The table of the most important technological inventions of the 19th century is the conclusion. The most important technical inventions of the 19th century

Task number 1. Look at the drawings of the two ships and determine where the Hanseatic ship is depicted and where the caravel is. What seaworthiness did each of the ships have?

On the left is a Hanseatic ship, on the right is a caravel. The main advantage of the Hanseatic ship is its large carrying capacity. The caravel, also possessing a large carrying capacity, had high maneuverability, good driving performance and could go against the wind.

Task number 2. Think how Europeans envisioned the world before the Great geographical discoveries... What continents (their separate territories), as well as parts of the world, did they know? Which seas, in your opinion, were more explored by the Europeans?

The earth seemed flat, washed by one endless ocean. As such, the concept of continents did not exist. Europeans were familiar with Europe, part of Asia, as well as the north and part of the west coast of Africa. The Mediterranean, Baltic, North Seas, as well as the part of the Atlantic Ocean, washing Europe and North Africa, were well developed.

Task number 3. Fill in the table "Technical innovations at the end of the Middle Ages."

Task number 4. Which famous navigator left this description? We know a lot about him and his voyage, and among other things, two such facts: 1. Preparing for the voyage, he painstakingly studied the composition of the famous European traveler of the 13th century. 2. On his journey, he took a translator from the Arabic language. Who is this navigator? What kind of swimming are we talking about? Explain these two facts.
“After 33 days of travel, I brought a fleet to India, which was kindly granted to me by my patrons, the king and queen. On the way, I discovered many islands and declared them the property of their Majesties, hoisting the royal flags over them, and nowhere did I meet resistance. "

We are talking about Christopher Columbus and his first expedition. Long before the expedition, Columbus was familiar with the idea of ​​the Italian astronomer and geographer Toscanelli that India could be reached by a shorter route by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Preparing to sail, he studied the composition of Marco Polo, who left detailed description Asian countries, and took a translator from Arabic on the voyage, since at that time the Arabs held trade with India in their hands and were aware of the sea routes to India.

REMEMBER WHAT WE LEARNED

Task number 1. Solve the crossword puzzle.

Horizontally. 1. Homeland of knightly poetry. 5. Architectural style XI-XII centuries. 6. Medieval doctrine, the followers of which were looking for the philosopher's stone. 9. Poets from Provence. 11. Artist of the early Renaissance, whose brushes belong to the paintings "Spring", "The Birth of Venus". 12. Head of the University. 13. Brothers painters who created the "Calendar of the Duke of Berry". 14. Architectural style of the XII-XV centuries. 15. Higher educational institution, which arose in the Middle Ages. 17. Inventor of book printing. 20. Italian poet, who is called the first humanist. 21. A piece by Giovanni Boccaccio. 22. The form of conducting classes in medieval universities - discussion of pre-formulated questions, in which the participants put forward their evidence.
Vertically. 2. Images composed of pieces of colored glass. 3. University teacher. 4. Head of the Faculty. 7. Subdivision of the university. 8. Knightly poets from Germany. 10. Thinkers of the Renaissance, who created a new teaching about man. 16. Knightly poets from Northern France. 18. Itinerant schoolchildren. 19. Collapsible letters invented by Gutenberg.

Horizontal answers: 1. Provence. 5. Romanesque. 6. Alchemy. 9. Troubadours. 11. Botticelli. 12. Rector. 13. Limburg. 14. Gothic. 15. University. 17. Gutenberg. 20. Petrarch. 21. Decameron. 22. Dispute.
Vertical answers: 2. Stained-glass windows. 3. Master's degree. 4. Dean. 7. Faculty. 8. Mennesingers. 10. Humanists. 16. Trouvers. 18. Vagants. 19. Letters.

Task number 2. What famous people in Florence do you know?

Dante Alighieri, Giotto, Boccaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Brunelleschi, Botticelli, Cosimo Medici, Machiavelli, Savonarola, etc.

The 19th century laid the foundations for the development of 20th century science and created the preconditions for many of the future inventions and technological innovations that we use today. The scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in many fields and had a great influence on further development... Technological progress advanced uncontrollably. To whom are we grateful for the comfortable conditions in which modern mankind now lives?

