Writing impairment in visually impaired students. Writing impairment and correction in left-handed schoolchildren Articles writing impairment in visually impaired schoolchildren

Sections: speech therapy

In the last five years, there has been a marked increase in the number of parents visiting the polyclinic office regarding writing and reading disorders in school-age children.

The written form of speech at school age is the most important means of mastering program material. Difficulties associated with mastering the written form of speech can lead to school failure, academic failure, psycho-emotional disorders.

Disorders of written speech should be differentiated from the insufficiency of the child's mastery of the program material for reading and writing, which can be caused by various factors (unfavorable family situation, absenteeism, unqualified teacher).

Reading and writing are complex forms of speech activity, multilevel processes. Various analyzers take part in the processes of writing and reading, between which a close relationship is established. The processes of reading and writing have a complex structure and include a large number of operations.

Reading and writing disorders in psychiatry are classified as developmental disorders of school skills (partial developmental disorders). There are headings 315.00 "Impairment of reading" and 315.2 "Impairment of writing".

According to ICD 10, these violations are characterized by the following features:

Beginning in childhood (up to the 5th grade at the latest).

Close relationship with the biological maturation of the central nervous system.

Constant course without remissions and relapses; it means there is a deficit in learning to read and write, but not a loss of the skills already acquired.

Reading and writing disorders become very noticeable when completing assignments, students' grades in reading and writing are unsatisfactory, academic performance is worse than that of 97% of schoolchildren.

In the course of taking an anamnesis, speech disorders are often detected at preschool age, and speech understanding may be additionally impaired.

In children with writing disorders, there is often a developmental disorder in the field of general motor skills and fine motor skills of the hands, a violation of visual motor skills.

As concomitant disorders, impaired attention, memory, motor restlessness and mental disorders are observed.

Family and school efforts to develop reading and writing skills do not always lead to improved academic performance.

Lack of reading and writing skills does not correspond to the level of intelligence of the child.

Impaired reading and writing are not a direct consequence of inadequate learning.

It is characteristic that the degree of functional impairment decreases with age, although in many adult patients a specific disorder of school skills persists.

Sometimes there is an increase in reading and writing disorders, they are more likely to occur in first-degree relatives.

The prevalence of reading and writing disorders is 4-7%. Most often, the diagnosis is made at the age of 9-12 years.

Written speech disorder occurs in all social strata.

Reading and writing disorders are denoted by the terms dysgraphia and dyslexia. In the classification of dysgraphia and dyslexia, various forms of reading and writing disorders are distinguished, however, in practice, pure forms are rare. Most often, with violations of written speech, we see a combination of various forms of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

I examined 37 children aged 8-12 with writing disorders. During the examination, the following typical errors were identified.

Letter

Reading

Incorrect arrangement of text in the notebook: shift to the right, left, up, down, going beyond the "fields". Inability to count the required number of cells and lines in a notebook. Handwriting disorders: too small or large letters or their size changes. Mistakes in transferring words from one line to another. Omissions of vowels and consonants, most often with their confluence. Missing words in a sentence, as well as parts of the text when cheating. Unreasonable continuous or separate spelling of prepositions and prefixes. Consolidated spelling of two or more words. Breaking a word into two or three parts. Missing words. The appearance of extra elements in the grapheme. Merging two graphs into one. Non-selection by the child of a sentence as a language unit. The beginning of a sentence is not indicated by a capital letter; a period is not put at the end of the sentence. The absence of a red line or it turns out to be too large. Difficulties in designating hardness and softness. Mixing of graphemes on the basis of sonority and deafness of the sounds (phonemes) they designate. Agrammatisms. Inability to distinguish direct speech by older children. Handwriting distortion.

Slow pace of reading, with the transition to syllable and letter by letter, even among high school students. The presence of omissions graphemes. A mixture of optically similar graphemes. Failure to recognize or forget familiar letters. Jumping off the line while reading, line loss. The appearance of extra letters in a word. Missing words. Word guessing. Forgetting the first and second syllables when reading two-, three-syllable words. Missing words, phrases, sentences, sometimes parts of the text. Monotonous reading, non-observance of pauses. Misunderstanding the meaning of the word read. Trying to read words from right to left. When dividing words into syllables with a hyphen, reading one of the syllables from right to left and the other is correct. Agrammatisms.

In addition to specific violations of written speech, most children have difficulties in oral speech:

• Poor vocabulary. Inability to use vocabulary when compiling stories and descriptions.
• Insufficiency in mastering the skills of inflection and word formation.
• Lack of understanding of the ambiguity of the word.
• Lack of understanding of idiomatic expressions and proverbs. (they cannot explain the meaning, they understand it literally).
• Lack of formation of a coherent form of speech. In communication with others and when telling, they use only simple, uncommon phrases. When trying to compose more complex phrases, stylistic errors may appear.
• Difficulty in correcting stylistic errors.
• Less commonly, there are violations of sound pronunciation and violations of the intonation-melodic side of speech.

