Plane engraving. Armor engraving

Engraving- there is a method of depicting objects on metals, wood, stone, used almost exclusively for the purpose of reproducing these images on paper with one or more colors. Carving made for a different purpose is rarely called engraving. In essence, engraving is the drawing on metal and wood by special tools and means appropriate to the surface on which the design is to be made. It can be done with cutting, scratching, stroking tools, with the help of acids or other liquids, or the design can be photographed and then turned into a printable cliché. Works of the first kind are engravings proper, while works of the second kind are photographic engravings in the general sense of the word. Real engraving is one of the branches of the fine arts, which until recently served, with the help of printing, as the only means of distributing copies of works of art. Printing from engraved boards produces prints on which only the qualities of engraving are actually visible, therefore it is impossible to separate the consideration of printing from engraving. , depending on which there are and different ways printing. may be either recessed or convex; in the first case, when printing, the recesses are filled with paint, and in the second, the convex parts of the engraving are rubbed with paint, which must all lie in the same plane. From engravings of the second kind they print as from a letter set, with an ordinary printing press; therefore, an engraving print may appear among the text of the book itself. This type of printing, after some preliminary preparation (see Seasoning), proceeds relatively quickly, while printing from in-depth engravings is much more difficult and slower. The methods of in-depth engraving have the following subdivisions: 1) engraving with a chisel or buren (au burin, en taille douce, Grabstichelei oder Linienmanier, Line engraving); 2) Engraving by etching (using acids) or etching (eau forte, Radirung, Etsching); 3) Engraving in black manner (manière noire, mezzotinto); 4) Engraving with aquatint (aquatinta) and under the brush (au lavis); 5) Engraving with dots or dotted lines and under a pencil. After considering these engraving methods, the following will be described: 6) convex engraving on wood and on metals (mainly zinc, zincography). Lithography, see separate article.

1) Engraving with a chisel - the most difficult of all, as it requires the ability to draw superlatives, a faithful and firm hand to draw smooth lines with a cutting steel tool on a copper or steel board various shapes and variously in-depth; errors in this method of engraving are almost incorrigible. The Engraving work is preceded by the preparation of a drawing from the picture in the size of the intended engraving; in the drawing made, you should already consider the location of the strokes in all details; Engraving will be m or almost copying the drawing. The light outline of the design is transferred by means of transparent paper onto a smooth, varnished board of red copper; the contour, transferred to the varnish, is slightly scratched with a needle through the varnish, to the surface of the copper. Then the board is immersed for a short time in the so-called strong vodka (nitric acid [Sale nitric or otherwise strong vodka, usually has a relative weight of about 1 , 4, which is determined using a hydrometer. It is necessary to dilute it with water so that the hydrometer sinks to approximately 1.6. Such an acid is commonly used by engravers.]), which dissolves copper only in the marks left by the needle, if all other parts are well varnished. After washing off the varnish from the board, a weak pattern is found on it, according to which they begin to engrave with a cutter (Fig. 1), pressing it more or less strongly, from which grooves of various depths and widths are formed; the copper shavings that have risen along the edges are then removed with a special scraper (ébarboir or grattoir). The successive states of the engraving with a cutter are clearly visible in Table. "Engraving", which depicts the head of asky from the first contour to complete completion through two intermediate states. The whole engraving consists of many groups of smooth, short and long lines, more or less close to parallel to each other and crossed in places by other lines, from which comes the grid, which depicts the location of light and shade on a real object. Small squares, rhombuses, trapezoids and other cell shapes sometimes contain additional strokes, dotted lines and dots that serve to finalize the chiaroscuro. Also, in those places where solid, even if not very thin lines, could turn out to be too sharp, they resort to a broken, or punctured, line.

The cutter (burin) used for engraving consists of a four-sided hardened steel block, cut at the end obliquely to the edge and axis of the plate so that the cut takes the form of a rhombus, one corner of which is the cutting end of the tool. Such a bar is embedded with a blunt end in a wooden frame, cat. the engraver takes it in a bent hand, resting the frame in his palm. The engraver has a whole set of such cutters.

1 - Cutter (burin), 2, 3, 4 , 5 - needles for engraving by etching (etching); 6, 8 - trowels (brunissoirs), 7 - scraper (Schab-Eisen).

Engravings made with a chisel have a peculiar, geometrically correct beauty, which goes in general to such plots where the human body takes up more space. Less goes engraving with a chisel to a landscape (for example, in trees), where great variety and freedom are needed, even the whimsicalness of lines, far from geometric correctness. However, some excellent examples of this kind (for example, Woollet) engraving completely make one forget the sharp materiality of the metal through which a solid steel tool passed, and in any case the conventional way of depicting reality. Looking at the lines expressing the bulges and hollows of objects, you can make sure that they correspond to reality in perspective. A series of parallel planes close to each other, brought to the surface of some rounded object, for example, a gypsum head, would present a series of lines that would appear in perspective as ascending to elevations and descending into depressions. Another system of such planes, parallel to each other, but inclined to the first, would leave a series of traces intersecting with the first and still more conducive to the expression of the relief, so that a certain semblance of an engraving could be produced by geometric m. The engraver thinks about the best direction of the systems of lines, changing their width in order to characterize the chiaroscuro and even, to a weak degree, the color of the paintings, since the difference between the colors partly enters as an element of chiaroscuro in the drawing. Printing engravings on paper presents certain difficulties, since it requires pressing different forces on different places of the engraving, however, its success depends solely on the qualities of the engraving itself, and it does not change a single feature of the original; the printer has only to express all that is in the original. The paper used for prints can be thick, slightly rough or with parallel irregularities (papier vergé) or thin (Chinese) pasted on thick paper. Engraving was poorly developed in our country, and there were good printers only at the Academy of Arts and on the expedition to prepare state papers.

2) Etching, etching. This method of engraving on copper requires preliminary drawing with a steel needle on a board coated with varnish (primer); the needle cuts through the varnish with thin lines to copper, after which the board is exposed to an acid that dissolves copper, as a result of which an in-depth pattern is formed from which it can be printed. Needles embedded in a wooden handle are of various thicknesses and sharpened to varying degrees (see Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5). The technique of this method of engraving is much easier than the manipulation of a chisel and is accessible to anyone who knows how to draw well. A heated copper board is varnished [Of the many compositions (primer or hard) varnish, one (Deleshana) is given here. Pure white wax 119 parts by weight, mastic in grains 91 parts, gallipot 60 parts, asphalt 119 parts, concentrated rubber solution 13 parts] and then, holding over the flame wax candle, covered with soot. For varnishing, a tampon-cushion is used, silk or leather, with a cardboard circle and cotton wool inserted inside. When the board gets cold, put paper with a pattern on it, rubbed on the back with some kind of paint, and outline the main parts of the pattern with a sharp hard pencil, which is why the pattern is transferred to varnish. On the remaining trace, a drawing is made with a needle and, having varnished the board from the back side, they immerse it in a flat vessel with nitric acid; or they stick a wax edge on the board from the side of the engraving and pour acid on the engraving. Then the separation of gas bubbles begins, producing, as it were, boiling of a liquid, which gradually turns blue (a blue color of copper nitrate is formed). Pouring out the acid, washing the board with water and drying it, examine the features of the drawing with a magnifying glass; then covered with retouching varnish [Deleshan's liquid retouching varnish consists of asphalt (100 parts), amber (10), wax (32), mastic in grains (25), purified turpentine (500), lavendula essence (64); rubber solution (4). Dries soon.] parts of the drawing, apparently, sufficiently etched, and again acid is poured onto the board for deeper etching of the unvarnished parts of the engraving. By repeating the washing of the board, the coating of parts of the drawing with varnish and etching, little by little the engraving is completed. After removing the side and washing the varnish with turpentine, after drying the board, rub it with paint and make a test print from the engraving on paper. Usually after this you have to varnish the board again, finish the work with a needle and continue etching. The engraving looks like a drawing made with thin lines, which in some places are more or less expanded by the action of acid (tab. "Engraving", seaside view, two figures on the sides). This reduces the rigidity of the strokes and may generally contribute to the beautiful appearance of the design, but may also form unwanted spots.

An engraving can rarely be finished to such an extent that the printer has only to transfer to paper what the engraver has done; in most cases, the artist expects to improve the print by painting the board, as it were. When it is covered with paint, then, without wiping clean the copper between the lines, the paint is smeared with a piece of leather or a finger, distributing and partly removing it with muslin in order to form a very thin and transparent layer of paint that connects individual strokes and informs the print plans, contributing to the separation of some objects from others in aerial perspective. The artist himself sometimes lightly ink-colours the first impression of his engraving for the printer's guidance, or at least is present at the first impressions made by the printer. [The influence of the method of printing on the appearance of the print could not be shown on the "Engraving" table, which is nothing more than a facsimile of engravings obtained by means of zinc type, reproducing only the engraving with features. Printing real etchings gives them coloring with surfaces or plans.] It is often necessary, regardless of this, to finish the engraving with a few strokes of the needle, no longer subjected to etching; it is drypoint work (à la pointe seche). Sometimes they also use an ordinary chisel or buren to give a few strong additional features more character to the foreground. Similarly, engravers with a chisel turn to the help of etching along the lines outlined by the chisel in the secondary parts of the engraving.

Engraving with a needle gives the engraving the appearance of a drawing made with a pen [they engrave with a needle on a lithographic stone - usually drawings], but it is possible to give an engraving and print a look drawn with a pencil: for this, a copper board is covered with soft varnish (ordinary hard varnish mixed with lard) and, after applying enough soft paper with a pattern, along its features, is drawn with a bone stick or a hard pencil, making more or less wide strokes. The soft lacquer adheres to the paper in these places, and when it is removed, strokes are obtained on the copper, which, when etched with acid and printed, give an engraving like a pencil drawing.

