137 is contained in a locked box in locker 8A at Site-19. Access to SCP-1137 is restricted to Level 3 personnel and above. Extraordinary physical measures to contain the object are not required. However, due to its memetic properties, personnel's knowledge of SCP-1137's true nature is to be kept under tight control. See Document 1137-17 for detailed description anti-memetic safety standards.

Description: SCP-1137 is a glassy blue sphere approximately 10 cm in diameter. To the average observer, it does not appear to possess any special properties or pose any threat. It is possible to study the composition of the material, measure the weight, transparency, hardness and other physical parameters of the sphere. However, its anomalous properties show up in any attempt to measure curvature, smoothness, or any other parameter associated with its spherical nature.

When attempting to measure the spherical properties of SCP-1137, any subject will become convinced that the object is, in fact, a mathematically perfect ball, and will be confident that the results of repeated measurements confirm this, regardless of the accuracy of the measuring instruments used. Due to the memetic nature of SCP-1137, it is unknown if SCP-1137 actually possesses these parameters, or if all observers simply interpret the measurements as such. Small samples taken from the surface of SCP-1137 also have memetic properties, and their removal does not appear to affect the perception of SCP-1137's shape.

To fall under the memetic effect of SCP-1137, the victim does not need to take a measurement on his own: to inject the memetic agent, it is enough just to hear that the object's shape is physically impossible. However, in order to transmit infection in this way, the listener needs to understand the reasons for the impossibility of the existence of a mathematically perfect sphere in a material form; thus transmission of the meme to subjects lacking fairly deep scientific knowledge is unlikely. It is also possible to bypass the memetic agent by indicating that SCP-1137 is only seems a perfect sphere when measured, without directly stating that SCP-1137 is such.

Once infected, the subject becomes obsessed with the inconsistency between knowledge of the ideal shape of SCP-1137's ball and the physical impossibility of such a ball's existence. This paradox begins to take root deeply in the mind of the subject. The subject attempts to refute this contradiction by resorting to more and more precise instruments. Cases are documented when researchers used for this purpose even an electron microscope available in the Zone. Despite this, the subject is unable to perceive any measurement results other than those that indicate the mathematical perfection of SCP-1137's shape, even when measured to the nearest picometer.

After extensive research, during which the subject fails to prove his views, he comes to the conclusion that the existence of an ideal material sphere is actually possible. At this point, SCP-1137's secondary memetic effects take effect. Subject slowly develops an obsession to reproduce an instance of SCP-1137. Subjects with skills in physical crafts (eg sculpting, glassmaking, metalworking) begin to try to create an ideal field in this area; subjects with no experience in the craft begin to attempt to learn it.

The subject will continue to attempt to create copies of SCP-1137, but will always determine that they are not accurate enough. Subjects become increasingly frustrated, obsessed, and often try to experiment with other materials using more unconventional materials (such as human or animal remains) to achieve their goal. In the end, the possession overrides all the subject's thought processes, he refuses sleep, food, and satisfaction of physiological needs in order to continue attempts at assembly. Victims invariably die either from starvation or from self-mutilation.

Since a mathematically perfect ball cannot actually exist physically, SCP-1137's spherical qualities were initially regarded as its only anomalous feature. As a result, after the object was contained by the Foundation, its researchers were immediately exposed to its memetic properties. Since the memetic effects of SCP-1137 are initially indistinguishable from normal research activities, it took [REDACTED] days before Foundation science personnel realized the true nature of SCP-1137. By that time, an estimated ███ people had already been infected. Strict antimemetic measures have been taken regarding SCP-1137's anomalous properties data; personnel below level 4 clearance were provided with a legend about SCP-1137's status and true properties.

The number of persons reporting to one leader represents the area of ​​control. The scope of control is an important aspect of organizational structure. If a fairly large number of people report to one leader, then there is a wide sphere of control, which results in a flat management structure. If each leader reports to a small number of employees, i.e. when scope control

If it is narrow, then in this case we can speak of a multilevel structure. Therefore, large organizations with a flat structure have fewer levels of management than organizations of comparable size with a multi-level structure.

The regular repetition of such activities as the distribution of tasks, leadership and coordination of employees, forms the structure of the organization, and the potential for various combinations of them explains the differences in organizational structures.