When checking the assimilation of school knowledge in the Russian language, the following features are revealed:

• A large number of spelling errors.
• Insufficient assimilation of language units (children do not distinguish between the concept of "sound - syllable - word - sentence").
• Children do not differentiate the concepts of "declension" and "conjugation", "person" and "number". Confuse case names.
• They do not differentiate parts of speech, they cannot put a question to the specified part of speech.
• Difficulties in mastering the rules of word hyphenation.
• All children, to a greater or lesser extent, had impaired general motor skills and fine motor skills of the fingers.

In terms of the features of mental processes, we see the following violations:

• Decreased voluntary attention.
• Decrease in various types of memory.
• Lack of focus in completing tasks.
• Lack of interest, desire to overcome their difficulties.
• Requirement of constant help from adults.
• Defiantly oppositional behavior is sometimes noted.
• Emotional disorders, when the child feels tired and becomes nervous, whiny.

When collecting anamnestic data, the following is often revealed:

• In the first year of life, almost all children had perinatal encephalopathy (PEP).
• Most of the children had a violation of muscle tone (hypotonus, hypertonicity.)
• The presence of speech pathology in preschool age.
• The presence of mental disorders: mental retardation (MPD), attention deficit disorder (ADD), hyperactivity.

For the correct diagnosis, parents of children are advised to visit other specialists: a psychologist, neuropsychologist, psychiatrist, neurologist.

After examining the child and identifying the structure of the disorder, a plan for individual work with the child is drawn up, taking into account the recommendations of other specialists. Before the start of the course, explanatory work is necessarily carried out with parents about the condition of the child and the prospects for further education. Work with children suffering from reading and writing disorders is multifaceted, the methods and techniques of work are diverse and are aimed at developing both the written and oral speech of the child. A variety of methods, techniques and exercises is necessary to maintain the child's interest in classes.

When conducting classes, a speech therapist may face the following tasks:

• Formation of ideas about language units. (sound-letter, syllable, word, sentence)
• Expansion, clarification and activation of vocabulary.
• Formation of inflection and word formation skills.
• Differentiation of parts of speech.
• Formation of ideas about the composition of the word.
• Differentiation of the concepts "preposition" and "prefix".
• Differentiation of optically close graphemes.
• Differentiation of acoustically close phonemes.
• Differentiation of categorical concepts of the Russian language: person, number, case, declension, conjugation.
• Development of a connected form of speech.
• Development of understanding of logical and grammatical constructions.
• Sound correction.
• Development of the intonation-melodic side of speech.

Work on overcoming dysgraphia and dyslexia is a long learning process and requires significant efforts on the part of the speech therapist, parents and the child himself.

Bibliography :

1. Helmut Remschmidt Child and adolescent psychology - M. EKSMO-Press, 2001.
2. Efimenkova L.

N., Sadovnikova I.N. Correction and prevention of dysgraphia in children - M. Enlightenment, 1972

Efimenkova L

. H Correction of oral and written speech of primary school students - M. Education, 1991

Semenovich A.V.

Neuropsychological diagnostics and correction in childhood - M. Publishing Center "Academy"

Edited by Volkova L.S.

Speech therapy - M. Education, Vlados, 1995

Written speech disorders in visually impaired junior schoolchildren.

The most common form of speech pathology among younger students is dysgraphia and dyslexia. Reading and writing disorders share the same etiology and similar mechanisms. In the anamnesis of children with dysgraphia, the presence of a number of pathological factors affecting the prenatal, natal and postnatal period is noted. A hereditary factor predisposing to the occurrence of a violation of the letter is not excluded.

A writing disorder may be due to an organic lesion of the cortical areas of the brain involved in the writing process, a delay in the maturation of these brain systems, and a disruption in their functioning. In addition, a violation of writing may be associated with long-term somatic diseases of children in the early period of their development, as well as adverse external factors (incorrect speech of others, insufficient attention to the speech of the child in the family, insufficient speech contacts). In severe cases, dysgraphia can manifest itself in various categories of abnormal children in the structure of nervous and neuropsychiatric diseases: in mentally retarded children, in children with mental retardation, in children with minimal brain dysfunction, with cerebral palsy, in children with visual impairment.

There are no healthy children in this year's enrollment. From this it is not difficult to conclude that even those children who have shown a good readiness for the first grade may be dysgraphic in the future.

The following groups of errors in dysgraphia are distinguished:

Skipping letters and syllables

Permutation of letters and syllables,

Insertions of vowels (with a confluence of consonants),

Substitutions a) paired voiced and voiceless consonants ( dt, ss),

b) posterior lingual g-k-x,

c) sonors r-l,

d) whistling and hissing ( s-sh, s-zh, s-sch, ch-ts, ch-th, ts-t, ts-s),

e) oh-ah(in shock position),

f) labialized vowels e-yu,

and) b-d, i-y, p-t, x-f, l-m, i-sh(kinetically similar),

Separate spelling of parts of a word (e.g., i-dut),

Consolidated spelling of service words or two independent ones, errors in the displacement of the word boundary (for example, under the bed),

Inconsistency of the members of the proposal.

Most visually impaired children are characterized by optical dysgraphia. This type of dysgraphia is due to the lack of formation of visual-spatial functions: these are visual gnosis and visual mnesis, visual analysis and synthesis, and spatial representations.