Scientific discoveries of the 19th century: Physics and Electrical Engineering

A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having experienced its significant advantages. Many scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in this area of ​​physics. At that time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials. The introduction of electricity into medicine began.

In the 19th century, such famous scientists as the Frenchman André-Marie Ampere, two Englishmen Michael Faraday and James Clark Maxwell, and the Americans Joseph Henry and Thomas Edison worked in the field of electrical engineering.

In 1831, Michael Faraday remarked that if copper wire moves in a magnetic field, crossing the lines of force, then an electric current arises in it. This is how the concept of electromagnetic induction appeared. This discovery set the stage for the invention of electric motors.

In 1865, James Clark Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory of light. He suggested the existence of electromagnetic waves through which electrical energy is transmitted in space. In 1883, Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of these waves. He also determined that the speed of their propagation was 300 thousand km / sec. On the basis of this discovery, Guglielmo Marconi and A.S. Popov created a wireless telegraph - radio. This invention became the basis for modern technologies wireless transmission of information, radio and television, including all types mobile communications, which are based on the principle of data transmission by means of electromagnetic waves.

Chemistry

In the field of chemistry in the 19th century, the most significant discovery was D.I. Mendeleev of the Periodic Law. Based on this discovery, a table of chemical elements was developed, which Mendeleev saw in a dream. In accordance with this table, he assumed that there were still unknown chemical elements. The predicted chemical elements scandium, gallium and germanium were subsequently discovered between 1875 and 1886.

Astronomy

XIX century was the century of the formation and rapid development of another field of science - astrophysics. Astrophysics is a branch of astronomy that studies the properties of celestial bodies. This term appeared in the mid-60s of the 19th century. At its origins was a German professor at the University of Leipzig, astronomer Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner. The main research methods used in astrophysics are photometry, photography and spectral analysis. One of the inventors spectral analysis is Kirchhoff. He carried out the first studies of the spectrum of the sun. As a result of these studies in 1859, he was able to obtain a drawing of the solar spectrum and more accurately determine chemical composition The sun.

Medicine and Biology

With the advent of the 19th century, science begins to develop at an unprecedented rate. There are so many scientific discoveries that it is difficult to trace them in detail. Medicine and biology are not lagging behind in this. The most significant contributions in this field were made by the German microbiologist Robert Koch, the French physician Claude Bernard and the microbiologist Louis Pasteur.

Bernard laid the foundations of endocrinology - the science of the functions and structure of the endocrine glands. Louis Pasteur became one of the founders of immunology and microbiology. In honor of this scientist, pasteurization technology is named - this is a method of heat treatment of mainly liquid products. This technology is used to destroy vegetative forms of microorganisms to increase shelf life. food products such as beer and milk.

Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, the anthrax bacillus and cholera vibrio. For the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Useful article:

Computers

Although it is believed that the first computer appeared in the 20th century, the first prototypes of modern numerically controlled machine tools were built in the 19th century. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French inventor, came up with a way to program the operation of a loom in 1804. The essence of the invention was that the thread could be controlled using punched cards with holes in certain places in which it was supposed to apply the thread to the fabric.

Mechanical engineering and industry

Already at the beginning of the 19th century, a gradual revolution in mechanical engineering began. Oliver Evans was one of the first to demonstrate a car with a steam engine in Philadelphia (USA) in 1804.

At the end of the 18th century, the first lathes appeared. They were developed by the English mechanic Henry Maudsley.

With the help of such machines, it was possible to replace manual labor when it was necessary to process metal with great precision.

In the 19th century, the principle of operation of a heat engine was discovered and an internal combustion engine was invented, which served as an impetus for the development of faster means of transportation: steam locomotives, steamships and self-propelled vehicles, which we now call cars.

Railways also began to develop. In 1825, George Stephenson built the first railroad in England. She provided rail links for the cities of Stockton and Darlington. In 1829 a branch was laid, which connected Liverpool and Manchester. If in 1840 the total length railways was 7,700 km, by the end of the 19th century it was already 1,080,000 km.

The 19th century is the age of the industrial revolution, the age of electricity, the age of railways. He had a significant impact on the culture and worldview of mankind, radically changed the system of human values. The appearance of the first electric motors, the invention of the telephone and telegraph, the radio and heating devices, as well as the incandescent lamp - all these scientific discoveries of the 19th century turned the life of people of that time upside down.