3) In engraving with a chisel and etching, the chiaroscuro of an object is conventionally depicted by strokes, between which there are light gaps; the pencil style already more perfectly conveys chiaroscuro, although even here you can see through a magnifying glass that the strokes consist of specks, and are not solid. A drawing made with a brush in one tone is even closer to nature. Engraving black manner(maniere noire), called. in Italy and in England the mezzotinto satisfies this requirement. It began in the 17th century. and is still used in our century (now rarely), having reached a special perfection in England. This method consists in making the surface of the board rough, so that after printing from it a flat black surface is obtained. Then they are smoothed with a steel tool called glider, roughness only partly or completely in those places that should come out more or less light on the print. The roughness is reported to the board by means of lapidary or rocking chairs(berceau). This is a plate shaped like a sector, which has a number of notches along the arc. Pressing the tool against the board and shaking it, they thus pass over the entire surface of the copper board, first parallel to one of its edges, then do the same in the direction of the first, and finally, for the third time, in the direction inclined to the first two. When the first one is over tour, pass on the board a second time in the same three directions; only after such strokes have been made twenty times over the entire board, is its surface ready and the board can go to the artist. by this method it is transmitted with extreme gradualness, but its disadvantage lies in the too indefinite outline of objects, which can only be partially helped with the help of a chisel. In addition, the number of prints from such a board cannot be large.

4) Aquatint similar to the black manner in the sense that in this method of engraving a grainy even background is prepared; but the engraver's work on this background is completely different than in the black manner. First of all, they cover the board, heating it from below, with a rather slowly drying varnish, which should become very liquid from heat, and pour finely ground salt on it through a frequent sieve, particles of which penetrate through the varnish to the surface of the copper board. Without waiting for the complete cooling of the varnish, the board is immersed in water at room temperature, which causes the salt to dissolve and point depressions of various shapes appear in the varnish surface; when the board is immersed in acid, the copper surface dissolves in these places and after washing off the varnish, a fine-grained surface of the board is found. Very good results are also obtained by depositing fine resin dust on a copper plate. Raising pitch dust into the air inside a more or less high box with bellows, after a few seconds a board is pushed into it, on which small particles of resin are then gradually deposited. Taking the board out of the box, heat it from the back; from this, the resin particles adhere to the surface of the board, which is then subjected to the corrosive action of the acid. Thus, a grained surface is obtained, which is found when the resin is washed off with turpentine. If some places of the engraving should remain smooth (which comes out white on the print), then they are varnished before etching to protect copper from acid. For the same purpose, it is also possible, having previously covered the entire board with varnish and applied the contour of the pattern to it, wash off the varnish from those places that should receive a granular surface. This is done with a brush, which is dipped in a liquid consisting of olive oil, turpentine and soot; after a few seconds, the places passed by the brush are wiped with a soft cloth, thus exposing the copper. They cover the board with tar dust and poison it with acid, as a result of which smooth places get a granular surface. It is still possible to form such a surface by covering a clean copper plate with a solution of resin in alcohol or ether; after evaporation of the liquid, a resin powder remains, the grains of which have a size depending on the type of the dissolved resin. Instead of acid for etching a grained surface, you can use mixed with olive oil; this pasty mass is applied to the remaining clean places of copper for some time, the duration of which (several minutes or more) depends on the temperature. The work of the artist with an aquatint on a finished grained surface consists in the fact that, first varnishing the places of the engraving with light or sufficiently shaded graining, the remaining parts are acid-etched, after which they successively cover the sufficiently etched places and continue to enhance the rest to the appropriate degree of darkness. For a more complete imitation of drawings made with a brush (ink or sepia), the engraving method (au lavis) is used, and they draw with a brush soaked in acid on copper, as they paint with water paint on paper. After making the outline of the drawing on the board using one of the well-known methods, they cover with a brush with Venetian varnish the parts of the drawing that should come out white on the print, the rest is slightly etched. After washing and drying the board, they again work with a brush, varnishing the finished places, etching deeper into the darker places, and thus carry out the work to the end. A drawing imprinted from such a board represents light and delicate tones, but not yet sufficiently blending into one another. The boundaries between tones can be destroyed by passing over them with a brush with acid and then quickly washing off the latter. Instead of acid, you can use a solution of lapis with some gum for retouching, but iron pentachloride is best. This kind of engraving gives excellent results, and again, with regard to the best examples, it is necessary to point to the English ones. Printing from such boards is a very delicate process.

5) Engraving with dots or dotted lines. Engraving with dots, or more precisely with small, irregularly shaped dots, is done with sharp tools pressed by the hand, or such, the head of which is struck with a hammer. The smaller the dots and the less often they are located on any part of the engraving, the lighter this place in the print comes out when printed. In England, where the semi-mechanical techniques of engraving flourished especially, dotted engraving achieved excellent results, especially in portraits. Sometimes the recesses in the board are made through the varnish, which makes it possible to soften their sharpness with the action of acid. This should also include Engraving under a pencil using a tool called roulette, consisting mainly of a small wheel or roller with notches or small teeth around the circumference. By rolling the tape measure in various directions, strokes similar to pencil strokes can be produced; but the best pencil drawings presented lithography(see), which is direct printing from a genuine pencil drawing on the smooth surface of a lithographic stone.

Various modifications of the described methods or several methods in the same engraving, which was partly mentioned, cannot be considered in detail here, but the subject is given at the end of the article. Printing by all these methods is slow and therefore expensive; for this reason prints cannot serve as the usual supplement to cheap books, an appendix which has now become an urgent need.

6) For quick printing of engravings, it is necessary that they be convex, like the letters of a printing set, and that all the convexities lie in the same plane. Wood engraving (woodcut) satisfied these conditions. The process of preparing a wood engraving is as follows. On a flat and smooth surface of a piece of wood, cut perpendicular to the fibers of a tree (beech, pear), incorrectly called a palm tree, they draw with a pencil or pen - we first take the easiest case. Engraver carving wood between features of the drawing and, if the distance between them is large, then digs quite deep recesses in the tree, retaining all the correct or incorrect features of the strokes. A drawing filled with regular lines cuts easily, but the engraver's task is more difficult when the lines of the pencil are free, of unequal width, and blurred at the edges; nevertheless, skillful engravers make engravings that completely imitate a pencil, even a shaded one. Sometimes the drawing is done half with a pencil or pen and half with a brush: the engraver in this case painstaking work makes a facsimile of the drawing, or, by executing it with strokes corresponding to the tree, is no longer a copyist, but an interpreter of the drawing. The engraver often has to cut from a photograph taken on a tree; he draws a series of almost parallel lines, whose thickness along the length constantly changes according to whether the line is in a light or in a dark place; the combination of such strokes produces chiaroscuro, quite close to photographic. Engravers on wood often engrave heads, portraits and the body in general, imitating the features of engravings on copper, with the only difference in the technique of work being that between intersecting strokes it is necessary to remove the wood inside the cells formed by the strokes. Wood engraving works best when the engraver uses the means appropriate to this material, freely making incised lines. By crossing them, short black lines and dots are formed. Fig. 9 and 10 represent the same object, carved in two ways: in-depth engraving gives a white figure in the print on a dark field; the same figure with convex features left gives a black impression on paper on a white field.

Fig. 9. FIG. ten.

Fig. 11, depicting the head of Zeus (in f), and table II D are reproductions of woodcuts.

Much depends on the art of printmaking; they are preliminarily called so. seasoning(see) so that pressing a sheet of paper with a roller on various parts of the engraving corresponds to the strength or tenderness of the drawing. Wood engraving, although capable of reproducing pictures, is even better when it is free from the requirement of close imitation of the original, i.e., in itself constitutes the original. The engraver uses cutters like the one shown in Fig. one.

Corrections in wood engraving are difficult; the only thing that can be done is to cut out the damaged place with a drill, insert a new piece there, on which to engrave. If printing is done not from a copper plate, but from a piece of wood, then usually after a certain number of impressions, the outline of the inserted piece becomes visible. For drawings and outlines, incised woodcuts are often made for speed and cheapness; when printed, it turns out, as was said, a white figure on a black field (Fig. 9).

Zincography, invented by Gillot, there is a method of convex engraving on zinc. Initially, it consisted in transferring a printed or other design onto the surface of a zinc board, then exposed to an acid, which left intact the features of the design made by paint containing oil. Now this method of engraving has been extremely extensively developed and used since the photographic transfer of a drawing onto a board. It will be described separately in the Zincography article. The engravings in text 9, 10 and 11 are galvanoplastic copies from genuine woodcuts; the rest of the engravings in this article and the tables are zinc types.

Auxiliaries Engraving Engravers, especially English and American engravers, sometimes use auxiliary machines, and for engraving from medals and bas-reliefs, special machines are used that complete the engraving without any help from the artist (see Machine engraving). In addition, in our time, clichés are used for printing, prepared by the action of light on photosensitive plates with the addition of various manipulations (see). serves as a tool for engravers either to dissolve the metal or to precipitate it. The first case occurs in etching, when, instead of immersing in acid, a board with a pattern made with a needle on a ground varnish is placed in a solution. blue vitriol(see electroplating engraving [ glyphography, or the preparation of convex copper engravings, described at the end of the article "Electroplating Engraving" invented by Palmer. The copper board is blackened with sulfur liver and covered with a primer consisting of wax, rosin, spermaceti, etc. substances mixed with zinc white. On this, they draw with a sharp tool, cutting through the soil to a black surface, without exposing the copper underneath. Then they all graphite and, having precipitated copper, they get a copper plate, which is easily removed from a black copper board.]) and subjected to the dissolving action of a galvanic current. The recessed features obtained in this way are thinner than those etched with acid, and therefore the intersection of the lines comes out better by the galvanoplastic method. In other cases, its besieging effect is used both to obtain a special kind of engraving (galvanography) and to correct errors in engraving with a chisel. To do this, electroplated copper is deposited on a part of the board, covering the rest with varnish, smoothing its surface and engraving on it again. oh, they cover copper engravings with iron (steel - acierer), through which the engraving becomes able to give a larger number of prints without damage; when the iron begins to wear out, it can be completely dissolved and the engraving can be steeled again without any of its subtlety. Electroplating can copy engravings (Scamoni heliogravure, see Light painting). Most often it is used to make copper clichés from wood engravings and zincographs in cases where such a large number of prints is expected that a wood engraving cannot deliver without damage. All the considered methods of engraving involve printing in one tone, with one color. Prints, printed with many colors, in fact, do not require special methods. Engraving Already in the 16th century. Schaeffer printed letters with two colors, preparing a separate engraving for each color; the printing of drawings under cameos took place in a similar way. These questions will be discussed in the article:. Engraving of medals and coins - see; engraving of maps - see Maps; musical signs (see), seals - see Carving. Various engraving methods are described in the works "Des mordans, des vernis et des planches dans l" art du graveur ou Traité complet de la gravure par P. Deleschamps (1836) and "Les Procedés de la gravure par A. de Lostalot". Etching engraving in great detail with applications of many patterns Engraving is set out in "Traité de la gravure à l"eau forte par Maxime Lalanne" (1881). Also useful is "Traité de la gravure à l"eau forte par Robert" (1891). Also contains an essay Engraving on metal and in other ways. In Russian there is " Quick Guide to engraving on copper with strong vodka" A. Somov (1885).