With optical dysgraphia, the following types of writing disorders are observed:

a) distorted reproduction of letters in a letter (incorrect reproduction of the spatial relationship of letter elements, mirror spelling of letters, missing elements, extra elements);

b) replacement and mixing of graphically similar letters. Most often, either letters are mixed that differ in one element ( p-t, l-m, i-sh), or letters consisting of the same or similar elements, but differently located in space (v-d, e-s).

Having written the first element, the child was not able to differentiate the subtle movements of the hand in accordance with the plan. It either incorrectly conveys the number of homogeneous elements ( p-t), or mistakenly selects the last element ( bd). The decisive role in these disorders is played by the identity of graphomotor movements at the "start" of each of the mixed letters. Control over the course of motor acts during writing is carried out due to visual perception and musculoskeletal sensations. When the kinetic and dynamic aspects of the motor act are not formed in visually impaired junior schoolchildren, kinesthesia cannot have a guiding value. Then there is a mixture of letters, the design of the first element of which requires the same movements.

To implement an effective correction of the spelling of kinetically mixed letters, an integrated approach is required, including the following areas:

Development of visual perception and visual memory,

Formation of spatial representations,

Development of motor function of the hand,

Direct study of specific letters,

Differentiation of kinetically mixed letters (isolated, in syllables, words, in sentences).

In the process of developing visual gnosis, the following tasks can be used:

Find a letter in a series of similar ones,

Find letters crossed out by lines

Construct printed and handwritten letters from the proposed elements,

Find correctly depicted letters among correct and mirror images,

Complete the missing elements of the letter,

Reconstruct letters by adding the necessary elements ( i-sh) or by changing the spatial arrangement of elements ( i-n-p),

Identify letters overlapping each other

Remember the named letters and choose them among others,

Arrange the letters in their original order.

In the course of work on the correction of kinetically mixed letters, it is necessary to pay attention to the work on the formation of spatial representations and their speech designation. It is necessary to include in the work exercises for orientation in one's own body and in the body of the person opposite, as well as exercises for clarifying the spatial arrangement of graphic signs.

Such tasks contribute to the training of the hand and gaze in sequential movement in a given direction. For these tasks, graphic dictations are used, the purpose of which is to develop the ability to correctly reproduce a given direction of lines on a sheet of paper, to navigate on a plane. It is advisable to use tasks to clarify the spatial arrangement of letter elements, for example, to find letters whose elements are located above the line ( c, b), below the line ( u, h, d),

Find the letters in which the hand moves from the starting point to the right ( g, i, l), left ( a, s, d),

Find letters whose elements are located symmetrically about the center line ( w, f, o).

For the development of motor functions of the hand, the following exercises are practiced and brought to automatism:

Counting fingers on one hand and on both,

Alternating positions "fist-ring", "fist-rib-palm",

keyboard movements,

Hatching first with straight segments, then with circles and hooks, loops, tracing letter samples through tracing paper.

A large place in the work on the correction of kinetically mixed letters is given to the study and refinement of the optical image of a particular kinema. When studying a particular letter, all its constituent elements are analyzed in detail, it is explained where the informative places are in this letter: the place of the fold, the beginning and end of the line. Children are invited to find informative places in letters or, conversely, to reproduce letters using informative points. To fix the visual-motor image of the letter, you can use pictures with similar objects ( b-squirrel, d woodpecker) and accompany them with small poems.

It is important to teach children to highlight the "supporting signs" that distinguish these letters. Especially during the period of literacy.

Literature:

1., Obukhov difficult consonants. How to help a child with writing and reading disorders. M., 5 for knowledge. 20s.

3. Beshkieva written speech among schoolchildren. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix. 2009.-318 p.

4., Rozhkova and binocular mechanisms of spatial perception in visually impaired children with diseases of the retina and optic nerve. Defectology. No. 6. 2010. p. 39-48.

5. Glagoleva difficulties in teaching younger students to read and write. Education and upbringing of children with developmental disorders. No. 4. 2003. p. 27.

6. Deniskin educational needs of children with visual impairments. Defectology. No. 6. 2012. p. 17-24.

7., Venediktov reading and writing by younger students. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix. 20s.

8. Lalaeva work in correctional classes. M., Vlados. 20s.

9. About violations of the letter at pupils of mass school. Education and upbringing of children with developmental disorders. No. 5. 2009. p. 64-69.

10. Ponomareva to help a first grader master writing skills. Primary School. Nos. 42-43.

Features of writing disorders in visually impaired children with normal hearing and intelligence.

Teaching writing for visually impaired children has not only an educational

and educational, but also of great corrective significance, since in the process of it visual analysis is improved, the eye and orientation in a small space develops, and the correction of deficiencies in spatial representations is carried out.

Writing is not only a motor act, but a complex of operations. As already mentioned, hearing, vision, kinesthesia of the hands and the speech-motor apparatus are involved in its process. The difficulty of developing this skill lies in the fact that a child learning to write must immediately perform several tasks: hygienic, technical, graphic. Even with normal vision, remembering and solving all these problems at the same time is a great difficulty. For a visually impaired child, the implementation of each of them is especially difficult due to impaired vision.

