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Everything you need to know about past tense in English. What was used instead of a ballpoint pen in the past Bear hunting suit

Traditionally, on Saturdays, we publish answers to the quiz for you in the Q&A format. Our questions range from simple to complex. The quiz is very interesting and quite popular, but we just help you test your knowledge and make sure that you have chosen the correct answer out of the four proposed. And we have another question in the quiz - What was not used for writing in the past?

papyrus
bumazea
parchment
clay tablets

The correct answer is V. on the upper deck

Bumazea, or Bombazin, is a fabric that has an incredible interesting story. It is still not known for certain where this fabric came from. Some believe that from Italy, others claim that from France, and still others believe that its roots lie in Spain. And most importantly, its origin is also unclear from the name of the fabric. Bumazeya is the Russian interpretation of the original name bombazin, which goes back to the Spanish or French roots of the product. "Bombazine" or "bombasin" are translated from Spanish and French as "cotton" or "cotton fabric", respectively.

Who want to be a millionaire? 10/14/2017. Answers in the game Who wants to be a millionaire? for October 14, 2017

In this article you can find out all the answers in the game "Who wants to be a millionaire?" for October 14, 2017 (10/14/2017). First, you can see the questions asked by the players by Dmitry Dibrov, and then all the correct answers in today's intellectual TV game "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?" for 10/14/2017.

Questions to the first pair of players

Alexander Rosenbaum and Leonid Yakubovich (200,000 - 200,000 rubles)

1. What is the name of a driver who travels long distances?
2. What effect is said to be produced by the purchase of an expensive item?
3. What is the name of the piglet, the hero of the popular cartoon?
4. How did the slogan of the era of socialism end: "The current generation of Soviet people will live ..."?
5. What, according to the laws of physics, does lifting force?
6. What is the name of the property warehouse in a military unit?
7. What part of ginger is most commonly used in cooking?
8. How many millimeters are in a kilometer?
9. What "flared up" in the verses from the movie "Jolly Fellows"?
10. Where is the ashes of the American astronomer Eugene Shoemaker?
11. With what pain did the poet Gerich Heine compare love?
12. What position did Shota Rustaveli hold at the court of Queen Tamara?

Questions to the second pair of players

Vera Brezhneva and Alexander Revva (200,000 - 0 rubles)

1. Where is jam usually put during tea drinking?
2. What do they say: “Neither light nor dawn”?
3. What card suit is often called "hearts"?
4. What are the data stores on the Internet?
5. What became the home of the heroes of the famous Beatles song?
6. What was not used for writing in the past?
7. What does the silver spider fill its underwater nest with?
8. What liquid is usually not poured into?
9. What could the cloak of Doctor Strange, the hero of movies and comics, do?
10. Which of these poetic forms has the smallest number of lines?
11. Who is not depicted on the coat of arms of Iceland?

Answers to the questions of the first pair of players

trucker
hitting the pocket
Funtik
under communism
aircraft wing
kapterka
root
million
on the moon
with dental
treasurer

Answers to the questions of the second pair of players

into the outlet
about early morning
hearts
cloudy
yellow Submarine
bumazea
air bubbles
in a tube
fly
quatrain
polar bear

If it seems that only the current generation is doing something out of the ordinary, it is enough to pay attention to what happened relatively recently. You can see that our ancestors did things that now seem simply wild and impossible.

1. The use of cocaine as a drug
Cocaine was recommended even to children, those who could not fall asleep quickly. It was part of cough remedies, insomnia, they also relieved toothache. All these formulations were widely advertised and actively sold in pharmacies.

2. Sending children by mail parcel
Although this particular photo is staged, the fact of sending children by parcel is really confirmed. So in the New York Times for 1913 you can find the article “BABY BOY BY PARCEL POST: Rural Carrier Safely Delivered 10 ? Pound Infant to grandmother, which tells the story of how mail carrier Vernon Little delivered a baby, "well wrapped and ready to be mailed," from his parent's home to his grandmother. The author ends his story like this: "The postage was fifteen cents, and the parcel was insured for $ 50." Just a year later, The Times ran another article about a two-year-old child who was taken from his grandmother's house to his aunt. the distance between the houses was twenty-three miles. Finally, The Times ran an article about a letter to the Attorney General from a family who wanted to mail the child from Georgia to Pennsylvania. Parents inquired about the details and details of this postal package.