Machine engraving.- In engravings there are places where it is necessary to draw rows of uniform parallel straight or curved lines. In these cases, you can use mechanical devices; the simplest of these consists of a metal ruler that can be moved very small amounts parallel to itself. A very thin steel or, even better, a diamond cutter is drawn along the engraving along the ruler with constant pressure. Sometimes it is necessary to draw a series of lines, darker and darker, in order to represent, for example, a gradual decrease in light towards the horizon or, conversely, upward; for this, a cup is placed on top of the incisor, which remains empty when drawing weak lines; after that, one, two or more pellets (2 1 / 2 mm) are successively placed in the cup, which causes the cutter to cut deeper and deeper lines, which take more and more ink when printing (Jobard in e). Sometimes the engraving is done in wavy, concentric circular, elliptical lines using appropriate machines. Sometimes, to decorate a metal surface, a series of straight, wavy or generally curved lines, parallel to each other or mutually intersecting, is cut on it. - This will (cm.). The most remarkable application of machines to engraving is found in the so-called. portrait machines (tour à portrait), which appeared at the end of the last or the beginning of this century (Marquis de Parois), for engraving copper copies from medals and bas-reliefs. Usually, an engraving board is varnished and the drawing carved on it by a machine is etched with strong vodka, then corrected, where necessary, with a chisel. The best of the machines of this kind is Colas (Colas), arranged in the fifties; the essence of its device is as follows. the al platform, on which the copper or steel engraving board is laid, can be moved by equal small amounts by means of a screw; at its edge is another platform, movable in a vertical direction. both platforms at the same time. In the space between the two platforms there is a trolley movable in a direction parallel to the planes of both platforms. The trolley can also move perpendicular to the vertical platform. It is equipped with horizontal and vertical rods; one with a blunt point, the other with a sharp steel or diamond end. A bas-relief or a medal with which they want to engrave is attached to a vertical platform. When moving the trolley, a blunt pin moves along the bas-relief, and at the same time a sharp cutter moves along the engraving board. When the first moves along the flat part of the surface, the cutter draws a straight line; when the first is raised to the convex part and lowered from it, the direction of movement of the cutter becomes wavy. The engraving gets a relief look, a pleasant, like a metal surface. Having moved a little platform with a screw, a blunt pin is again drawn along the bas-relief from beginning to end, and so on. , then approaching, representing light on the convex parts and shadow on the concave parts of the relief. The print from the engraving takes on an embossed appearance with a pleasing metallic tone. For a sample, we reproduce one of them in Fig. 12.

In addition to the Kolas machine, there are also Hefel, Bath, Wagner, Perkins, Steyerwald and many others. The latter named, engraving with very close strokes, giving it from a distance a semblance of an aquatint, very faithfully reproduces small details; but prints of this kind are not particularly beautiful.

Engraving (history). - The time to which the invention of Engraving refers cannot be determined not only with accuracy, but also approximately. Some historians find the beginnings of this art in the ancient world; others trace its origin from Asia, namely from Japan and China, whence wood engraving was, in their opinion, brought to Europe by trade relations. In any case, engraving as a method of reproduction of images came into use in our part of the world not earlier than the second half of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century, and convex engraving appeared earlier than in-depth engraving - even before the invention of printing books in typesetting. The oldest monument that has come down to us Engraving on wood with a certain date - an engraving of "St." (in the collection of Lord a), marked 1423; but there is every reason to believe that even up to this time in the Netherlands and, and especially in the cities along the Rhine, there were - of course, still very crude - pictures printed on woodcuts, mostly of a pious content, provided with a text corresponding to it. In all likelihood, from the places already mentioned, the skill of engraving on wood later passed to Italy and France. From pictures on separate sheets there was a very close transition to polytypes in books, which replaced expensive, hand-made miniatures, just as the works of a printing press replaced manuscripts that were far from accessible to everyone. One of the oldest books illustrated with woodcuts is The Mirror of Human Salvation (Speculum humanae salvationis), a work whose first edition, printed in Harlem by L. Coster, was published earlier than 1442. It was followed by The Bible for the Poor (Biblia pauperum) and other editions with wood engravings by unknown carvers, still very imperfect, but reflecting the influence of such gifted artists as the brothers V.-Eiki and. For a long time, the leadership in the production of such illustrations belonged to both and and, with which other countries in this respect only caught up later. Around the same time, and according to the assumption of some writers, as early as the very beginning of the 15th century, another method of convex engraving was practiced, the so-called "lattice engraving" (gr. criblée), which consisted in the fact that a copper board was turned into polytype by gouging on it has more or less large and frequent round dimples and irregular depressions in those places that should depict light and penumbra in the print (Fig. 13).

This method gave extremely poor results, as evidenced by the samples of engravings executed by him, which are stored in many museums.

A new era for engraving came with the invention of printing prints from metal boards cut deep into. This invention, like many other discoveries, happened by accident. For a long time, goldsmiths have resorted to decorating their products with the so-called black, that is, with an alloy of tin, silver or copper with a certain amount of borax and sulfur; this alloy, while still hot, filled the strokes of a design engraved with a chisel on a smooth silver or gold surface; the excess of the alloy protruding from the strokes was removed, the alloy, having cooled, became solid, and thus it turned out, as it were, painted with black paint on a brilliant background. This kind of ornamentation was in the middle of the XV century. in great use among the Italians, especially in the manufacture of sacred vessels and other precious items of church utensils. The works he did were called nielles(niello), and the masters who produced these works - nellators. More than anywhere else, the art of nielle flourished in what was then the center of artistic activity, Florence. One of the masters there, Tomaso, or, for short, Maso, in 1452, performing Pax in black [In Catholic church usage, this is the name of a small metal image, to which, during a solemn mass, when "Agnus Dei" is sung, the priest gives the members clergy and those who pray, addressing everyone with the words "Pah tecum" (peace ti).] for the local baptist, with the image of the heavenly coronation of s, and, wanting to judge the state of his work, rubbed the engraved, as his comrades did, with a mixture of soot with oil, in order to then remove this paint, make the necessary corrections in the image and, finally, fill it with the aforementioned alloy. A damp rag accidentally fell on the unfinished nielle, and the soot, passing to the last of the strokes, made an exact imprint of the image on it. This gave Finigverra the idea of ​​re-rubbing the plate with black ink and deliberately making a print of the nielli on the damp paper. The result of the experiment was so satisfactory that the artist began to repeat it in his subsequent works, and other niellators began to imitate his example (Fig. 14).

However, quite a few years passed before the deep engraving thus born gained independence from goldsmithing and became a special means of reproduction of drawings. Nevertheless, the gradual improvement of technology, directed towards this goal, finally brought complete independence to the art in question. The nameless niellators, modern Finigverre, were followed, at the end of the 15th century, by Baccio-Baldini, Sandro Botticcelli, and some other Florentine artists, whose works represent the transition from the infancy of engraving to its mature age.

ENGRAVING. 1st row: the head of Apollo; aximile engraving with a chisel (byuren on copper); 4 states of engraving. 2nd row: Seaside view and 2 figures on the sides; facsimile of an engraving on copper with strong vodka (etching) Lalanne. 3rd row: woodcut facsimile. part - engraving a, side - engraving by Pannemaker.

Further movement is transferred from Florence to northern Italy, where the famous painter A. (1431-1506) significantly moves engraving forward and more than other Italians contributes to its popularization. He engraved up to 20 boards depicting religious and mythological subjects and representing an imitation of pen drawing; they are remarkable for the careful development of forms and generally reflect the merits of the paintings of Mantegna, but still do not even give a hint of color and the play of chiaroscuro. A talented artist is followed by a large crowd of followers, of which some, like, for example, Dzoan-Andrea and J.-A. da Brescia, blindly imitate his manner, while others, such as Mochetto, J. Francia, Nicoletto da Modena and Yak. De, show more or less their own, although in the same general direction that their prototype kept. Around the same time, something similar is observed in Germany, which received acquaintance with advanced engraving, in all likelihood, from Italy. Of course, there is a big difference between the initial works of one and the other countries, but the historical course of engraving at first presents many similarities here and there. Just as Finigverra can be considered the father of Italian in-depth engraving, so the German ancestor can be called an unknown by name "master of 1466" - a gifted artist whose works (for example, "The Adoration of the Magi") already express a direction that has long become characteristic of his compatriots, namely, care not about the correctness of the drawing and beauty, but about the transfer of a sincere, naive feeling, about the delicacy of the cutter and conscientious processing of the smallest details. As in Italy, after Finigverra, Mantegna was the largest representative of engraving, so behind the "master of 1466." followed the influential Martin Schön, or (died 1499), like Mantegna, a painter and at the same time an engraver, who, in addition to great technical skill, showed in his prints a great vivacity of fantasy and a significant instinct for elegance. The students and followers of this artist not only spread his direction throughout Germany, but also transferred it to France and Italy itself. Of the engravers attributed to the Schön school, Schön, F. von Bocholt, Wenceslas Olmutsky, van Mekenen and A. Gloketon stand out. At a time when in-depth engraving was making notable progress in Germany thanks to these masters, German woodcut printing continued on its primitive path and still produced crude book illustrations and religious or moral pictures on separate sheets. A strong impetus forward was given to this branch of art by the greatest of German artists, om Dürer (1471-1528). It is still doubtful whether he himself cut his excellent woodcuts (for example, "Apocalypse", "Life of the Virgin", "Trinity", etc.) or only supervised the work of his assistants and students who reproduced his drawings during their execution; but the woodcuts, marked with the monogram of the famous master, are distinguished by high dignity as much in terms of design and drawing as in the technical side: they show hitherto unprecedented confidence, purity and picturesqueness of the cutter, not limited to the transfer of the forms of nature, but also outlining to some extent degree aerial perspective and colorful effects. A. Dürer is no less brilliant in his engravings on metal, which brought him wide fame even during his lifetime. It is not surprising that such a master created a whole school of engravers, to which belong, among others, A. er, Engraving, Engraving Scheuffelein, Engraving Penz, Baldung-Grun, B. and Engraving Z. Begama and J. Bink. Other artists who worked during his time or shortly after him owed a lot to him, such as, for example, the xylographs Engraving Burgmeier ("Triumphal Procession of the Emperor Maximilian, etc.") and Engraving Lutzenburger ("Dance of Death according to the drawings of a Ml." etc.). Among his ovs, Dürer met only one serious rival in the person of an Italian (1475-1534). , a student of F. Franchi, at first copied Dürer's prints with amazing closeness, imitating his hand, and then joined Raphael and, engraving his compositions, often on purpose made by him drawings and completely in his spirit, took a prominent place in the history of art. From all over Italy, artists flocked to Raimondi, who wanted to improve their skills. Caraglio of Verona, G. Bonazone of Bologna, Diana Gisi of Mantua and many others had him as their mentor or were students of his students. Marcantonio's influence did not extend to Italy alone; it penetrated into Germany, where some of Dürer's students were subjected to it; it was also reflected in France, especially in the works of the Fontainebleau school. However, copper engraving, improved by this artist, did not displace wood engravings among Italians. Even during the life of Raimondi, a special kind of woodcut, the so-called. "cameo-like" Engraving (en camaïeu), invented in 1510 by I. von Necker, in e, consisting in the preparation of two, three or four boards, with the help of which an engraving is printed with the same number of colors, which is an imitation of a drawing made by a pen and a brush with wet ink, bistre and whitewash. This method was popularized by Ugo da Carpi (who successfully facsimiles the drawings of Raphael, Parmigianino, and others), and then N. Vicentini, A. Andreani, and A. da Trento successfully practiced it; nevertheless, he did not last long, only until the end of the 16th century, being forced out of practice by the improved ordinary woodcut. The latter then flourished mainly in Venice, where the printers famous in that era resorted to its help, and where a group of gifted woodcarvers formed around Titian, reproducing the compositions of this painter (these include D. delle Grecche, N. Boldrini, etc.) , apparently, sometimes with the direct participation of Titian himself in their work.