Structure is not something given once and for all. It is constantly evolving. When it comes to organizational structures, we mean the distribution and coordination of labor processes. The structure of the organization is a set of methods for dividing the labor process into specific work tasks and coordinating their implementation (5, p. 526).

The concept of organizational structure includes not only tasks performed within it, but also activities coordinated by employees outside the organization. Many traditionally performed by the organization types of work are now transferred to specialized firms, which implies close interaction. independent companies and the transformation of traditional boundaries between organizations. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

After selecting a strategy and developing a subsequent plan, management must conduct a thorough review of the structure of the organization to find out if it contributes to the achievement of company-wide goals. The strategy defines the structure. When implementing or changing a strategy, management should always take into account its relationship with the structure and combine the formation of the structure of the organization and planning. The structure is based on the strategy and should ensure its effectiveness as far as possible from the point of view of the overall situation.

The organization is believed to exist external environment, which shapes its strategy, technology, scale and level of innovation. These situational factors, in turn, determine the necessary structure, that is, the structure that the organization must adopt in order to support production activities.

Proponents of the situational approach proceed from the fact that the structure of successful organizations corresponds to the adopted strategy and the external environment in which they operate. Efficient Management organization involves the formulation of an adequate strategy, as well as the development of structures that contribute to its implementation by stimulating innovation that corresponds to the conditions of the external environment. The main emphasis is on determinism (form is determined by the external environment) or on functionalism (form contributes to the effectiveness of the organization). Organizational forms develop gradually, as managers become aware of the inefficiency of functioning mechanisms. They are modified to suit various aspects of the desired structure.

Supporters of the situational approach believe that managers have the right to choose, but limited by the need to adapt the structure to external conditions, which determines the acceptable results of the organization's activities (5, pp. 600-602).

The decision on the choice of the structure of the organization as a whole is almost always made by senior management. The leaders of the grass-roots and middle management only help him by providing the necessary information, and in larger organizations - by suggesting the structure of the units subordinate to them, corresponding to the general structure of the organization chosen by the top management.

In a broad sense, the task is to choose the structure that best suits the goals and objectives of the organization, as well as the internal and external factors affecting it. The "best" structure is the one that best allows the organization to interact effectively with the external environment, to distribute and direct the efforts of its employees productively and expediently, and thus satisfy the needs of customers and achieve its goals with high efficiency (2, p. 331).

There is no exact answer to the question of which method is best suited for building the structure of an organization. The best organizational structure will be one that is appropriate for the size, dynamism, complexity, and composition of the organization.

One of the major mistakes too many firms make is to simply impose a new strategy on the existing structure of the firm. It should not be. Structure depends on strategy, and the stage of formation of structure in the planning process may represent the most important stage successful implementation strategic plan (2, p. 303).

Objective factors and conditions for determining the diversity of organizational structures:

The size of the enterprise (small, medium, large);

Specialization in the production of one type of product or a wide range of products of various industries;

The nature of the products produced (type of production);

Scope of activity of the enterprise (organization for the local, national or foreign market);

The scale of foreign activities and the forms of its implementation;

type of monopoly association (concern, financial group, holding).

Apart from listed factors factors influencing the choice of a limited structure, one can note the dynamism of the external environment, technology, attitude towards the organization of managers and employees.

The dynamism of the external environment is a very strong factor in determining which organizational structure an organization should choose. If the external environment is stable, then the organization can successfully apply mechanistic organizational structures.

In the case of a dynamic external environment, the organizational structure must be organic.

The impact of technology on the organizational structure is manifested in the following:

1) the structure is tied to the technology that is used in the organization. The number of structural units and their mutual arrangement strongly depend on the technology used in the organization;

2) the organizational structure should be built in such a way that it allows for technological updates.

The organizational structure largely depends on how managers feel about its choice, what type of structure they prefer, and how willing they are to go for the introduction of non-traditional forms of building organizations.

Signs of an optimal structure:

Few levels of leadership;

Small divisions or autonomous groups with highly qualified personnel;

Purposeful work on consumers;

Anticipating changes or reacting quickly to them;

High performance and low costs – high efficiency.