3. Window boxes for babies
In Great Britain in the 30s of the last century, this phenomenon was common. Thus, they "walked" the child while the mothers were doing household chores. Obviously, such cells were considered safe and useful.

4. Questionable medical treatments
Lobotomy, bloodletting with or without reason, cutting the tip of the tongue for stuttering, electroshock treatment... Needless to say, such methods were mostly not only useless, but often left a person with an invalid. Nevertheless, they were used, which is now even scary to think about.

5. Toys with polonium and uranium
In the 1950s, radiation was not considered something dangerous. This is probably why toys, in particular kits for creating a laboratory that creates atomic energy, were not something out of the ordinary and were sold in conventional stores. Yes, these kits contained uranium and plutonium, of course, in microscopic doses.

6 Human Zoo
The shameful practice of showing blacks for the amusement and amusement of the public flourished quite recently. People were put up for fun, at the same time taking them out with monkeys. picture of a black girl taken in Belgium in 1958.

7. Excursions to insane asylums
The doors of some psychiatric institutions in which the insane were kept were open to visitors. So, Bethlehem Hospital in the 17th century provided an opportunity for everyone to visit this institution for 2 pence in order to see live examples of what a vicious life leads to. Then it was believed that "madness" arises as a result of the excessive sinfulness of a person.
The insane were kept in appalling conditions. The rooms were overflowing with sick people, some of whom were chained to the walls. The patients were kept almost in the dark. There was a stench in the premises, those chained were half-dressed and practically had no opportunity to move.

8. Smoking can help calm the nerves of pregnant and lactating women.
Smoking 70 years ago was considered something not just ordinary, but even useful. In particular, advertising for cigarettes claims that they are so mild that even pregnant and lactating women can smoke them to relieve stress.

9. Garden hermit
In Germany in the 18th century, rich people had a fashion for hermits, who were kept in the garden and shown to guests. The hermit was forbidden to have a haircut, wash, a grotto or a dwelling such as a hut served as his home. Such “Fridays”, dressed in rags, of course, could only be afforded by exceptionally rich and noble people.

10. Collection of different body parts
It is now the desire to become the owner of such a collection will cause well-founded assumptions about a mental disorder, but some time ago such trophies were very common for soldiers returning from the war. In the photo - an American girl who writes thank you letter to her boyfriend, a soldier who sent her a combat trophy (1944). The second photo shows Major General Horatio Gordon Robley with his collection of tattooed Maori heads (New Zealand, 1895).

Finally, some more interesting historical photos

Sealed stroller-gas mask to protect babies during an air raid. The stroller has a lid with a window and a respiratory filter. On the back of the stroller there is a rubber pear, with the help of which the exhaust air is squeezed out, and fresh air from the street enters through the filter (1938).

A way to soothe children in a nursery.

Showing modern devices to people of the past who lived without electricity, they would definitely be confused. Smartphones and tablets would seem to them incomprehensible “things” to beware of. So we, contemporaries, do not always understand everyday things and various devices that were used in the past. Now all these things are stored in museums - perhaps our gadgets will cause bewilderment among the people of the future.

Bear hunting suit

This strange design, which turns a person into a kind of fish-ball, is the costume of a Siberian bear hunter or a daredevil participating in the fight against a bear. For hunting alone, such a "chain mail", of course, was too heavy: it is difficult to imagine that in this outfit a person could move freely and even more so run fast. But when there was no such need (for example, in battles or when they went hunting in a group), the suit protected well from bear bites and paw strikes.