In the Netherlands, the history of engraving on copper begins no earlier than the first years of the 16th century, that is, with the appearance of prints by Luke of Leiden (1494-1533). True, even before him there were masters in this field; but their works were crude, childishly unskillful, and had a handicraft character at a time when the Italians and Germans were already working well. L. van Leyden was the first of all his compatriots to master the buren artistically, he was the first to introduce a sense of lighting effects into the engraving, gave the image a gradual weakening of the tone energy as the plans were removed, and in this respect surpassed Dürer and Raimondi. In his engravings, just like in his paintings, there is no pursuit of beauty, but an ardent commitment to nature and a strong desire for expressiveness are striking. The example of L. Leydensky inspired many Dutch engravers, who, following in his footsteps, gradually gained superiority over the Germans. the play of light and aerial perspective became the main task in the school he founded - a task that in many cases served to the detriment of the drawing and led to excess and sophistication of the means applied to achieve it. Many of the followers of the Leiden master, such as, for example, K. Kort, Engraving, J. Müller, and others, with all the art with which they master the engraving cutter and needle, are heavily infected with pretentiousness and affectation. But along with them there are also engravers who, like, for example, N. de Bruyne in e and the Virinx brothers in e, are more restrained and choosy in the methods of their texture. Be that as it may, engraving in Holland and Flanders remained for a long time faithful to the color principle bequeathed to it by Luke of Leiden. This principle found its fullest and most brilliant expression in the works of a group of masters who constitute, so to speak, the retinue of P.P. Rubens (1577-1640). It can be argued that never before has a single painter had such an impact on the success of contemporary engraving as the great Antwerp artist. L., Skh. and B. s, P. Pontius, P. Schoutman, P. Iode, T. van Tyulden, reproducing his compositions under his direct supervision and guidance, brought the engraving to a high perfection in terms of color, brilliance of lights, depth of shadows and harmony of transitions from the first to the second - in a word, to unprecedented picturesqueness. To achieve such a result, engraving with strong vodka is an excellent means, a technique that has long been used to decorate their products with a notch, but which began to be applied to the production of prints, it is not known exactly when (the oldest etched engraving that has come down to us, "St. "A. Durer, refers to 1512). A relatively light and, in terms of color, very grateful etching, once mastered by artists, was widely used at the end of the 16th and at the beginning of the 17th century either in preparing an engraved board for working with a chisel, or as an independent method, used in its pure form, without the admixture of such work. In particular, he was to the taste of the painters-engravers. In Italy, they successfully reproduced their compositions by Parmigianino, August. and many artists of the Bologna school, as well as the Spaniard Ribera; in Flanders, to him engravers of the Rubens school resorted, by the way, the most famous of his students, A. van Dyck (a collection of portraits of artists and art lovers he knew, under the title "Iconographia"). But this kind of engraving took root more than anywhere else Engraving in Holland, where many talented Bürenists resorted to it, such as, for example, Korn Wisscher, Korn van Dalen and J. I took time off with my palette and paints in order to do etching. Of all these artists, Rembrandt stands out in dazzling brilliance, whose etchings are so excellent, so vividly express his ingenious individuality, that they alone would be enough to perpetuate his fame, even if he had not painted a single picture in his lifetime. . The influence of the great master on the Dutch engravers was significant; but due to the originality of his talent and the elusiveness of the methods to which he resorted to implement his various artistic ideas, even his closest followers - F. Bol, J. Livesh, J. van Vliet - could not fully assimilate his manner; all the less succeeded in imitating him, who did not use his direct instructions and advice.

The school of Rubens and Rembrandt and his followers were still active in Flanders and Holland, but meanwhile the primacy in engraving was about to pass from these countries to France, which had not had its own painting for a long time and, as a result, independent engraving. True, since the beginning of the 16th century, Lyon and Paris produced a considerable number of woodcuts; but they were considerably inferior in dignity to foreign works of this kind. As for engraving on copper, the first French masters worked on it during the entire 16th and early 17th centuries. (R. Boivin, Engraving Dumoutier, N. Beatrise and others) were nothing more than imitators of the Italians of the era of the decline of art, in most cases exaggerating their shortcomings. J. Callot (1594-1635) should be considered the father of original French engraving, whose works (street types and scenes, caricatures, battle compositions, etc.), executed by etching, are distinguished by originality of manner, boldness and firmness of the stroke, direct study of nature and expressiveness. Thanks to Callot, etching took root in France, where it was later popularized by Abr. Bosse and Iz. , of which the first introduced many improvements in the technique of this branch of art and published a treatise on it. The reign of a XIV (1643-1715) - French engraving, in which she, having fully mastered all the means available to her, ceased to be an art subordinate to painting and rose to the importance of an artistic branch as important as this latter. She owed her rise to such an upsurge, on the one hand, to the attention of the sun king, who provided all kinds of support to her figures and established a special school at the tapestry institution, where skillful engravers were prepared and worked under the guidance of the beloved royal painter Lebrun, and on the other hand, to the appearance several remarkable talents in the field under consideration. Most of the engravers of that time were learned and skillful colorists, whose main merit, however, was the harmonious combination of all the resources of their skill in simplicity, elegance and seriousness of style. The oldest of them, such as T. de Leu, L. Gauthier, J. Morin, M. Lan, K. Mellan and others, still borrow something from; on the other hand, another, more numerous group shows complete independence from principles introduced from outside. Of the luminaries of this group, the following were especially famous: R. Nanteil (1628-78), who skillfully engraved almost exclusively portraits; adopted by France, the Fleming J. (1640-1707), an engraver of paintings and portraits, under whose beautiful chisel even mediocre pictorial originals turned into excellent works, and J. Audran (1640-1703), interpreter of Lebrun, Mignard, Poussin, Raphael and friend. Italians, who formed a significant school, to which belong, among other things, Duchange Engraving, M., L. Deplace and the founder of a whole generation of engravers of the same name, N.-Tardier Engraving. Of the other masters who owe their m to Nanteuil, Edelink and Audran, deserve to be mentioned J. Pen, E. Bode, Gantrel, Fr. de Pouilly, Roullet, Masson, Engraving by Pitot and Claudine Stella (Buzon). In addition to these more or less significant artists, a crowd of other masters satisfied the need for engravings that had developed among the mass of the public, performing less serious works - book illustrations, fashion pictures, city views, engraved calendars, caricatures, etc. Paris became a center in which everywhere engravers flocked to study, then spreading the French direction to all parts of Europe. The leadership in the direction under consideration was retained for itself throughout the 18th century, in the first half of which, however, due to the change that took place in the nature of French art in general, the requirements for engraving by public taste also changed noticeably. The majestic, strict and cold style of Lebrun bored the public, and she became more and more addicted to the outwardly beautiful, pleasant and flirtatious; the exploits of ancient and modern heroes and pious plots are gradually giving way to their former dominance in art to theatrical cutesy scenes, sugary pastorals, the adventures of the Frenchized gods of Olympus. This change, however, did not take place without a struggle between the new trend and the old one. In general, the engravers of the time of Louis XV can be divided into two groups. One, under the influence of the painter Rigaud, obeying to some extent the general trend, still preserves the traditions of the previous generation. To her belong a student of J. Audran, P. Dreve, his son P.-E. Dreve and nephew Kl. Dreve, as well as several students of N. Tardieu and Dupuis. Another, more populous group, showing no less developed technical skill, interprets engraving in the style of Watteau, Pater, Boucher and other mannerists of their century, and, at the end of it, Greuze. Of the representatives of this group, the most famous are L. Kars, N. de-Larmessen, Leba, Lepissier, Aveline, Duflo, Dupuy, and Flipart. In addition to the artists of either group, the reproductions of paintings and portraits on a more or less large scale, France exhibited at that time whole line gifted specialists in engraving small pictures and vignettes, without which not a single edition of poetry and fiction that claims to be elegant could do then. Some - Larmessen, Seryug, Delaunay, Gelman, Longueil, Moreau, Flipart, and others - transmitted with a thin chisel and a delicate needle their own compositions or drawings, Eisen, Engraving de Saint-Aubin, Chauffard, Moreau the Younger and similar beautiful draftsmen; others, such as Fike and Og. de Saint-Aubin, made a name for themselves especially in the engraving of miniature portraits. The widespread fashion for engraving

encouraged people who did not receive a solid art education to try their hand at it, which was facilitated for them by a simple, generally accessible method of etching. Art lovers practiced in it, mainly from the highest circle of society: the regent himself, hertz. Orleans, hertz. de Chevreuse, Gravelle, c. Caylus, Darjanville, even the ladies - the Duchess de Luyne, the queen, the royal favorite, Madame Rebou and others. In the same fashion, there was an effort on the part of the artists to diversify the techniques as much as possible. Engraving In addition to the so-called "black manner" and dotted engraving (gr . au pointillé), which, as we will now see, to the taste of the British most of all, was used by the French at the end of the 18th century. honored pencil style, invented in 1740-57. engraver from Nancy and improved J., but soon it began to be applied almost exclusively to the manufacture of originals for student exercises in drawing, and subsequently lithography took away this role from her. The existence of polychrome engraving (gr. en couleurs) was just as short, the first experiments of which were made at the beginning of the previous century by the Dutch painter; put into use in France and improved by J.-K. Leblon, this method gave excellent results in the works of Engraving by Dagotti, Dubucour and some other artists. Aquatint, related to polychrome engraving, took root more firmly in France, in terms of which the best masters were, in addition to the mentioned Dubucour, M. José, Prevost and Girard.