1) Look at the drawings showing two ships and determine where the Hanseatic ship is and where the caravel is. What seaworthiness did each of the ships have?

Answer: On the left is a Hanseatic ship, on the right is a caravel. The main advantage of the Hanseatic ship is its large carrying capacity. The caravel, also possessing a large carrying capacity, had high maneuverability, good driving performance and could go against the wind.

2) Which famous navigator left this description? A lot is known about him and his voyage, for example, two such facts: 1) preparing for the voyage, he painstakingly studied the composition of the famous European traveler of the 13th century; 2) on his journey he took a translator from the Arabic language. What kind of swimming are we talking about? Explain these two facts.

After 33 days of travel, I brought a fleet to India, which was kindly granted to me by my patrons, the king and queen. On the way, I discovered many islands and declared them the property of their Majesties, raising over them [the islands] the royal flags, and nowhere did I meet with resistance.

Answer: This is about Christopher Columbus and his first expedition. Long before the expedition, Columbus was familiar with the idea of ​​the Italian astronomer and geographer Toscanelli that India could be reached by a shorter route by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Preparing for the voyage, he studied the composition of Marco Polo, who left a detailed description of the Asian countries, and took a translator from Arabic on the voyage, since at that time the Arabs held trade with India in their hands and were aware of the sea routes to India.

3) Fill in the table "Technical innovations that appeared in the Middle Ages".

• Discoveries and inventions	Where were used	Meaning
  Astrolabe Arquebus (handgun) Kulevrina (cannon) Blast furnace Water wheel Printing press Caravel	Sailing in everyday life and in science sailing warfare warfare metallurgy industry, craft, construction, etc. typography sailing	location and direction determining the exact time locating coup in military affairs (knightly cavalry ceased to be a decisive force on the battlefield) the birth of artillery, castles have lost their inaccessibility metal production increased replacement of manual labor by mechanical the production of books increased, which made it possible to quickly spread knowledge the possibility of long-distance voyages

Now you know it

1) Solve the crossword puzzle.

Horizontally: 3. Head of the faculty. 8. Architectural style of the XI-XII centuries. 9. Wandering scholars, creators of poetry. 10. An image made up of pieces of colored glass. 12. Provencal poets of the XI-XIII centuries. 14. Artist of the early Renaissance, whose brushes belong to the paintings "Spring", "The Birth of Venus". 16. The surname of the brothers-painters who created the "Calendar of the Duke of Berry" 17. The architectural style of the XII-XV centuries. 18. Higher educational institution that arose in the Middle Ages. 22. Philosophical doctrine, using a special type of logical reasoning as a tool for cognizing God and the world. 23. Italian poet, who is called the first humanist. 24. A piece by Giovanni Boccaccio. 25. Inventor of book printing 26. Italian city palace.

Vertically: 1. Head of the University. 2. Knightly poets from Germany. 4. Medieval teaching followers, who were looking for the Philosopher's Stone. 5. Homeland of knightly poetry. 6. University teacher. 7. French court poets of the XII-XIII centuries. 11. Subdivision of the university. 13. Thinkers of the Renaissance, who created a new teaching about man. 15. Medieval doctrine of the relationship between the location of heavenly bodies and events, the fate of people and nations. 19. The form of conducting classes in medieval universities - discussion of previously formulated questions, in which the participants put forward their evidence. 20. Belief in the supernatural. 21. Marine vessel with 3-4 masts, steerable with straight and oblique sails in different wind directions.

American motion picture inventor Thomas Edison, who was able to make this form of entertainment technically feasible

For the competition, sponsored by Scientific American in 1913, entrants were required to write an essay on the 10 greatest inventions "of our time" (from 1888 to 1913), and the inventions had to be patentable and dated when they were "industrialized."

Basically, this assignment was based on historical perception. We think innovation is more remarkable when we see the change that it brings. In 2016, we may not give much credit to Nicola Tesla or Thomas Edison, as we are accustomed to using electricity in all its forms, but at the same time, we are impressed by the social changes that have entailed. popularization of the Internet. 100 years ago, people probably would not have understood what this was all about.