In this regard, in the writing of such children, there are specific disorders that are completely absent in normal-sighted children or are observed much less often (S. L. Korobko, N. A. Krylova, N. S. Kostyuchek).

There are four stages in the assimilation of writing skills: elemental, alphabetical, the stage of connected writing and the stage of connected cursive writing (E. V. Guryanov, M. K. Shcherbak). At the elemental and letter stages of the formation of graphic skills, the main attention of children is focused on the correct writing out of the elements, and then the letters. At these stages, the leading is the visual perception of the shape of the letter, the formation of visual analysis, the eye, which is still very imperfect in children with impaired vision at this age.

Usually, children who come to school are the weakest in writing skills. Parents, protecting their eyesight, do not give them a pencil before school, and therefore the small muscles of their hands are not developed.

Among these children there are children with a disinhibited nervous system. Their letter is illegible, the elements are written out incompletely, the gaps between the elements and letters are not respected, the letters run into each other.

Writing disorders in visually impaired children with normal hearing and intelligence are determined mainly by two factors. In one case, they are due to the direct influence of visual impairment on writing. In another, they are associated with speech underdevelopment.

The direct impact of visual perception disorders is expressed in the substitutions and distortions of letters associated with an insufficiently clear and stable optical representation of their structure; and letters in relation to each other and to the string.

Characteristics of writing disorders associated with speech underdevelopment are phonemic substitutions of letters and agrammatisms in combination with numerous other errors that children with normal speech development make. The conditionality of these writing disorders by insufficient readiness of sound and morphological generalizations is confirmed by phonemic and lexical-grammatical defects in their oral speech.

Speech disorders affect the basics of mastering writing and are the cause of academic failure and poor academic performance in a significant part of visually impaired children.

The graphic disturbances characteristic of the writing of children with visual impairments are divided into graphic defects and graphic errors. The first relate mainly to the arrangement of elements and letters in relation to each other and the line, as well as the location of the material on the page, its fullness. The latter are expressed in substitutions and distortions of letters based on the underestimation of any of the essential features of their graphic structure.

Graphic defects in writing in children with visual impairments are much more common than in children. having normal vision. This is due to the role of vision in the act of writing. Since visual representations act as the main support in the writing of beginners, visual impairments in children are a significant brake on mastering graphic skills. Visual representations of graphic norms in visually impaired people are not sufficiently differentiated and stable, as a result of which children do not notice their violations in their writing, and therefore cannot warn them.

The formation of graphic norms is hampered by deficiencies in visual perception, which also lead to a violation of the hygienic rules of writing. A visually impaired child is often forced to use techniques and methods of writing that impede the development of correct graphic skills, moreover, techniques independently developed by children do not always allow them to optimally use their opportunities.

As children develop visual representations of graphic norms and motor complexes, graphic flaws are smoothed out. However, many of them persist into the later period. This is due to the discrepancy between the established skills and the requirements of graphic writing standards, as well as weakened visual control in the process of writing.

In the process of learning, such shortcomings of writing as incorrect placement of material on the page are overcome by most children. When they are saved, they are expressed mainly in the underfilling of the right or, more rarely, the left side of the page.

Graphic errors, such as substitutions and distortions of letters based on the underestimation of any of the essential features of their graphic representation, are diverse in nature. Mistakes are common in the spatial arrangement of letters or their individual elements, while the letter is either distorted or replaced by another. There are errors in which the reverse of the letter changes from bottom to top and vice versa, as well as the right reverse of the letter up (Ё as Ш).

A significant number of violations in the spelling of letters is expressed in the distortion of their configuration, which occurs due to the underestimation of the number of elements or their spatial arrangement.

A rather large group is made up of interchanges of letters due to difficulties in their differentiation (K - N, T - N, P - N, C - B - L).

The most common errors reflect a violation of the quantitative characteristics of the structure of letters due to the omission of an element of a letter or writing too much. Omissions and additions are more common in letters that have similar elements (W - T).

Substitutions of graphically similar letters are quite common in visually impaired children, but are not characteristic of this defect. A comparative study of the state of vision and oral speech of children whose writing contained or, on the contrary, lacked substitutions of letters showed that there is no direct relationship between the presence of substitutions of letters and the state of vision. At the same time, a direct connection was found between the appearance of substitutions and the state of oral speech. Most of the children who allowed substitutions of letters in writing had a pronounced general underdevelopment of speech to varying degrees. However, an analysis of the origin and structure of the abnormal development of speech made it possible to establish that the lack of visual perception is one of the factors that determine various forms of speech disorders.

If speech disorders in children with normal vision are based primarily on the inferiority of sound perception or articulation deficiencies that prevent the mastery of the phonemic composition of the word, and visual perception deficiencies (in the form of optical agnosia) occur only in isolated cases, then among the visually impaired there are cases of speech disorders due to deficiencies in visual perception, are observed much more often and constitute a specific form for them.

It has been established that even when visual disturbances affect writing, letter substitutions are ultimately determined by the lack of formation of phonemic representations in the child.

The causes of impaired writing in the visually impaired have not yet been studied. They have a significant prevalence. The high prevalence of the deviations under consideration in conditions of impaired visual perception, compared with sighted children, raises the question of the relationship between visual impairment and writing disorders.