As we have already remarked in passing, the influence of France, in the flourishing time of her engraving, spread throughout Europe. In Germany, where already from the end of the XVII century. Engraving has lost its artistry and originality, and where, after skillful, but dry and routine masters in the genus M. Merian of the Kilian family and M. a, the equally mediocre I. E., Chr. Dietrich, Chr. Rode and F. Weyrother, the French trend was expressed in the beautiful engravings of I. Wagner, M. a, I.-Engraving Ville and Engraving-F. Schmidt. The best representatives of this direction in Italy was K. ti, in Spain - and P. Morales. Of the other eminent engravers of these countries in the past century, only the versatile Chodovetsky in Berlin and the prolific engraver of architectural views and ruins in Rome worked in a different spirit.

In England, engraving acquired an artistic character not earlier than in the reign of Charles I, and at first was deprived of independence. The most significant of the first English Burenists, V. Feithorn, kept the manner of his teacher Nanteil; V. Gollar, who contributed to the planting of engraving by etching in England, was a German by origin and direction. The students of the latter, and the English in general, soon became addicted to a new kind of engraving, to the so-called. black manner, an invention made in 1642 in the service of the Hessian Landgrave A. von Siegen and brought to England by the Palatine Prince. At first, this engraving method, applied exclusively to portrait tasks, gave only poor and mediocre results; but after the famous painter J., following the example of Rubens, became the head of a whole school of engravers, the number of artists who skillfully disposed of the lapidary and planier increased, and English black prints, reproducing not only portraits, but also historical paintings, came into high esteem at the very continent of Europe. The best masters in their part were in the XVIII century. R. Earlom, McArdell, Smith, Dickinson, W. Green, and T. Watson. Somewhat earlier, W. Gogart laid the foundation for satirical English engraving, which was then successfully developed by many other artists. In the part of the dotted manner, as well as the polychrome engraving, England has exhibited several skilful craftsmen; the most popular representatives of the first were the Italian Fr. and W. Reiland; the second was developed more successfully than others by I. Taylor. The works of these artists reflected to a greater or lesser extent the influence of the French school; but the English Burenists, of whom S. Strange, F. Vivares and W. Woollet were especially famous, were even more imbued with its principles.

At the onset of the XIX century. supremacy in the field of art still belonged to France, despite the revolution that broke out in it and the radical change in the structure of its life. Many of its best artists belonged both by birth and by education that preceded their time, and therefore could not significantly deviate from its aspirations. Only L. David personified progress, expressed the ideals of the new French society. Young artists followed in his footsteps in an obedient crowd; the public looked at him as a brilliant revivalist of Russian art. All branches of the latter were subjected to the all-powerful influence of David, including engraving; but she threw off his yoke before all the rest. Even at the time of his despotic power, many of the engravers who worked on the reproduction of the pearls of painting, brought from everywhere to Paris, reverently cherished the traditions of the glorious era of French engraving. The most talented among these artists were Boucher-Denoyer, P. A. Tardieu, and especially Berwick, a wonderful connoisseur of drawing, coloring and all the resources of his skill, but who can be reproached with excessive concern for the beauty of the chisel and, in general, for technical dexterity. In addition to these engravers, in the period under consideration, J. Massard and A. Morel earned fame - by reproducing paintings by David, L. Kopia and B. Roger - by Prudhon. While Berwick was known as the first of the engravers of France, in Italy, where at the end of the XVIII century. the best representatives of engraving were G. and P. Longhi, they were proud as a worthy rival of the French master R. Morgen, who actually stood below him, masterfully, but unceremoniously sweetening and distorting the most magnificent monuments of Italian painting ("The Last Supper" by L. da Vinci, " Transfiguration" by Raphael, etc.), and who, thanks mainly to the celebrity of these originals, have made themselves a loud, now significantly silent glory. We see a stricter attitude to the matter among contemporary German engravers Morgen, from a number of which two first-class masters act: I.-Engraving Miller, engraver of the Raphael Madonna della sedia, and his son who died early, Chr.-Fr. Müller, author of the excellent print of the Sistine Madonna. In general, at the beginning of this century, German engravers adhered to approximately the same principles and techniques as their French and Italian counterparts. But soon, under the influence of new ideas, the conditions changed: the national spirit, the study of the medieval era, the passion for domestic antiquity and the effort to revive it with its ideas and beliefs - in a word, romanticism, which first took possession of German poetry, left its mark on the figurative arts. In painting, the mustache and were the most characteristic spokesmen for the new aspiration; in engraving, it gave rise to a group of artists, mainly Munich and Stuttgart, faithful followers of these three painters: F. Keller, Ludy and Steinfenzand reproduced the compositions of Overbeck, Schaeffer, Merz and some others - Cornelius, Teter - Kaulbach, setting themselves the main task of detailed contouring and only outlining the relief with a weak, incomplete shading. However, not all Germans were infected with archaism and dryness; but such artists as Felzing in e, E. in Berlin and in e, who did not lose respect for the techniques developed in the flowering time of engraving, were. In England, at the same time, there is also a unity of aspirations; but while the German engravers, for all their cold reflectivity, are imbued with om and the conviction of the importance of their vocation and the principles guiding them, the engravers of England do not set high goals, treat their work superficially, flaunt its external, technical side, love the external, eye-catching effect , sharp contrasts of light and shadows and sometimes strange themes like a parrot or life-size engraved hunting paraphernalia. This is encouraged by their eccentric taste of compatriots, amateurishness and stubbornness, strongly developed in the English aristocracy and the middle class. The great demand for engravings forces them to be executed as quickly as possible, and in order to invent lighter ways of working, to combine different manners in the same print. A. Reimbach, who made himself honorable fame with engravings from Wilka's everyday paintings, S. W. Reynolds, head of the London school of mezzotintists, and the portrait painter Cousins ​​are the last representatives of serious engraving in England. After them, in-depth engraving became almost a factory m, using all means for the fastest and simplest achievement of the goal - instead of copper iron boards, later turned into steel, strong vodka, dry and wet aquatint, tape measures and other mechanical devices, and, finally, closer to our own. time - heliographic preparation of the board.

Such, in general terms, was the state of copper engraving in the first half of this century. In Germany, with few exceptions, it has become a conventional language for the expression of national and philosophical ideas; in England - a banal flaunting of light and varied technology; in Italy, the masters who followed Volpato and Mengs - L. that, P., P. Tosca and the latter's students - tried to maintain the honor of domestic engraving, but they worked separately, not in the same spirit. Only in France continued the continuity of the direction taken by the school of engravers after David. This continuity continues to this day, despite the competition that the branch of art in question met first in lithography, and then in light painting. At one time, French engravers began to tend to imitate the British, but soon looked back and returned to independence. The best of French Burenists of the middle of this century - L. P. Anriquel-Dupont, who formed a number of skillful engravers of modern times. In second place after him should be his peers J. N. Laugier, J.-T. Rishom and some others. Of the masters of the next generation, acting in recent times or working people still today, A. Louis, J. Francois, E. Rousseau, O., B.-A. Guot, A. Francois, J. Bertino, J.-B. Dangin and C. F. Galliard. Despite the efforts of these artists, as well as many talented craftsmen working in other countries (for example, Weber in and, de Keyser in Holland, Biot and Frank in Belgium, Jacobi, Sonnenleiter and Klaus in Austria, Keller in Prussia, etc. .), the circle of distribution of engraving is narrowing more and more due to the lack of requirements and the gradual improvement of light-painting methods for obtaining prints. Engravings, executed quite artistically with a chisel, are becoming rarer and rarer; the black manner fell into disuse everywhere; aquatint is also very rarely practiced, at least in its pure form, without the admixture of work by buren or etching. , almost completely abandoned since the beginning of the XVII century. and called back to life in the second half of the 18th century. Englishman T. Bevik, although it has since been cultivated by many skilled artists and has reached high perfection in recent decades, especially in France, England and the North. America, however, met a strong rival in zinc type, unable, of course, to compete with her in terms of artistry, but, nevertheless, depriving her of widespread use. Only the etching did not suffer, as an engraving technique available to every artist, allowing him to improvise on a copper board directly himself, to convey his idea, his composition to it; Moreover, etching has become even more widespread today than before. In all the artistic centers of Europe, one can count dozens of artists successfully engaged in etching; in many places, entire societies have arisen that care about its improvement and popularization. Ch. Jacques, L. Gaucherel, Braquemont, Courtrie, L. Flameng, Ch. Galliard, J. Jacquemart, A. Laloz, Marseille, P. Razhon and Ch., and in France, to Seymour-Gedna, A. Gaga and J. Geseltin in England, on A. Gilly, F. di-Bartolo and E. Pagliano in Italy, V. Unger, V. Hecht and V. Wernle in Austria, Fr. Boettcher, K. Koepping, L. Kruger, D. Raab and B. Manfeld in Germany, Storm van Sgravesande in Belgium, Kopne, Boland and Griebe in Holland.

About Engraving in Russia, see the article " Russian art". - Cf. Emeric David, "Discours historique sur la gravure" (II., 1808); Abb. Zani, "Materiali per servire alla storia dell" incisione"; Bartsch, "Le peintre-graveur" (Vienna, 1803-21) ; Ch. Blanc, "Manuel de l" amateur d "estampes"; L.-K. Heller, "Handbuch für Kupferstichsammler oder Lexicon der vorzüglichsten Kupferstecher" (Bamberg, 1823); Joubert, "Manuel de l" amateur d "estampes"; P. G. Passavant, "Le peintre-graveur" (1860-64); Quandt, "Entwurf zu einer Geschichte d. Kupferstecherkunst" (Lpts., 1826); H. Heller, "Gesch. der Holzschneidekunst" (Bamberg, 1823); Robert-Dumesnil, "Le peintre graveur français" (II., 1835-71); G. Duplessis, "Les meweilles de la gravure" (P., 1871); Vic. H. Delaborde, "La gravure" (one of the volumes of the publication "Bibliothèque de l" enseignement des beaux-arts ").