Belgian version of the powder tester, "test tubes" (eprouvette)

The earliest apparatus on record for testing the strength of gunpowder was invented by Berne in 1578. It was a small cylinder with a tightly fitting hinged lid. The gunpowder exploded inside, and the angle to which the lid was lifted was thought to indicate the strength of the gunpowder.

Ophthalmotrope is a device that clearly demonstrates the movements of the eye and the structure of the entire visual system in the human body.

In fact, this is just a model of eyeballs (they are made as hollow balls moving around own center rotation). The eyeballs are set in motion by the eye muscles - the role of the muscles here is played by six cords attached in different places to the eyeballs and extending back, as in real eyes. All cords are thrown over blocks and balanced by weights. By pulling on one or another cord, the model of the eyeball is rotated accordingly.

Vinegar

As is well known from the literature of the 19th century, the ladies of those times fainted every minute. However, often the cause of fainting was not an excess of feelings, but too tight corsets, fumes from wallpaper (often the paint contained arsenic or lead, which led to poisoning), or simply terrible smells on the streets of cities that did not know sewers. Therefore, the ladies carried bottles of smelling salts with them, or a small vinegar bowl, in which there was cotton wool soaked in vinegar or ammonia. At the first sensation of indisposition, it was supposed to open the lid and take a breath.

Mailbox

Sailors began to use mailboxes to exchange letters in the 16th century. The sea route from Europe to India was long and dangerous, and in this way sailors informed trusted recipients about the number of people on the ship, the direction and purpose of the journey. The Cape of Good Hope off the southern tip of Africa became the site of an exchange of letters.

The messages were placed in boxes and hidden in designated places, disguised as stones so that the outsider could not find the notes. Ships passing by entered the bay and took the records from the cache, leaving their own in return. Thus, if the ship went missing, it was possible to find out where it was going to sail and who was on board.

Tokens for receiving services in brothels of the Wild West

Such tokens were paid in brothels for savory services in the 19th century in the USA. The use of such tokens was convenient for the owners of establishments - this minimized the opportunity for women to keep more money for themselves and promote the client in the process.

Type of credit card

Notches about the borrowed goods were simultaneously made on both sticks. One was kept by the buyer, the other by the seller. This ruled out fraud. When the debt was repaid, the sticks were destroyed.

Shameful flute, or shandflöte (Schandflöte)

It was used in Germany in the 16th-17th centuries for public humiliation of bad musicians, and also as a punishment for minor violations of the laws: slander, foul language, heresy and blasphemy. The name "instrument" received for its appearance, reminiscent of a flute. Shandflete was made from different types of fruit trees.

A metal ring was put on the neck, the fingers were inserted into the clamps. The heavier the wine, the more the planks were compressed. The punishment was aggravated by the fact that the unfortunate was exhibited at the pillory in front of the mocking crowd. Everything looked as if the unfortunate man was playing the flute, and the painful sensations that he experienced caused laughter and delight from the public, which gave this type of punishment a particularly humiliating character. Sometimes the torture could last for several days.

Vampire Hunter Pack

The fearsome suitcase looks like it was confiscated from a maniac or taken away from the filming of another Hollywood movie about vampires. But in fact, such a set is not a props and not an accessory for Halloween, but a very real thing from the life of our ancestors.

Tear catcher or teardrop

A small vessel with a narrow neck is made in such a way that it can be pressed directly to the corner of the eye. Its purpose is to collect tears, and the history goes back more than three millennia. Catchers of tears are mentioned in the Psalms, in Psalm 55: “Put my tears in Your vessel, are they not in Your Book?” Tears were popular, for example, in Persia: men returning home after a fight would first check their wives' tear bottles to determine if they were bored.

Defender Ring

In the Victorian era, when the quality and quantity of lighting on the streets of large cities left much to be desired, crime on the streets was common. Therefore, to ensure their safety, the Victorians came up with a variety of devices.
With the help of two small buttons in the ring, sharp blades were folded back - and the advantage in the street fight immediately turned out to be on the side of its owner.

Mortsafe

Mortseifs were called steel or cast-iron lattice caps that were put on coffins.