Below are excerpts from the first and second prize-winning essays along with a statistical count of all submissions. First place went to William I. Wyman, who worked for the US Patent Office in Washington DC, thanks to which he was well aware of scientific and technological progress.

Essay by William Wyman

1. The electric furnace of 1889 was "the only means that allowed the production of carborundum" (the hardest artificial material at that time). It also transformed aluminum from "just a valuable metal to a very useful metal" (reducing its cost by 98%) and "radically changed the metal industry."

2. Steam turbine invented by Charles Parsons, which began mass production over the next 10 years. The turbine significantly improved the power supply system on ships, and was later used to support the operation of generators that produce electricity.

The turbine, invented by Charles Parsons, powered ships. With the right amount, they set in motion generators and produced energy.

3. Gasoline car. In the 19th century, many inventors worked on the creation of a "self-propelled" car. Weiman mentioned the 1889 Gottleib Daimler engine in his essay: “A hundred years of persistent but unsuccessful desire to create a practically self-propelled machine proves that any invention, first fit into the stated requirements, is immediately successful. Such success has come to the Daimler engine. "

4. Movies. Entertainment will always make a huge difference, and "the moving picture has changed the way many people live." The technical trailblazer Wyman cited was Thomas Edison.

5. Airplane. For "fulfilling a centuries-old dream," Weiman honored the invention of the Wright brothers, but at the same time focused on its use for military purposes and questioned the general usefulness of flying technology: commercial plan the plane is the least profitable invention of all considered. "

Orville Wright conducts a demonstration flight at Fort Meer in 1908 and fulfills the requirements of the American army

Wilbur Wright

6. Wireless telegraphy. For the transfer of information between people for centuries, perhaps even millennia, have been used various systems... In the United States, telegraph signals have become much faster thanks to Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail. Wireless telegraphy, invented by Guglielmo Marconi, later evolved into radio and thereby freed information from cables.

7. Cyanide process. Sounds toxic, right? This process appeared on this list for only one reason: it was carried out to extract gold from ore. "Gold is the lifeblood of trade", in 1913 international trade relations and national currencies were based on it.

8. Nikola Tesla's induction motor. “This landmark invention is largely responsible for the ubiquitous use of electricity in modern industry", Writes Wyman. Before there was electricity in residential buildings, Tesla's AC machine generated 90% of the electricity used in manufacturing.

9. Linotype. This machine allowed publishers - mostly newspaper publishers - to compose and cast text much faster and cheaper. This technology was as advanced as it was considered at one time and printing press in relation to the earlier handwritten scrolls. It is possible that soon we will stop using paper for writing and reading, and the history of printing will be forgotten.

10. Electric welding process from Elihu Thomson. In the era of industrialization, electric welding allowed faster production rates and better, more sophisticated machines for the manufacturing process.

Electric welding, invented by Eliu Thomson, significantly reduced the production cost of complex welded equipment

Essay by George Doe

The second best essay, by George M. Dowe, also from Washington, turned out to be more philosophical. He divided all inventions into three subsidiary sectors: manufacturing, transport and communications:

1. Electrical fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. With the depletion of natural sources of fertilization in the 19th century, artificial feeding ensured the further expansion of agriculture.

2. Preservation of sugar-containing plants. George W. McMullen of Chicago is credited with discovering a method for drying sugar cane and sugar beets for transport. Sugar production became more efficient and very soon supplies increased significantly.

3. High-speed steel alloys. By adding tungsten to steel, "tools made in this way could cut at tremendous speeds without compromising hardening or cutting edge." The increase in the efficiency of cutting machines has produced "nothing less than a revolution"

4. Lamp with tungsten filament. Another achievement in chemistry: after tungsten replaced carbon in the filament, the light bulb is considered "improved". As of 2016, they are being phased out worldwide in favor of compact fluorescent lamps, which are 4 times more efficient.

5. Airplane. Although it was not yet widely used for transportation in 1913, "Samuel Langley and the Wright brothers should receive major awards for their contribution to the development of mechanical flight."

6. Steam turbine. As in the previous list, the turbine deserves praise not only for "using steam as the primary motive power", but also for its use in "power generation".