The main technological scheme for preparing the map for publication includes the following steps:

1.Editing and preparatory work

Drafting a map - terms of reference (TU);

Study of the mapping area;

Collection, analysis, systematization of additional cartographic and literary reference

materials;

Definition of technology and writing editorial and technical instructions (RTU);

2. Preparation of the main map material

Editing and photocopying processes;

3. Reproduction of a copy of the compiler's original in accordance with the brilliance of the publication ( if

the main cartographic material is the drafting original )

Engraving of content elements;

Copy processes (obtaining intermediate dashed positives and the necessary

the number of their blue copies for the manufacture of mask-filling elements);

Registration by signatures, conventional signs of intermediate dashed positives; manufacturing

blue copy mask;

copy processes ( obtaining a set of original positives - line and masks);

4. Self-correction

5. Proofreading

6. Acceptance of a set of dissected original positives

7. Copy processes ( receipt of a set of combined publishing positives in accordance with

brilliance of the edition)

The essence of the method is volume, that instead of drawingdrawing copied in the form of an outline on the surface of the engraverlayer is cut through) with the help of special devices (i.e., mechanical removal of the removable layer on opaque plastic according to the pattern - obtaining a negative image).

The variety of engraving methods is determined by the qualityplastic, the properties of engraving coatings and the nature of the gravelroving funds.

Depending on the nature of the impact on the engravingdigging all engraving methods are divided into contact and endless clock.

Contact methods include those, in which the cartographicsome image based on the direct impactwe use engraving tools on the engraving coating. To this grouppu includes mechanical, chemical and electrothermal methods.

Non-contact methods include those in which the carda graphic image is formed using various kinds luclean energy - light radiation, including laser, ultra- sound waves, infrared rays.

By the type of cartographic image obtained as a result
engraving, all methods are divided into negative, positive, negapositive-positive.

The mechanical method of engraving in the recent past was the main one in modernnom cartographic production. As a result of engraving on os new with an optically dense engraving coating, bliss is formedtive cartographic image. That is why the method is called negative.

To obtain a positive image, engraving is performed on a light, non-actinic engraving layer applied to an opaque (black) plastic.

The variety of engraving methods is determined by the quality of polymeric materials (plastic), the properties of engraving coatings and the nature of engraving tools. Polymer materials used in cartographic production played one of the decisive roles in preparing maps for publication.

The methodology for preparing maps for publication is inextricably linked with the technology of this stage of map creation. Over the years, the technology of preparing maps for publication has been improved, and the methodology has also changed. The technique is essentially designed to ensure the high-quality implementation of any technological process. Each of them has its own methodology. The more complex this process and the more important it is for the created map, the more attention is paid to the method of its implementation.

When preparing a map for publication, it is possible to single out the following technological processes that are methodologically important:

Preparatory work;

Engraving of originals and registration of their signatures;

Production of original casting elements;

Making a set of original transparencies.

But even among these important processes, the most important for creating the content of the map and the most complex, time-consuming to implement are the processes of engraving, designing originals, as well as making original fill and background elements of the map. Therefore, in the manual, great emphasis is placed on the methodology for performing these processes.

The method of preparatory work is aimed at ensuring High Quality subsequent stages of preparing maps for publication. In the process of preparing these works, the original map material is collected and analyzed, and on the basis of the analysis of the main and additional material, one or another technological scheme for preparing maps for publication is adopted. At this stage, the preparation of cartographic materials is carried out, as well as technical means and materials. In particular, they include the preparation of engraving bases, plastic and photographic film, as well as obtaining an outline (or dissected) image on engraving bases. When using a compiling original on a transparent basis, the image is obtained on a contact copying machine, and when an opaque basis is used, it is photographed. In this case, the dimensions of the negative should not differ from the theoretical ones by more than 0.2 mm. This is due to the fact that all subsequent copies are made by contact method and it will be impossible to eliminate the errors in the size of the map sheet.

An outline image on an engraving basis is obtained, as a rule, in two ways:

1) by coloring the substrate (dyeing the base); 2) washout relief.

The method of staining the substrate gives a clearer and more resistant to mechanical influences image. Therefore, in the case of obtaining a negative, it is necessary to make a transparencies from it. The use of a silver-free film "photocontact-transparent" will significantly reduce the cost of using silver-containing photographic materials, improve the quality of the resulting image and maintain dimensional stability.

An analysis of the method of engraving originals will make it possible to determine that when engraving, lined originals are worked out (contour, hydrography, relief, etc.). These originals must fully reproduce the content of the primary originals and strictly comply with the requirements of the governing documents. If the originals are made by simultaneous compilation and engraving, they must also satisfy the content requirements for maps of a given scale and purpose.

When mechanically engraving originals, special engraving devices, tools and fixtures are used. Techniques for engraving maps on layers applied to a transparent base (polymer) differ from those used in cartographic drawing, so the development and manufacture of tools, as well as accessories and equipment, was required. Engraving experiments with cutting tools and fixtures made it possible to establish some features and determine the requirements for them.

All tools and devices are subject to the following requirements:

Tools must completely remove the engraving layer from the drawing without damaging the surface of the layer in other areas and without scratching the plastic, as well as ensure the constancy of the thickness and clarity of the boundaries of the engraving elements;

The tools should be easy to use, move easily and quickly over the surface of the original and not obscure the outline pattern with their body.

As a result of engraving the map, a completely transparent line drawing should be obtained, so the engraving layer from the cut elements should be completely removed.

Engraving devices, tools and fixtures:

1. A device for engraving GPL lines with a set of cutters for it;

2. Electric caliper EK with a set of cutters to it;

3.Horizontal engraving pantograph GGP;

4.Pribor for engraving signs of buildings of the State Fire Service;

5.Shtrikhovalny device ShP;

6.GT engraving trolley;

7.Universal engraving device UGP-2;

8. Small engraving trolley MGT - 2;

9. Sets of metal and plastic stencils;

10. Engraving pens;

11. Sharpening kit TK;

This kit made it possible to engrave the entire content of general geographical maps at scales from 1:10,000 to 1:1,000,000, as well as small-scale geographical and thematic maps.

Engraving tools used in foreign cartographic production did not differ in their design from domestic tools.

From the above, we see that, so to speak, the classical technology of preparing maps for publication is very costly, requires a large amount of expensive materials (plastic, film, solutions), most of which are no longer produced, and is also very laborious when using manual "old-fashioned" labor. I would like to note that it does not allow you to quickly edit and update the map, due to the need for the same materials.

Currently, there are many graphic programs for PCs, with the help of which quickly, efficiently, with a full color gamut, with a minimum use of consumables, a cartographic work is published, but the basic principles of the work of cartographers have not changed.

graver- cut on something) - drawing a picture, inscription, ornament, manually or mechanically on the surface of metal, stone, wood, glass. In this case, the pattern can be convex (embossed) or in-depth. As a cutter, they use: a graver, boron (cutter), and in some cases a laser, acid etching is also used on metal and glass. Laser engraving allows you to achieve a clear application of letters or patterns on the material, make sharp corners, apply patterns of various densities. The most characteristic example of engraving is the inscription on objects such as pocket watches, weapons, bracelets, lighters. Used in jewelry.

Use must be strictly separated engraving, as an intermediate technological process - in printed graphics, and actually - engraving(where the process itself is also referred to - unlike the above, engraving work on a printed form is never called by professionals - it is usually said: “cut engraving”), which in itself is considered a finished work or element, a detail thereof, with the completion of the work of the engraver, carver.

Nevertheless, it should be recognized that the elements of technology, like a significant part of the tools, came to engraving precisely from jewelry art, from metalworking techniques, wood carving - from engraving, which has been used since ancient times in the manufacture of overlaid decorations of weapons, or directly - on the weapons themselves. swords, halberds, armor, etc. - in jewelry decorations themselves. The fundamental difference lies in the understanding of the tasks: in engraving, as in the easel form of fine art - due to the need to obtain a high-quality, expressive print - according to the plastic characteristics conceived by the artist, and in applied art - the product itself must have these characteristics.

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See what "Engraving" is in other dictionaries:

The art of engraving (see this next). Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. ENGRAVING the art of cutting a copy from a given drawing or Ph.D. images on metals, stone and wood so that later ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Mezzo tinto, cutting, engraving, woodcut, guilloche, lavis Dictionary of Russian synonyms. engraving noun, number of synonyms: 13 cutting (15) ... Synonym dictionary

engraving- ya, cf. graver, German gravieren. 1. Engraving or carving on copper. Craft Phys. 34. For prouding a copper plate for Russian business cards - 6 rubles. Incoming expense book. A. B. Kurakina. // SchS 3 327. Usually at the beginning ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

ENGRAVE, rue, rue; ovated; nesov. that. Reproduce a drawing or an inscription, cutting them out on what n. hard material or corroding. G. portrait. G. on copper. Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

Engraving- the process of making ovens. forms by hand or machine cutting of blank letterpress form elements or intaglio form printing elements, or by the same treatment of the form material with a laser beam ... Publishing Dictionary

There is a way of depicting objects on metals, wood, stone, used almost exclusively for the purpose of reproducing these images on paper with one or many colors. A carving made for a different purpose is rarely called G. Essentially ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

- (from German gravieren, French graver to cut on something) cutting out an image, ornament, inscription, etc. on the surface of solid materials of metal, stone, wood, glass, linoleum with cutters and other tools (with G. on metal and glass... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

engraving- graviravimas statusas T sritis radioelektronika atitikmenys: angl. engraving vok. Eingravieren, n; Gravur, f rus. engraving, pranc. gravure, f... Radioelectronics terminų žodynas

Method for making a printing plate. Image elements are cut to fit. material (stone, metal, wood, etc.). G. is produced manually or with the help of various mechanical and automatic devices ... Big philatelic dictionary

Wed 1. the process of action according to Ch. engrave ott. The result of such an action. 2. The process of creating a printing form by cutting out a relief or in-depth image (in printing). ott. The result of such an action. Explanatory Dictionary of Ephraim. T … Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language Efremova

The essence of the engraving process is to transfer to a detail in a certain scale the image reproduced in a stencil from a template using a cutting tool mounted in the working head of the engraving machine.