Since the purpose of the organizational structure is to ensure the achievement of the goals of the organization, the design of the structure should be based on the strategic plans of the organization and the variables of the external environment in which it operates. The structure of the organization should be such as to ensure the implementation of its strategy. Since the strategy and the external environment change over time, appropriate changes are also needed in organizational structures, the use of new organizational forms structures. It is necessary to widely use the principles and methods of designing the organizational structure of management based on systems approach. The systematic approach to the formation of the structure is manifested in the following: do not lose sight of any of the managerial tasks, without the solution of which the implementation of the goals will be incomplete; identify and link in relation to these tasks the entire system of functions, rights and responsibilities along the vertical of management; explore and organize all connections and relationships along the horizontal management; to provide a limited combination of vertical and horizontal management, meaning finding the optimal ratio of centralization and decentralization in management for the given conditions (2, pp. 272-295).

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Integration is the possibility of coordinated actions of many people

The need for coordination, which has always existed, becomes truly urgent when work is clearly divided both horizontally and vertically, as is the case in large modern organizations. If management doesn't put in place formal coordination mechanisms, people won't be able to get the job done together. Without appropriate formal coordination various levels, functional areas and individuals can easily focus on their own interests, and not on the interests of the organization as a whole.

That. we can say that the process of integration is a process of achieving unity of efforts of all subsystems of the organization to achieve its objectives and goals.

The unity of efforts does not give the departments of the organization the opportunity to pull it into different directions, disperse its strengths and capabilities and achieve the overall goals of the organization.

In order to effectively integrate the organization, senior management must constantly keep in mind common goals organization and just as constantly remind employees of the need to focus their efforts precisely on common goals. It is not enough that each department and each employee of the organization will work effectively on its own. Management should view the organization as an open system.

The pattern of the integration process is that the more integrated the firm, the more successful it is.

Methods for achieving effective integration. For integrated organizations operating in a sustainable environment and using mass production technology, methods related to the development and establishment of rules and procedures, hierarchical management structures are suitable. Organizations operating in a more volatile environment and using a variety of technological processes and technologies for the production of individual products, it is often considered more appropriate to integrate through the establishment of individual relationships, the organization of the work of various committees and the holding of interdepartmental meetings.

If integration implies the unity of efforts and goals, then the process of differentiation, on the contrary, implies the distribution of these efforts and goals within the organization among its various components.

Differentiation should be maximum within the framework of such organizations whose activities are based on creativity (for example, some research institute),

The regularity of the process of differentiation is that the more complex the environment of the organization, the greater the differentiation.

The concentration of production and the enlargement of the firm contributes to the differentiation of functions between different levels of the management system.

So, for example, it is advisable to solve the functions of long-term planning, technical re-equipment centrally at the upper levels of the management system, and issues operational management in its lower levels.

Differentiation of problems solved centrally and decentralized is reflected in the structure of the administrative apparatus. Thus, the differentiation in the development of planned indicators at one time led to the expansion of the economic services of the enterprise.

The specialized division of labor is directly related to the processes of integration and differentiation.

In order for an organization to achieve its goals, tasks must be coordinated through a vertical division of labor. The vertical scheme is shown in the figure.

Supervisor top level manages the activities of the leaders of the middle and lower levels, that is, in the formal sense, it has more power and status. Vertical differentiation is related to the organization's hierarchy in depth. The more steps there are between the highest level and operational workers, the more complex this organization is. The vertical structure consists of levels of power built in a hierarchical order. Power is distributed according to positions and the leaders who occupy these positions. The figure also shows the position of workers in a vertical structure. The goal is seen as a guide for the flow of connections and power.

Horizontal differentiation reflects the degree of division of labor between individual units. The more different areas in the organization that require specialized knowledge and skills, the more horizontally complex it is. Horizontal specialization is aimed at differentiation of functions and covers: the definition of work and the definition of the relationship between various types jobs that may be performed by one or many different persons. The horizontal division of labor is that the top manager has direct control over three managers: the middle manager (production), the middle manager (accounting), and the middle manager (marketing). In turn, RSOs (mid-level managers) have direct control over the respective RNUs (lower-level managers), and those directly over a certain number of performers. This can be seen as functionalization (a variety of tasks that must be completed in order to achieve the goals of the organization), as a result of which certain specialized units are formed.

Drawing. Diagram of the horizontal division of labor.

Sphere of control.

The number of persons reporting to one leader is the area of ​​control. The scope of control is an important aspect of organizational structure. If a fairly large number of people report to one leader, then we are talking about a wide sphere of control, which results in a flat management structure. If the scope of control is narrow, i.e. Few people are subordinate to each leader, we can talk about a multi-level structure. In general, large organizations with a flat structure have fewer levels of management than organizations of comparable size with a tiered structure. There is no perfect sphere of control. Many variables within the organization itself and in the external environment can influence it. Moreover, neither the scope of control nor the relative "height" of an organization's structure is a function of the size of the organization.