Currently, there are different points of view on this issue: according to one, writing disorders are explained as a result of visual impairment, which is expressed in the difficulty of mastering the shape of letters and their spatial arrangement, according to the other, as a result of insufficient preparedness of the early stages of speech development, expressed in defects in mastering phonemic and morphological generalizations.

The nature of the disease also affects the writing of a visually impaired child. Children with a narrow field of vision write very succinctly, while children with nystagmus have trembling lines.

Among the visually impaired there are children with diseases of the motor sphere. It is especially difficult for such children to keep a line, to maintain the necessary distances between letters and words. Successful teaching of writing to children with impaired coordination movements is possible only with a combination of therapeutic and pedagogical correction measures.

Visually impaired children make graphic errors much more than children with normal vision. They were mentioned above. And although graphic flaws are smoothed out during the learning process, in some children with visual impairments they become quite persistent and persist throughout the years of primary education. The relationship of such errors with visual acuity was revealed: they are more often observed in children with the lowest visual acuity.

So, most of the errors described above are associated with the lack of formation of the graphic structure of the letter and, according to B. G. Ananiev, are “figurative errors in the ideas about the grapheme”. To reflect the letter, complex analytical and synthetic work is required, which is not always accessible to younger students. In visually impaired children, this process is complicated by visual impairments, which is reflected in the prevalence of graphic errors in writing and the most gross distortions of letters, such that are not found in the writing of children with normal vision.

List of used literature.

1. Ed. Voskresenskaya A.I. "Teaching literacy in kindergarten."

Moscow, 1963

2. Gavrina S. E., Kutyavina N. L. , Toporkova I. G. , Shcherbinina S. V.

"We develop hands - to learn and write, and draw beautifully."

Yaroslavl, "Academy of Development", 1998

3. Zhurova L. E., Fedosova N. A. “Learning to read and write”.

Literacy, mathematics, familiarization with the outside world in the first

School class or kindergarten preparatory group.

Moscow, 1985

4. Korobko S. L. "Replacement of letters in the letter of visually impaired students."

"Defectology" 1971, No. 5

5. Korobko S. L. "Graphic disorders in the writing of the visually impaired

Schoolchildren.

"Defectology" 1978, No. 2

6. Karule A. Ya. “Teaching six-year-old children at school:

From work experience

Preparatory classes in Latvian schools. S.S.R.”

Moscow, 1984

7. Krylova N A. “Special techniques and methods of teaching Russian

The language of visually impaired children.

Moscow, VOS, 1990

8. Levina R. E. “Speech and writing disorders in children:

Selected Works»

Moscow, "Arkti", 2005

9. Morgailik L. I. “Methods of teaching the Russian language in schools

visually impaired."

Leningrad, 1982

10. Russian E. N. “Methods of forming an independent

Written speech in children.

Moscow, Iris Press, 2005

11. Sadovnikova I. N. “Correctional education of schoolchildren with

Reading and writing disorders.

Moscow, "Arkti", 2005

Speech is an indispensable component of a full human life. First of all, people learned to express their thoughts verbally, and then in writing. Violation of written speech or dysgraphia is an actual problem of school-age children. According to statistics, 53% of second grade students have a writing disorder. The high prevalence of the presented defect is associated with underdiagnosis of speech pathology in preschool children. The best way to avoid the problem is to prevent writing disorders. Most often, such difficulties arise with general and phonetic-phonemic underdevelopment of speech.

The structure and features of the development of the written speech apparatus

The process of writing is not just the movement of the fingers of the hand. This is a whole mechanism in which several systems are simultaneously involved. The work involves higher centers of regulation, the peripheral nervous system and the ligamentous-muscular apparatus. In this case, excitation in the central nervous system (CNS) is transmitted through the conduction system to the motor apparatus, after which the information is graphically reproduced. The quality of the letter depends on the exact work of each component.

Important elements in the creation of oral and written speech are the centers of Broca and Wernicke, the motor apparatus (precentral gyrus), praxis (posterior parietal lobe). In addition, vision, hearing, thinking, attention and memory play a significant role. Violation of any of them negatively affects the development of written speech. The peripheral nervous system and the ligamentous-muscular apparatus play an important role in the formation of writing. With their help, a motor process is carried out, in the event of a disorder of which all functions associated with it suffer. However, the primary cause of impaired written speech is the pathology of higher nervous activity, which is responsible for the presented ability. The graphic center, or function of writing, is the middle frontal gyrus, in the pathology of which dysgraphia is observed. The lexical or written analyzer is located in the angular gyrus of the cerebral cortex, the violation of which will lead to dyslexia. The described structures are the main speech centers of the brain.

Speech development in a child begins immediately after birth and consists of certain stages. Each of them has an average duration, during which there is a transition from one form of communication to another. This indicator depends on internal violations and external causes. The duration of the transition from one period to another is one of the main criteria in assessing the mental development of a child.

Sound contact begins to manifest itself from the first months of life and ends with verbal contact by the end of the first year. The next step is the gradual replenishment of vocabulary, first passive, and then active. By the end of 2-3 years, the child independently formulates sentences from a few simple words.