7. Internal combustion engine. From a transportation standpoint, Dow is most praised for "Daimler, Ford and Durie." Gottlieb Daimler is a well-known pioneer of motor Vehicle... Henry Ford began production of the Model T in 1908, which remained very popular until 1913. Charles Duryea created one of the earliest commercially successful gasoline vehicles after 1896.

8. The pneumatic tire, which was originally invented by Robert William Thomson, an engineer railway transport... "What the track has done for the locomotive, the pneumatic tire has done for vehicles not tied to railroad tracks." The essay, however, goes out to John Dunlop and William C. Bartlet, each of whom have made significant contributions to the development of automobile and bicycle tires.

9. Wireless communication. Dow praised Marconi for making wireless "commercially viable." The author of the essay also left a comment that can be attributed to development world wide web, claiming that wireless was "designed primarily to meet the needs of commerce, but it has also contributed to social interaction along the way."

10. Typesetting machines. The giant rotary press could churn out enormous volumes of printed material. The weak link in the production chain was the assembly of the printing plates. Linotype and monotype helped to get rid of this disadvantage.

All submitted essays were collected and analyzed to compile a list of inventions that were perceived as the most significant. The wireless telegraph was in almost every text. "Airplane" came in second, although it was considered important only because of the potential of flying technology. Here are the rest of the results:

Scientists of the 19th century are the creators of great innovations, discoveries and inventions. The 19th century gave us a lot famous people that completely changed the world. The 19th century brought us a technological revolution, electrification and great advances in medicine. Below is a list of some of the most important inventors and their inventions that made a huge impact on humanity that we enjoy even today.

Nikola Tesla - alternating current, electric motor, radio technology, remote control

If you start researching the legacy of Nikola Tesla, you can understand that he was one of the greatest inventors of the 19th and early 20th centuries and rightfully deserves the first place on this list. He was born on July 10, 1856, in Smiljan, Austrian Empire, into the family of the Serbian priest Milutin Tesla Orthodox Church... His father, as a Serbian Orthodox priest, initially instilled in Nikola's interest in science. He knew enough about the mechanical devices of the time.

Nikola Tesla received his high school education and later entered the Polytechnic University in Graz, Austria. He dropped out of his studies and went to Budapest, where he worked for a telegraph company and then became the chief electrician in Budapest for the automatic telephone exchange. In 1884 he began working for Edison, where he received a reward of $ 50,000 for the improvement of engines. Then Tesla created his own laboratory where he could experiment. He discovered the electron, X-rays, a rotating magnetic field, electrical resonance, cosmic radio waves and invented the wireless remote control, radio technology, the electric motor, and many other things that changed the world.

Today he is the most famous scientist of the 19th century for his contributions to the construction of the Niagara Falls power plant and for his discovery and application of alternating current, which has become the standard and is still used today. He died on January 7, 1943, in New York, USA.

Luther Burbank cultivated hundreds of new plant varieties

Luther Burbank is a consistent Darwinist, even though he only had primary education but became one of the most famous breeders of all time. The potatoes he has selected are the most widely cultivated in the world.

The turning point in his life was an event that took place in 1875 when the banker Petaluma contacted him with a request to supply 20,000 plum trees by the end of the year. The banker argued that all nurseries refused to do such work, arguing that such a project could not be completed in such a short period of time. Luther Burbank took over the job and had grown 19,500 plums by the end of the year. Over the course of his career, he has created over 800 strains of vegetables, fruits and flowers. He was born on March 7, 1849, in Lancaster, Massachusetts and died on April 11, 1926, in Santa Rosa, California.

Joseph Gayetti invented toilet paper

You can live without it consumer product- toilet paper? Today we cannot even imagine our life without this simple roll - what we now call toilet paper. In 1857, Joseph Gayetti began marketing a new invention as a medical product that would help people suffering from hemorrhoids. The document for this type of product was watermarked with the name of the inventor, was fragrant and contained aloe lubricant. It was the first commercially available toilet paper, and we consider Joseph Gayetti to be the inventor of modern toilet paper.