At the beginning 19th century with the development of medicine and anatomy in England and Scotland, there was a great need for corpses for dissection. But in God-fearing Victorian society, not only was there no institution of organ donation, but there was a persistent dislike for burials not according to the rules: even cremation was met as something completely terrible, satanic and monstrous - progressive Victorians even had to organize a movement “for cremation”.

"Clockwork Canary", or a mechanical imitator of birdsong

One of the main manufacturers of such mechanisms was the French company Bontems of Paris: first, at the end of the 19th century, Blaise Bontem began to produce mechanical boxes with bird voices, and then his son Charles and grandson Lucien continued his work, improving the mechanism already in the 20th century - their production worked until until the 1950s.

Flea trap

Inside the swirling flea traps, a small piece of cloth soaked in honey, blood, resin or fragrant substances was placed as bait. An insect that crawled inside stuck to the bait. Flea caps were worn under wigs and inside women's hairstyles, under clothes and around the neck like a pendant, and also placed in the bedroom by the bed. Catching fleas was an everyday affair and to some extent even erotic.

The women in these figurines showed the doctor exactly where it hurts.

In the past, only men were doctors, and they were forbidden to directly touch high-ranking female patients. Therefore, special dolls were used for diagnosis. They were made of ivory and mammoth ivory, wood, and even mother-of-pearl 10-25 cm high. An interesting detail: some Chinese dolls show bandages to form a small leg. Whether the doctor brought the doll or the ladies had their own, historians cannot yet establish for sure.

Strigil, or simply a scraper for cleansing the body

In the days of the ancient Romans, when there was no soap, shower gels, shampoos, scrubs and other advances in chemistry, all the dirt, sweat and dust from the body were scraped off with such scrapers.

Storm Foreteller

This invention belongs to Dr. George Meriwether, who lived in the city of Whitby in England in the 19th century.
Once the doctor noticed that before the onset of a thunderstorm, leeches begin to behave uneasily, and decided to use this feature of theirs. He came up with a cunning device, which was called the "storm predictor."

12 one-pint bottles were placed in a circle. At the neck of each bottle was a metal tube with a piece of whalebone and a wire attached to the hammers. Sensing the approach of a storm, the leeches began to climb up the bottle and touched the whalebone, which, in turn, pulled the wire and actuated the hammers that struck the bell.

Toaster

Toasters in the 19th century were extremely popular and therefore were embodied in a wide variety of designs: for example, some especially expensive models had a ceramic core that heated more evenly, double walls and removable "doors" to make it easier to clean the inside of the device, as well as two removable wire coasters to put slices of bread there to keep warm or to keep fresh toast from cooling down so quickly. Simpler models were simply a tin pyramid with holes in the side panels as a body - coals smoldered under the pyramid and thereby toasted pieces of bread leaning against the panels. Then, of course, the first electric toasters appeared - one of the first models was developed by Alan McMaster in Edinburgh in 1893.

bullet extractor

The structure of the extractor is quite simple: there is something like a screwdriver in the hollow long tube: it is lowered into the wound with the help of screws, the bullet is felt for, picked up and pulled out. Despite its apparent benefits, the bullet extractor often brought much more trouble than relief: there were practically no anesthesia and antiseptics in those days, so many patients died from pain shock, and others from infections.

The smoky enema was one of the most popular devices in medicine in the 17th-19th centuries.

Its device was extremely simple: a smoky enema was similar to a regular one, but instead of a pear, it had furs from a pig's stomach, which fed tobacco smoke into anus sick. Tobacco was considered a good remedy for drowsiness and colds, and it was even prescribed to the sick. However, European doctors learned the methods of non-standard introduction of it into the body from North American Indians. Such a procedure, it was believed, was supposed to help with pain in the stomach, and also revived the drowned. It was believed that the smoke dries out all excess moisture in the body.