Written speech is formed by the age of 5-6, when there is sufficient vocabulary, ideas about objects and imagination. However, the first manifestations of the expression of thoughts on paper are determined much earlier, when the child draws.

Definition of violations of written speech

There are two types of writing disorders - dysgraphia and dyslexia. In the first case, we are talking about a reproductive defect in writing with intact intelligence and hearing. People with dysgraphia have a large number of grammatical, spelling and stylistic errors. People with this disorder do not follow the markup, the straightness is broken, the words are written with gaps and curvature of letters. In addition, with agraphia, the ability to write is completely absent. Dyslexia is characterized by a disorder in the perception of written language, provided that the ability to learn is present. At the same time, patients experience difficulties in reading and recognizing letters, and are also completely deprived of this opportunity with alexia. The ratio of females to males with dyslexia is 4.5:1, respectively.

In the development of written speech disorders, great importance is given to oral communication, which directly affects the perception and interpretation of the information received. However, this does not mean that there is no separate violation of the letter. Oral speech disorders, such as general speech underdevelopment (OHP), phonetic phonemic disorder (FFN) and others, are a provoking factor for dysgraphia and dyslexia. According to statistics, the described writing disorders occur 3-4 times more often in people with communication disorders. Dysgraphia is almost always accompanied by dyslexia, but it is also possible that one of the functions is completely absent while the other is normal.

Violations of written speech most often manifest themselves at the age of 5-6 years, when there is an intensive development and formation of the graphic and lexical centers of the brain. This age is the third critical period in which the child is most susceptible to writing disorders. This is due to the fact that a child in school or preparing for it receives an increased mental load on an already physiologically overloaded brain.

In addition, people with a dominant left hand, who have a better developed right hemisphere, are more susceptible to the described violations. Conversely, right-handed people adapt to writing earlier, because the opposite side of the brain is responsible for it.

Classification of violations of written speech

The classification of writing disorders is divided depending on the type of defect. Dysgraphic disturbance has 5 forms, described below, depending on the system that is not formed.

• Articular, in which there is a violation of the speech apparatus and phonemic perception of the word.
• The acoustic form of dysgraphia is associated with a defect in the auditory analyzer and sound recognition.
• Optical, in which there is a violation of the visual apparatus.
• The agrammatical form is characterized by a violation of the lexical and grammatical structures of speech.
• Dysgraphia against the background of altered language analysis.

The modern classification distinguishes specific and nonspecific dysgraphia. The first includes disorders associated with a defect in sound perception (phonemic and parapalic) and motor function of language operations (dyspraxic, metalinguistic). In addition, the specific form includes morphological and syntactic spelling disorders. The non-specific form includes writing disorders associated with neglect in education, delayed psychoverbal development (SPRR), etc.

Dyslexia, in turn, is divided into literal and verbal. The first is manifested by difficulties in recognizing individual written letters. Verbal is characterized by impaired perception of whole words.

The classification of dyslexia and dysgraphia have similarities, as they are divided according to one basic principle. There are 6 types of reading disorder depending on the affected system.

• The optical form arises as a result of the pathology of the visual apparatus and spatial orientation.
• Mnestic includes a violation of the memorization of objects, letters, words, etc.
• Tactile dyslexia. The presented form is observed in visually impaired people who are forced to learn to write with the help of touch.
• Agrammatical dyslexia, in which grammatical, morphological and other types of speech errors occur.
• Semantic, characterized by a poor vocabulary, difficulties in understanding syntactic links.
• Phonetic dyslexia associated with underdevelopment of sound recognition.

Causes and pathogenesis of written violations

Written speech, as well as oral speech, is carried out with the help of higher regulation, the peripheral nervous system and the motor apparatus. Based on this, the cause of writing disorders is hidden in the violation of one of the presented systems. Pathology of higher nervous activity can be organic and functional. The most common causes of these disorders are:

• Injury during childbirth, which caused organic damage to the brain (hemorrhage into the substance, destruction). The described violations occur when the size of the pelvis and the child does not match, the placenta previa is incorrect, the mass of the fetus is large, and other pathologies.
• The pathology of pregnancy is all factors that can have a negative impact on the fetus. These include bad habits (alcohol, smoking), TORCH infections, taking medications with teratogenic properties. Especially negatively described factors affect in the period from 4 weeks to 4 months, when all organs are actively laid, including the neural tube.
• Allogeneic incompatibility occurs when there is a mismatch between blood groups and / or Rh factor between the mother and the fetus. As a result, red blood cells are destroyed, and indirect bilirubin is formed, which is toxic to the brain in large quantities.
• Neuroinfections or diseases complicated by damage to the nervous system. Viral infections include herpes simplex, chicken pox, cytomegalovirus, measles, rubella. For bacterial pathogens causing encephalitis and meningitis, meningococcal, streptococcal, salmonella infections are characteristic.
• An oncological pathology of the brain can form and adversely affect directly in the graphic zone or compress the speech sections of other areas.
• Injuries, diseases of the peripheral nervous system and the ligamentous-muscular apparatus that violate the motor component of writing.