Goals

An organization, by definition, is a group of people with conscious common goals. Organization can be seen as a means to an end that enables people to do collectively what they could not do individually. Goals are specific end states or desired outcomes that a group seeks to achieve by working together. During the planning process, management develops goals and communicates them to the members of the organization. This process is a powerful coordination mechanism because it enables the members of the organization to know what they should be striving for.

Variety of goals. An organization can have a variety of goals, especially for different types of organizations. Organizations that do business are primarily focused on creating certain goods or services within specific limits - in terms of costs and profits. This task of theirs is reflected in such goals as profitability (profitability) and productivity. State bodies, teaching institutes and non-profit hospitals are not looking to make a profit. But they are concerned about costs. And this is reflected in a set of goals formulated as the provision of specific services within certain budgetary constraints.

This diversity of focus extends further because large organizations have many purposes. In order to make a profit, for example, a business must set goals in areas such as market share, new product development, service quality, leadership training and selection, and even social responsibility. Non-profit organizations also have a variety of goals, but are likely to focus more on social responsibility. Goal-driven orientation pervades all subsequent management decisions.

Unit goals. In departments, as well as in the whole organization, it is necessary to develop goals. For example, the goal of the finance department might be to reduce credit losses to 1% of sales. A marketing division within the same organization may have a goal of reducing consumer complaints by 20% in the next year.

The goals of departments in different organizations that have similar activities will be closer to each other than the goals of departments in the same organization engaged in different activities. The goals of the marketing department at Sony Corporation will be closer to the goals of the same department of Procter & Gamble than to the goals of production department Sony itself. Because of these differences in unit goals, management must make efforts to coordinate them. The main guiding moment in this case should be considered the overall goals of the organization. The goals of the units should make a specific contribution to the goals of the organization as a whole, and not conflict with goals of other departments.

Structure

Organization structure- this is a logical relationship between management levels and functional areas, built in a form that allows you to most effectively achieve the goals of the organization.

Two main concepts related to structure; specialized division of labor and sphere of control.

Relationship between goals and structure

Specialized division of labor. The division of labor is present in any organization. In most modern organizations, the division of labor does not mean a random distribution of work among available people. A characteristic feature is the specialized division of labor - the consolidation of this work for specialists, i.e., those who are able to perform it best from the point of view of the organization as a whole. The division of managerial labor between experts in marketing, finance and production is a clear example of this. The division of the work of manufacturing a car into numerous small operations, such as installing headlights, can also be seen as specific labor specialization.

At the moment, in all organizations, with the exception of the smallest, there is horizontal division of labor along specialized lines. If the organization is large enough in size, specialists are usually grouped together within a functional area. How concretely to implement the division of labor in the organization is a question that belongs to the most essential management decisions. The choice of functional areas determines the basic structure of the organization and, to a large extent, the possibility of its successful operation. The efficiency and feasibility of the way in which work is divided among people—from top to bottom, down to the very first level of an organization—determines in many cases how productive an organization can be compared to its competitors. Equally important is how vertical division of labor.

Scope of control and levels of management (an example of a vertical hierarchy)

Scope of control. The vertical division of labor, that is, the separation of coordination work from the direct execution of tasks, is necessary for successful group work. Deliberate the vertical division of labor in an organization results in a hierarchy of managerial levels. The central characteristic of this hierarchy is the formal subordination of persons at each level. A person at the highest level of management may have several middle managers representing different functional areas in his subordination. These middle managers may, in turn, have several subordinates from among the line managers. For example, a production manager may have up to 10 supervisors in his subordination, including shift managers and various functional areas. The hierarchy permeates the entire organization, descending to the level of non-managerial personnel. Figure 3.3 is an example of a vertical hierarchy.

The number of persons reporting to one leader is the area of ​​control. Sphere of Control is an important aspect of organizational structure. If a fairly large number of people report to one leader, then we are talking about a wide sphere of control, which results in a flat management structure. If the scope of control is narrow, that is, few people are subordinate to each leader, we can talk about a multi-level structure. In general, large organizations with a flat structure have fewer levels of management than organizations of comparable size with a tiered structure. The relationship between the scope of control and the structure of the organization is illustrated in Figure 1. 3.4.