The main elements of the engraving machine are two tables - a template is placed on one, a workpiece is placed on the other, and a pantograph is a device for accurate mechanical transmission of movement from a probe moving along a template to a rotating cutter. As a result, a pattern similar to a template is reproduced on the workpiece. The image can be reduced or enlarged depending on the ratio of the arms of the pantograph.

The sign area during engraving is formed in the form of depressions of a certain configuration.

The cutting tool for drawing signs on machines with a pantograph are cutters-mills. The cutters are made of carbon tool steel grades U10, U12, high speed steel grade P18, hard alloy T15K6.

The shape of the working part of the cutter cutter is determined by the required form of symbols.

photoengraving

By photoengraving, you can apply an image to the base of any materials. Two methods are used:

Photo printing;2 Photochemical.

The photoprinting method consists in the fact that the image from the negative is transferred by blueprinting to a blank coated with a photomulsion. The prepared blanks are placed on the copier with the emulsion layer up, the negative made by photographic method is placed on it and the lighting is switched on.

After exposure, the blanks are placed in a bath with an aniline dye solution for 1–2 minutes (~25 g/l). Dyed blanks are shown in cold water. Non-irradiated areas of the emulsion are washed out and a colored image remains on the surface of the workpiece.

The photochemical method is in many respects similar to the photoprinting method, but differs from it in that it is possible to obtain a relief image on blanks made of aluminum, brass or steel. The drawing can be obtained in the form of protrusions of the base metal on the etched and painted field of the scale or in the form of depressions, which are then painted with paint of the required color.

The process of applying drawings and inscriptions in the photochemical method consists of the following operations:

- preparation of the surface of the workpiece;

- application of a light-sensitive acid-resistant emulsion;

- drawing a picture on the emulsion by blueprinting;

- manifestation of the drawing;

– fixing the pattern in a muffle furnace at t=300–400 C;

- electrochemical or chemical etching of blanks not protected by an acid-resistant emulsion;

– finishing operations, etc.

Obtaining convex or concave images depends on whether the image or background is highlighted during exposure.

Application of inscriptions by lithographic method and decalcomania

The lithographic method is used for drawing patterns on metal and glass bases.

For this method, clichés are needed, which are an aluminum or brass plate with a convex image. Cliches are made photographically, only the surface is prepared more carefully, since the accuracy of future prints depends on this.

The paint is applied to the cliche, and then transferred from the cliché to the workpiece, after which the workpiece is dried and, if necessary, undergoes additional processing.

The advantage of the lithographic method of manufacturing scales and drawings is high productivity, and the disadvantage is lower accuracy than with engraving and photochemical methods.

Decalcomania is the transfer or translation of markings from an intermediate paper or plastic substrate. With decalmania, the image is printed on specially primed paper with an adhesive layer in a typographical way. To transfer the image, the transfer base is moistened or heated, as a result of which the adhesive primer dissolves, and the ink film passes to the surface of the substrate made of metal, glass, cardboard, etc. The decal method can be used to apply complex multi-color markings.

ENGRAVING, drawing lines or relief with a cutting tool on a hard surface with the aim of: 1) reproduction of images by means of prints (engravings), 2) obtaining accurate linear forms that serve for measurement, or 3) decorating the treated surface with an in-depth pattern. Engraving is done either manually or with the help of special engraving machines, which in some cases only simplify the process. hand engraving, sometimes it is replaced, but mainly creates accurate linear forms that cannot be done by hand. Engravings, depending on the method of obtaining prints, are of two types: high and in-depth.

The first of them, when printed, carry ink on the convex parts of their surface, and in this case the amount of ink is the same everywhere; the latter, on the contrary, contain paint only in the recesses (and in different quantities - depending on the size of these recesses), while the paint is peeled off from the convex parts of the surface. High engraving includes woodcut, or woodcut, as well as the so-called armor engraving on copper, zinc or gart; to deep engraving - the so-called classical engraving on copper or steel. Wood engravings are of two types: longitudinal, when the layers of wood are located in the plane of the board, and end, when they are located perpendicular to the processed surface of the board.

Hand engraving. For longitudinal engraving on wood, pear, apple, plum trees are used, the wood of which has a weakly expressed layering, high density and low hygroscopicity. A well-dried board is processed manually or by machine, while giving it strictly parallel planes, with a board thickness equal to the growth of the typeface, i.e. 25 mm. The front side of the board, in addition, is polished with thin glass paper. Before engraving, a drawing is applied to the board. The drawing is either copied from the original by eye in a mirror (to obtain a negative drawing on the board), or transferred using a grid, in which case the scale of the drawing can be changed, or a pencil original is placed on the board previously covered with skimmed milk and rubbed with a knuckle. After drawing a pencil drawing on the board, it is drawn with ink, after which the entire board is covered with a slightly lighter ink. The latter is done so that when carving, the boundaries between the left black surface of the board and the white cutout are clearly visible. The Japanese paste the original drawing, made in ink on thin paper, with the face on the board and then oil it so that it becomes clearly visible from the inside; the engraving is thus cut into the paper, and, of course, the original is lost. The board is placed on a leather cushion filled with sand for easier turning of the board depending on the direction of the cut line.

Tools for longitudinal engraving are knives of various profiles, set in wooden handles (Fig. 1), and semicircular chisels of various sizes (Fig. 2).

The engraving process consists in removing wood from the surface with a knife or chisel in those places where there is no pattern, i.e., where white spots should appear on the print. To do this, either one movement is made with a chisel, and chips of a semicircular section are cut out, or three movements with a knife, with which a triangular pyramid is cut (Fig. 3).

If the knife cuts only the drawing already made in the final form on the board, the engraving is called edged. But there is another type of engraving, in which the technical possibilities of wood - the clarity and sharpness of the stroke - create an independent engraving form, different in its means of expression from the drawing. Here the engraver, who is at the same time the author-artist, builds only a general composition in the preliminary drawing, and then, with the help of a knife, - cutting out black and white, thick and thin lines, their intersections, etc. combinations - creates images spatial forms.

In a longitudinal engraving, the knife, moving in different directions relative to the layers of the board, also encounters various resistances, which sometimes makes it difficult to draw a smooth curved line. In addition, the line itself in the engraving, which is a lying prism, depending on its position relative to the layers of the board, is not equally strong; a thin line is subject to creasing from the pressure during printing, and located across the layers - and the possibility of chipping. These shortcomings of longitudinal engraving prompted the English engraver T. Buick at the end of the 18th century. try engraving on the end. Buick's invention brilliantly justified itself, having made a radical revolution in wood engraving, opening up new rich pictorial possibilities for wood engraving. The advantage of the end layer over the longitudinal layer is that the cutting tool encounters the same resistance in all directions, which ensures the uniformity of the engraved curved line; the resistance to pressure during printing is also incomparably greater, since this pressure is directed along the axis of the layers. Thus, it became possible to engrave the finest lines without the slightest fear of breaking them. The use of a engraver instead of a knife simplified and accelerated engraving and created the so-called. tone engraving, built on the transfer of form using combinations of more or less closely lying parallel or intersecting lines, creating the impression of a tone of greater or lesser darkness. The technique of engraving on the end solved the problem of transferring in engraving not only the technique of the pen with a uniformly colored stroke, but also the technique of pencil, charcoal, and especially painting. Stichel used in engraving, are steel rods (Fig. 4).

The front end of the engraver is sharpened with a plane at an angle of 40-50 °; this plane is the cutting surface when the engraver moves with pressure on the board. A more obtuse angle would cut worse, a sharper one would cause the engraver to burrow. From the opposite end, the engraver is pulled, and a chiseled handle is placed on this end, which has the shape of a pear or, more often, the shape of a mushroom with a hat cut off from the underside. This cut is needed to press the engraver to the board, and it also prevents the put engraver from rolling on the table. Stichel are manufactured in various profiles; the most common of them are: grabstichel, spisstichel, messerstichel, flachstichel, semicircular and rebstichel. The main one is the burr, which draws a line of the desired width, depending on how deep it is in the tree. For excavation of significant surfaces, a semicircular or flach chisel is used, and to protect the board from jamming, a wooden or bone lining is placed under the chisel, which is held by the index and middle fingers of the left hand and serves as a support for the chisel as a lever. The Rebstichel draws parallel lines to engrave a tone of a certain strength. For end engraving, boxwood (Buxus sempervirens), commonly called "palm tree", is used almost exclusively. Possessing an extremely high density (the specific gravity of dry wood is 0.91-1.16), boxwood gives an end cut without any noticeable holes, which is absolutely necessary for clean printing and fine engraving; in addition, the layering of boxwood is very uniform. Only the so-called can compete with boxwood. iron birch (Schmit's birch, Korean birch), growing in the Ussuri region. Caucasian boxwood goes on sale in churaks 150 cm long and about 10-15 cm in diameter. The churak is sawn into transverse circles about 3 cm thick and dried. Circles are sawn into rectangles, and the material is selected according to the uniform density and the purity of the layers. Only those pieces are processed, in which there are not only knots, but also curved layers, which are noticeable by their light satin color against the general matte background of the butt. Only the layer perpendicular to the surface is cut cleanly with a chisel, while the curved layer is crumbled or soaked. Rectangular ends are jointed along their side faces and glued into boards of the desired size with non-hygroscopic glue (for example, wood glue with drying oil or whitewash). The glued board is turned on the faceplate on both sides, polished from the face with more cycles or pumice, and its thickness is brought to 25 mm. Places that turned out to be unsatisfactory after grinding are drilled out and cylindrical plugs of good boxwood are driven into them, which, after trimming, are ground flush. In the same way and in the process of work, it is possible to restore a flat surface in an already engraved place and engrave it again. To avoid warping, boards should be stored on edge so that air has equal access to both surfaces. Boards of considerable size, to prevent splitting, are fastened with bolts and nuts passed into the thickness of the board, or a series of parallel holes are drilled on a special machine, into which 6 mm steel tubes are tightly driven.