In addition, the environment and upbringing of the child play a key role in the development of dysgraphia. In a family where parents speak several languages, writing disorders develop more often than in monolingual families. Also, violations of oral speech (slurred, quiet), retraining of left-handers into right-handers, constant remarks contribute to the emergence of dysgraphia and dyslexia.

Symptoms of dysgraphia and dyslexia

Dysgraphia is considered a violation of calligraphy in writing sentences, words, letters. However, all children make similar mistakes in writing. You can talk about dysgraphia when the symptoms are systematic in literate people. The same goes for dyslexia. The diagnosis is made to children over 8 years of age who are trained in writing and the rules of their native language.

Manifestation depending on the form of dysgraphia:

• Articular-acoustic. It is characterized by the fact that the same mistakes in oral speech are repeated in writing. A person with an articular-acoustic form, writes words, in the same way as he hears. His phonetic perception is often disturbed. The described type of dysgraphia is often found among those suffering from dysarthria, dyslalia, etc.
• Acoustic dysgraphia occurs against the background of preserved phonetic perception. The presented form is manifested by the replacement of similar sounds in writing, for example, hissing to whistling, voiced to deaf (zh-sh, d-t, b-p, s-s, j-dz, etc.).
• Dysgraphia on the basis of impaired analysis and synthesis most often occurs in schoolchildren. The described form is manifested by the fact that the child does not finish writing, or vice versa, writes more letters in the word than necessary. Also, the student confuses and changes syllables and words in a sentence in places.
• Agrammatic dysgraphia can be isolated against the background of ONR, dysarthria, dyslalia. The described form is characterized by multiple grammatical errors, violations in the prepositional and semantic parts. Thus cases, gender and numbers are misused.
• The optical form is manifested by mixing when writing visually similar letters and can be of two types: literal and verbal. In the first, the perception of individual letters is disturbed, and in the second, in the structure of the word.

Dyslexia is manifested by difficulties both in reading (perception) and in the reproduction of written speech. The presented pathology, with the exception of symptoms of impaired perception, is almost identical to digraphy.

In addition to the symptoms described above, people with impaired written speech are characterized by behavioral features. They are emotionally labile, quick-tempered and impulsive.

Important! If the child’s movements are discoordinated, clumsy, the child holds the instruments in his hand incorrectly and does not relearn, you should consult a doctor as soon as possible. Written violations in the early stages are eliminated much faster, easier and without consequences

Diagnosis, treatment and prevention of writing disorders

The first manifestations of dyslexia and dysgraphia are faced by parents and teachers at school. If you suspect writing disorders, you should contact a speech therapist as soon as possible. Special tests and tasks will help to finally determine the diagnosis presented.

Diagnosis of violations of written speech and their overcoming in younger preschoolers are carried out in stages:

• First, the organic pathology of the brain, which most often causes such disorders, is excluded. For this, instrumental diagnostic methods are used. Such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), electroencephalography (EEG) and duplex scanning of cerebral vessels. The presented methods allow you to accurately determine the cause and its localization. The most reliable in the functional assessment of the cortical structures of the brain is the EEG. This method is based on the measurement of biological potentials in a certain area of ​​the higher nervous system.
• Consultation of related specialists (children's ophthalmologist and neurologist) is carried out.
• Examination by a psychologist and psychotherapist, which includes passing special tests. The latter are aimed at determining a possible stressful situation in the past or in the present, which patients want to hide.

Correction of violations of written speech begins with the elimination of the cause - for example, a disease of a physiological lesion of the brain or a chronic psychological stimulus. Prevention of dysgraphia and dyslexia is not possible without a specified condition. For this, surgical interventions, rehabilitation exercises, physiotherapy exercises, and massage are used. Restoration of nervous activity is also achieved with the help of nootropics (drugs that improve cerebral circulation and cognitive abilities).

The elimination of written disorders directly is carried out by a speech therapist. In his arsenal is a large list of exercises that improve oral speech, writing, memory and attention. However, the best treatment for dysgraphia is to prevent its development. Prevention consists in creating comfortable conditions, constant communication with the child, developing imagination and writing skills in him. In addition, a significant role in this is played by the timely elimination of ENT pathology, as well as rational nutrition, a balanced regime of rest and work.

1.2 Prevalence, symptoms and types of writing disorders in younger students with visual impairments

A visual defect leaves a certain imprint on the process of mental development of children, as we discussed above, limiting their ability to perceive the objective world, their orientation in it, communication with others and, in general, affects the formation of personality, the development of various activities.

So, one of the important activities is the mastery of the child by writing. Younger schoolchildren with eye pathology experience difficulties with writing. In the written works of this category of children, there are specific writing errors called dysgraphic.

The results of the observation of specialists of the complex school - kindergarten No. 14 for visually impaired children over the nature of dysgraphic errors in visually impaired junior schoolchildren indicate that this category of children is characterized by all types of this disorder, as well as various variants of mixed dysgraphia.

Table 1 clearly shows the ratio of the prevalence of dysgraphia in quantitative terms among students in the specified institution for two academic years (2002-2003, 2003-2004).