John Froelich - the first tractor

In 1890, John Froehlich and his workers decided that they had already outlived steam threshers and built the first tractor with an internal combustion engine. In 1892, a car was seen that could drive back and forth on a gasoline engine with 16 horsepower. In the first year, his machine was able to thresh more than 5 tons of grain per day without any problems. Steam threshers were fire hazardous and this new tractor proved to be safer. It uses only 30 liters of fuel to thresh over 15 tonnes of grain without the risk of fire. Therefore, John Froelic is credited with inventing the first modern tractor. He was born on November 24, 1849 and died on May 24, 1933.

Alexander Graham Bell - first telephone

The first telephone was invented by Alexander Graham Bell. When Bell's mother became deaf, he actively studied acoustics, and at the age of 23 he moved to Canada and later to Boston, USA, where he invented the microphone and acoustic telegraph, which is called the telephone today. Bell received a patent for his invention in 1876. While there is much controversy surrounding the invention of the telephone, we cannot deny that Alexander Graham Bell was the most important contributor to the development of telephony. Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland and died on August 2, 1922, in Nova Scotia, Canada.

Samuel Morse - Telegraph and Morse Code

Before Samuel Morse became a famous inventor, he established himself as a successful artist. When he was refused to put his painting on one of the interior panels of the dome of the US Capitol building, he decided to give up painting and focused on other topics that interested him: electricity and the telegraph.

He invented Morse code, dots and dashes, which are still the standard for transmitting data. Samuel Morse is famous as the inventor of the telegraph and is considered one of the largest contributors to communications in the 19th century. He was born on April 27, 1791 in Charlestown, Massachusetts, USA and died on April 2, 1872, aged 80 in New York, USA.

Alfred Nobel invented dynamite

Alfred Nobel, as the inventor of dynamite, invented two other explosives - gelignite and ballistite. He was born on October 21, 1833, Stockholm, Sweden and was one of four surviving children of eight born. Alfred, his father was an inventor and scientist.

After many years of hardship, the family moved to St. Petersburg, where Alfred received his first real education. He excelled in research, especially in the field of chemistry. When he began experimenting with nitroglycerin and after numerous minor accidents and even tragedies in which his younger brother Emil died, he was finally able to develop a stable explosive in 1867 called dynamite.

By making the right business decisions, he was able to amass immense wealth. 94% of this wealth Alfred Nobel donated to the Nobel Fund in 1895... He died on December 10, 1896, San Remo, Italy.

Humphry Davy discovered sodium, potassium, calcium, the first electric light

Humphrey Davy was a pioneer in many fields and gave us many inventions and discoveries. For his contributions to science and humanity, he was knighted in 1812. After graduating from high school, he began research in medicine, turning to chemistry and electrochemistry later. He is the most famous discoverer of sodium, potassium and calcium by means of electrolysis and became a brilliant and famous experimenter. Some experiments with nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas, led to his dependence on it.

Today we count Humphrey Davy as the inventor of the first electric light... In 1809, he connected two wires of a battery with charcoal for lighting in short periods of time. Humphrey Davy was born on December 17, 1778, in Penzance, Cornwall, England and died on May 29, 1829, in Geneva, Switzerland.

Thomas Alva Edison the invention of the modern light bulb

Thomas Alva Edison is an American inventor known for his contributions to the first commercially viable incandescent light bulb. In 1878, he spent months trying to obtain different filaments for the lamp. Finally, he and his team turned on a carbon light bulb that lasted 13.5 hours. As an inventor, Edison was also successful entrepreneur and founded numerous companies, turning his inventions into profits. It can be said that he was a good marketer as well.

But one of the most important mistakes of his life was the statement that alternating current was unsuitable, which later turned out to be wrong. Alternating current is used to transmit power to this day. Edison was born on February 11, 1847, in Milan, Ohio, United States and on October 18, 1931, died in New Jersey, United States.

Louis Pasteur invented pasteurization

Louis Pasteur is a French microbiologist born on December 27, 1822 in France. He revolutionized the food industry and we can hardly imagine our life today without many pasteurized products such as milk, cheese, juices, wines and many others.

Although pasteurization has been known since the 12th century in China and other countries, Louis Pasteur developed a precise method in 1864 to prevent wine and beer from fermenting. Only later was his pasteurization method used for milk and other dairy products. He is also credited with discovering the principle of vaccination. He died on September 28, 1895, in France.

Scientists and inventors of the 19th century laid the foundation for