Tall and flat organizational structures

In organization A in Fig. 3.4 13 managers, each of which has a sphere of control equal to 2. As a result, there are b levels of management in the organization. In organization B, where the scope of control is b, there are only 3 levels, despite the larger total number of managers. Note that specific numbers have been chosen to illustrate the concept. In practice, the scope of control in an organization often varies to a large extent, both across levels of management and across functional areas.

There is no perfect sphere of control. Many variables within the organization itself and in the external environment can influence it. Moreover, neither the scope of control nor the relative “height” of an organization's structure is a function of the size of the organization.

Need for coordination. The need for coordination, which has always existed, becomes truly urgent when work is clearly divided both horizontally and vertically, as is the case in large modern organizations.

If management doesn't put in place formal coordination mechanisms, people won't be able to get the job done. together. Without appropriate formal coordination, different levels, functional areas and individuals can easily focus on their own interests, and not on the interests of the organization as a whole.

The formulation and communication of the goals of the organization as a whole and of each of its divisions is only one of the many coordination mechanisms. Each management function plays a specific role in coordinating the specialized division of labour. Leaders must always ask themselves what their coordination obligations are and what they are doing to fulfill them.

Another direction of the division of labor in the organization is the formulation of tasks.

Task

A task is a prescribed job, a series of jobs, or a piece of work that must be completed in a predetermined manner within a predetermined timeframe. From a technical point of view, tasks are assigned not to the employee, but to his position. Based on the decision of management on the structure, each position includes a number of tasks that are considered as a necessary contribution to the achievement of the goals of the organization (Fig. 3.5). It is believed that if the task is carried out in such a way and in such time as prescribed, the organization will operate successfully.

Interrelation of positions, structure and goals

Task characteristics. The tasks of the organization are traditionally divided into three categories. This is work with people, things(machines, raw materials, tools), information. For example, on a typical factory assembly line, the work of people consists of working with objects. The task of the master is mainly to work with people. At the same time, the tasks of the corporate treasurer are mainly related to information.

Two other important points in the work are the frequency of repetition of a given task and the time required to complete it. A machine operation, for example, may consist of performing the task of drilling holes a thousand times a day. It only takes a few seconds to complete each operation. The researcher performs varied and complex tasks, and they may not be repeated at all during the day, week or year. In order to complete some of the tasks, the researcher needs several hours or even days. In general, we can say that managerial work is less monotonous, repetitive, and the time to complete each type of work increases as managerial work moves from a lower level to a higher one.

Tasks and specialization. From a historical point of view, changes in the nature and content of tasks were closely related to the evolution of specialization. As Adam Smith pointed out in his famous pin-making example (Example 3.1), when work is divided among specialists, instead of being left to one person, the potential benefit is enormous. An example from The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, is seen as the impetus for the Industrial Revolution. The entrepreneurs of the day quickly realized that task specialization increased profits because increased productivity lowered production costs. Task specialization quickly found its way into many simple operations. From then until very recently, there has been a tendency to expand specialization and thereby fragment all work into smaller operations. In our century, technological innovations and the systemic combination of technology and labor specialization have made task specialization deep and complex to a degree that Smith could not have imagined.

EXAMPLE 3.1

Pins that made the whole world jump

The following description of the advantages of manufacturing specialization in pin making is taken from Adam Smith's book The Wealth of Nations, they contributed to the start of the Industrial Revolution, important point stories.

Without a division of labor, a worker could hardly make one pin in a day, and certainly could not make 20. But then this work began to be carried out in such a way that the production of pins turned not only into an independent production, but was also divided into a number of separate stages, each of which became a separate entity.

One person pulled the wire, the other straightened it, the third cut it into pieces, the fourth sharpened the ends, the fifth processed one end to make a head, two more made a loop. Putting on this head represented an independent operation, another

a separate operation is pin bleaching. Even the attachment of pins to paper is an independent matter. Thus, the entire pin-making was clearly divided into about 16 separate operations, which in some factories were actually carried out by each individual worker, while in others one person often performed two or three operations. So ten people working together could make 48,000 pins a day. In other words, in terms of one person, this means 4600 pins per day. But. if they did all this independently of each other, they would not have done 20 pieces alone, maybe they would not have done one at a time if there was no proper division of labor.