Table 1 - The prevalence of dysgraphia among students of the complex school - kindergarten No. 14

Types of dysgraphies	Amount of children
Acoustic dysgraphia	1
Articulatory - acoustic dysgraphia	4
Optical dysgraphia	13
Dysgraphia on the basis of unformed language analysis and synthesis	5
Agrammatic dysgraphia	3

We consider it expedient to briefly consider the above-mentioned types of dysgraphia.

So, dysgraphia, according to the definition of R.I. Lalayeva is a partial violation of the writing process. Traditional is the classification of dysgraphia, developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A.I. Herzen, according to which five types of dysgraphia are distinguished.

Errors associated with incorrect sound pronunciation (articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia). The child writes as he speaks. At the initial stages of mastering the letter, the child writes pronouncing. Relying on the defective pronunciation of sounds, he reflects his incorrect pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. This can be explained by the fact that during internal pronunciation, the child does not yet have sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not been formed.

Errors associated with impaired phonemic recognition (acoustic dysgraphia). They are based on a violation of the auditory differentiation of speech sounds, but there are no violations of the pronunciation of those speech sounds that are incorrectly indicated in writing. This group includes letter substitutions denoting close phonemes, as well as violations in the designation of consonant softness.

Substitutions based on acoustic and articulatory similarity of sounds in children with mental retardation were rare. In general, children with mental retardation mix voiced and voiceless consonants, hissing and hissing, especially affricates.

More numerous are errors in the designation of the softness of consonants in writing. These errors reflect, on the one hand, the difficulties of differentiating hard and soft phonemes, on the other hand, they indicate a failure to assimilate the methods of symbolization, designating the softness of consonants in writing.

With dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of linguistic analysis and synthesis, various types of these complex operations may be inferior: dividing a sentence into words and synthesizing a sentence from words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. In writing, this dysgraphia manifests itself in distortions in the structure of words and sentences (omissions, permutations, additions of letters, syllables, words; merging or breaking words). Phonemic analysis is the most complex, therefore errors in the form of distortion of the sound-letter structure of words are the most common.

The bulk of specific errors at the level of phrases and sentences (agrammatic dysgraphia) is expressed in the so-called agrammatisms, i.e. in violation of the connection of words: coordination and control. The change of words according to the categories of number, gender, case, time forms a complex system of codes that allows you to streamline the designated phenomena, highlight features and attribute them to certain categories.

According to the theory of N. Chomsky, the narrowing of the amount of RAM leads to errors in coordination and control in the operation of composing messages from words.

The inability to highlight the leading word in the phrase leads to coordination errors even when writing from dictation, for example: “The forest covered with snow was fabulously beautiful” - instead of “the forest covered with snow”.

Errors in the use of management norms are especially numerous.

Significant difficulties are associated with the use of prepositions: they can be omitted, replaced, less often - doubled, for example: “call the board”, “we ran with a ball”, “the hare lived in a living corner”.

Mixing letters by kinesthetic similarity (the so-called optical dysgraphia).

A high prevalence of mixing letters by optical and kinesthetic similarity was revealed.

The ability to assess the correctness of the lettering on the basis of kinesthesia allows the writer to make corrections to the movements even before making mistakes. When the kinetic and dynamic side of the motor act is not formed in younger schoolchildren, kinesthesia cannot have a guiding value, and then there is a mixture of letters, the outline of the first element of which requires identical movements. With the transition to the stage of coherent writing, there is a significant increase in the number of such errors, which is associated with an acceleration in the pace of writing and an increase in the volume of written work. While children with visual impairments have uncoordinated hand movements, immobility, etc.

Thus, the mixing of letters by kinetic similarity is regular and persistent, reduces the quality of writing in general, has a pronounced tendency to increase and hinders the development of speech-cogitative activity of schoolchildren.

Particular attention should be paid to optical dysgraphia, as the most common of all its other types, among visually impaired younger students. This type of dysgraphia is based on a defect in this category of children: insufficient formation of visual-spatial representations and visual analysis and synthesis.

Visually impaired children, when they enter school due to their defect, often show the following resulting secondary deviations:

Lagging behind in the development of visual perception processes, which is expressed in the limited and fragmentary nature of knowledge of the surrounding world;

Slowing down the process of processing information coming through the senses, which, in conditions of insufficient time of perception, leads to incomplete, unstable and not always correct recognition of the presented material;

Violation of the search function, slowness of identification and examination of the surrounding space or a given object;

Inability to isolate elements from an object perceived as a whole;

Violation of the interaction of visual, motor analyzers and touch;

Low cognitive activity;

Difficulty of mental operations;

Low efficiency, during which they are able to learn the material and complete the task.

The lack of formation of spatial orientation skills, caused by these reasons, leads to the appearance of a number of errors in writing, which can be divided into several groups.

3.2 The results of the study of the characteristics of writing disorders in students of the 4th grade of a comprehensive school The purpose of this stage of the study is to study the features of violations of written speech in students of the 4th grade of a comprehensive school. The study was conducted with students in the first half of the day. Having carried out the primary diagnostics, to identify the features of writing disorders in 4th grade students ...

Analytical-synthetic method of teaching writing to junior schoolchildren with severe speech disorders. Chapter 3

In the course of working with the literature, we also found out the symptoms of dysgraphia from the standpoint of different authors. This knowledge will help us in the study of children's written work. chapter 2