Drawing on the board is done either in the same way as on the longitudinal board, or the board is pre-primed with whitewash on egg white with the addition of a small amount of alum, which makes the paint difficult to wash out. For photographic transfer to the board, its surface is covered over the ground with a photosensitive layer, on which the drawing is printed from the negative. To avoid damaging the wood with solutions, the sides of the board are covered with wax or gutta-percha varnishes. The technique of engraving on the end is to cut out white places with a chisel, to find those directions and combinations of black and white lines that would give the impression of volumes, surfaces and spatial images. The ability to engrave extremely thin lines puts woodcuts at the forefront of accurate technical images. In addition, woodcut printing makes it possible to print an engraving simultaneously with the text in a printing press.

For high engraving on metal (bronz engraving), the material can be: hart, yellow or red copper and steel. Armor engraving is used in the manufacture of book decorations, headpieces, endings, drop caps, as well as seals. The tools for this engraving are the same engravers, but sharpened at a less acute angle. In addition to chisels, small nail files, scrapers, punches and chases are used. High engraving includes punch engraving. Punson - a square-section steel rod with a high mirror image of a letter or sign engraved on the end. The engraving of punches is an extremely responsible business, since they serve as the original for casting the typographic type. Before engraving, the steel rod is released, on a flat grindstone using punch hammer(a truncated steel cone with a cutout along the axis, into which a rod, ground to perpendicularity, is inserted and held with fingers while moving the base of the cone along the stone), the perpendicularity of the plane of its end to the side faces is verified, and then the rod is clamped into the drawing block. With the help of a caliber - a device that gives vertical, horizontal and inclined lines at a certain angle, as well as the distances between them, the entire pattern of the letter is drawn with a needle, after which the punch is removed from the block and engraved with chisels and files. When working, the engraving is viewed through a strong magnifying glass mounted on a special tripod. When the punch is engraved, it is hardened, and a matrix of red copper is pressed into it in a special press, into which the point of the typographic letter is cast.

in-depth engraving accepts ink for printing not on the surface, like a high engraving, but, on the contrary, in engraved recesses, while the surface must be clean by the time of printing. In high engraving, the paint is applied with a roller to the surface; in in-depth engraving, much thicker paint is rubbed tightly into all depressions. In a high engraving, the layer of paint is the same everywhere, in a deep engraving, a deep groove with a large amount of paint is needed to obtain a dark line, and a thin line with a smaller amount of paint for a light engraving. In a high engraving, the engraver takes out everything that should remain white, in an in-depth one, on the contrary, - everything that should be. black. When printing from a high engraving, the ink transfers to the paper when it comes into contact with the surface of the engraving, when printing from a deep engraving, the moistened paper is strongly pressed against the ink and removes it from the recesses of the engraving due to the fact that the adhesion of ink to paper is greater than ink to metal. It is easy to recognize intaglio printing from the print on paper: the depression from the board is visible, and the lines, especially dark ones, are felt as bulges. Therefore, it is impossible to print an in-depth engraving at the same time as a high engraving in one machine. Material for in-depth engraving are: red copper, zinc, steel, lithographic stone. The engraving is done with engravers like those described above, mainly burrs. Grabshtichel, passing with pressure on the surface of polished copper or tempered steel, cuts deep into, gives chips and rolls off burrs on the sides. These burrs are then removed with a scraper. In high engraving, carving with both black and white strokes is possible; in deep engraving, carving is always with a black stroke. For engraving, a well-rolled metal board is taken, of a uniform structure, about 2 mm thick. The board is sanded from the front side, the edges are sharpened with facets so that they do not tear the paper during printing. To translate the drawing, the board is primed with a thin layer of wax varnish, which is then covered with soot. The drawing is transferred over a grid or through transfer paper and drawn with a steel needle, after which the varnish can be washed off. To work with a chisel, the engraving is fixed in a special rotating board, since the movements of the chisel during engraving always occur from right to left, and, therefore, the board must always rotate according to the direction of the stroke. The engraving table is placed in front of the window, and an inclined screen of paper or white cloth is placed in front of the engraving to eliminate the reflection from the board. To check the engraving effect, the desired place is rubbed with soot and lard, which after m. easily removed. Correction of incorrect engraving is done with a scraper that removes metal, or, in a mild case, with a trowel (on red copper). If this results in a cavity, it is knocked out from the inside with a special hammer on the anvil. To find the corresponding place from the inside, use a special caliper.

Among the methods of engraving on copper, there is drypoint engraving (as opposed to etching on a needle pattern in etching), which consists in the fact that the entire pattern is engraved with steel needles or a diamond set in a special pen. With this type of engraving, the depth of the stroke becomes insignificant, no chips are obtained, there is only the movement of copper particles, which forms burrs on the sides of the stroke. These burrs are not removed, they retain a certain amount of paint during knurling, forming a dark halo on the sides of the line, giving a special velvety softness to the print. A drypoint engraving quickly loses its clarity when printed, and the number of prints from such an engraving usually does not exceed two or three dozen. To strengthen the surface of engraved copper boards, they are sometimes coated with galvanoplastic iron (“covered”).

A steel or diamond needle also produces engraving on lithographic stone. Stone engraving is done when it is necessary to use a lithographic, i.e., the cheapest way to reproduce subtle graphic forms. The stone is polished smoothly, a drawing is applied to it with a pencil and scratched with a needle. Due to the fine structure of the lithographic stone, a thin and clean line with smooth edges is obtained. From the engraving on the stone, as well as from the intaglio engraving, an impression is made, which is transferred in several copies to a large stone for printing by the usual lithographic method. This engraving method is used for printing trade labels, brand names, letterheads with various embellishments, etc.

For in-depth artistic engraving m. b. the method of the so-called. black manner. A special steel roller, notched like a file, imparts a rough surface to the copper board. Being stuffed with paint, such a board gives a solid black deep color on the print. If, on the other hand, a scraper is run over such a board, it turns out that the smoother the surface, the less the ink will stay in this place after wiping the board before printing, and the lighter the imprinted tone will be. With the help of the black manner, extremely soft forms of the pattern can be obtained.

In some cases, in the manufacture of in-depth engravings on metal, mainly on copper, an etching method is used. The pure form of the etched board - etching - is very often incorrectly called engraving, although in this technique, the actual engraving, i.e. mechanical removal of metal, does not occur and the latter is replaced in this case by its chemical dissolution with acid - strong vodka (eau forte). Engraving of stamps and wax seals is carried out with chisels and drills on a previously tempered steel blank, which is then hardened. For the convenience of engraving, a seal or any other object is clamped into a special spherical iron block, which, having a large weight (up to 15 kg), makes it easy to turn the work surface in the desired directions. 5).

Mechanical engraving. According to their design, engraving machines are divided into two types: in one, the engraver directly controls the movement of the cutter, in the other, the cutter moves by moving along a template, and a special device serves to proportionally reduce the shape or to change the vertical movement into a horizontal one. Engraving machines either give a completely finished engraving, ready for printing, for example, on wood or lithographic stone, or are designed for additional etching of a line scratched with a diamond on red copper, although a slight load of a diamond pin with a weight of 100 g already gives a depth sufficient to accept the paint. stroke. The simplest engraving machine (Fig. 6) consists of two parallel prismatic guides A, located above a metal board or stone; a trolley moves along them with holder B moving in it, in which a pin with a diamond at the end is clamped.

The movements of the diamond in the direction perpendicular to the guides are controlled by a micrometer screw, which automatically turns to the required angle when the cart is returned back. This machine can only engrave parallel lines. More complex operations are carried out by moving the table, on which the engraving under the diamond is fixed; this movement m. b. rotational or mixed (rotational and rectilinear), which achieves engraving of circles, ellipses and their intersections.

The scheme of the rotary table device is shown in Fig. 7, which gives a view of this detail from below: A - a spindle on which the frame B rotates with a table C running along parallels; D - tangent strips (clamp) covering the movable eccentric E; screw F changes the eccentricity; with the concentric position of the eccentric relative to the spindle axis, the points of the table describe concentric circles, with an offset, elliptical curves. A further complication of the table movement is obtained by introducing additional gears in the form of a system of gears that create extremely complex harmonic movements that result in drawing grids or rosettes that are printed, for example, on banknotes - the so-called guilloche, from where these machines are called guilloche (Fig. 8 and 9).

The engraving machine for wood (end) has a special holder for the cutter: the cutter, square or rhombic in section, is sharpened like a burr; in front of its tip there is a vertical blunt pin - a depth limiter, set to the desired stroke depth. When moving backwards, the cutter rises freely and only touches the surface of the board.

Engraving machines of the second type require, first of all, the preparation of a template. The latter, depending on the type of machine and the purpose of the engraving, is prepared manually, or photomechanically, or by an engraving machine. The pattern is always done in large scale, which ensures the accuracy of the final form, in which Ch. arr. and is the purpose of such a machine. When the template is ready, the machine is set to a certain reduction using the pantograph, which is the main component of such a machine. On one side of the pantograph there is a tactile point on the template line, on the other - a diamond point on a copper board primed with wax varnish. The movement of the tactile is repeated in proportionally reduced form on the engraving board. , having a bas-relief, ornament, medal or coin as a template, transforms the movement of the toucher along the relief, producing a series of consonant curves on the plane of the board engraved with a diamond pin; as a result, a black-and-white graphic image of this relief is obtained.

The machine is shown in Fig. 10: tables A, with a relief original, and B, with an engraved board, move simultaneously in different directions at the same time; the tactile lever C during the movement of the table A receives, thanks to the relief, movement in the vertical plane, which is transmitted to the lever D with the engraving pin moving already in the horizontal plane; micrometric screw E moves the cart with levers, setting the distance between the rows of parallel sections of the surface of the relief, traversed by the tip of the tactile probe.

To engraving machines, to a certain extent, m. also included are machines working with a drill or a milling cutter (Fig. 11).

The simplest type of such a machine is a vertical milling machine with a two-arm horizontal arm, which is used in the zinc printing industry to drill out the white areas of the zinc printing plate, instead of etching them with acid. This router can be used for the same purpose in woodcuts. In connection with a mechanical pantograph, such a milling cutter can engrave a punch according to a convex template.

To reduce the pattern in engraving machines, in addition to the pantograph, they also use the principle of an unequal lever (Fig. 12): the lever, which has a tactile device at its lower end, walks along a template, moves a table resting on three balls with its upper end; engraved board is installed on the table under a fixed needle or router. With the help of a special bracket, moved along the rack with a screw, it is possible to change the ratio of the lever arms and thus obtain the required scale.

Jewelry engraving(monograms, decorations) are executed with the same engravers; Diamond is used for engraving on glass.