The Bible is a very ancient book, but it is by no means the oldest book in the world. The discoveries of the last century indicate that the art of writing was widespread in many countries long before the emergence of the Jewish people in Palestine. The earliest examples of writing take us to the ancient lands of Egypt and Mesopotamia. We do not know exactly where and when writing originated. Naturally, it didn't happen that someone sat down and thought and said, "Today I'm going to invent the art of writing." It is only known that a limestone tablet with inscriptions related to the Sumerian civilization, which dates back to about 3500 BC, has survived to this day. It is also known that, by at least 3000 BC, Egyptian hieroglyphs were still in development. In Palestine itself, letters written by city rulers date from about 1400 BC. Such information is important in discussing the origins of the Bible, because earlier critics of the Bible skeptically argued that at the time of Moses, writing was not yet known, and therefore Moses could not be the author of the first five books of the Bible. We now know that writing was already widely used many centuries before Moses, which means that there is no reason to argue that Moses could not have written the books he is credited with authoring.

The ancient peoples of Palestine and the states adjoining them adopted different materials for writing. The Bible itself contains references to many such materials.

1. Stone. In almost all corners of the world, the material on which the oldest writings were applied was stone. In Egypt and Babylon, the earliest inscriptions were made in stone. The most ancient parts of the Hebrew writings under consideration, found in Palestine, were also written on stones. Of them the best examples are the Moabite stone and the Siloam inscription. The Moabite Stone was erected by a Moabite king named Mesa around 850 BC. and tells of the rebellion of the Moabites against Jehoram king of Israel. The Siloam inscription tells of the construction of a tunnel cut through the wall that encloses the source of Siloam in Jerusalem. Probably, the inscription has come down to us since the time of King Hezekiah and dates back to about 700 BC. That these early writings were made in stone is in striking agreement with the biblical account, since the earliest writing material mentioned in the Old Testament was stone. As you know, the Ten Commandments were originally written in stone. The book of Exodus says: “And when God stopped speaking to Moses on Mount Sinai, he gave him two tablets of stone, on which was written by the finger of God” (Exodus 31:18; cf. Exodus 34:1, 28). After the Jewish people crossed the Jordan, they were commanded to set up stones with the words of the law carved on them. (Deut. 27:2-3, cf. Joshua 8:30-32).

2. Clay. In Assyria and Babylon, clay was the predominant writing material. Huge libraries of clay tablets were dug out of the ground in these places. For example, the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (c. 650 BC) was discovered, containing thousands of tablets with records of various subjects. In Syria, not far from the cities of Ras Shamra (in ancient times, Ugarit) and Ebla, huge deposits of clay tablets were similarly brought to light. More than 16,000 clay tablets dating back to 2500 B.C. have been unearthed following recent excavations near Ebla. Clay was also used in Egypt. This confirms the discovery of more than 350 tablets in the heart of Egypt, known as Tel el-Amarna. Tablets, usually oblong in shape, were written while they were wet and then fired, or simply allowed to dry in the sun. Clay material is mentioned in Ezekiel 4:1, where the prophet is commanded to trace the plan of Jerusalem on tiles.

3. Tree. Quite often in ancient times, wooden boards were used for writing. In Greece, for many centuries, tablets were a common writing material. In Athens in the fourth century BC, such tablets were bleached in lime mortar to better hold the ink, and were used for official records. Tablets for writing have also been found in Egypt and Palestine. Probably, such tablets are also mentioned in the books of Isaiah 30:8 and Habakkuk 2:2.

4. Skin. Animal skin has played an important role in the history of the Bible for many centuries. Although leather is not specifically mentioned in the Old Testament, it is undeniably the main material used by the Jews for writing. The scribe's knife, used to correct errors, is mentioned in Jeremiah 36:23. This is a good indication that the scroll referred to in this verse was made of leather, since a sharp tool such as a knife could not be used on thin writing material. According to other sources, the Old Testament Scriptures were written on the skin and have come down to us in this form. The Jewish Talmud, which is a collection of interpretations and additions to the Old Testament, specifically required that the Scriptures be copied on the skin of animals, which also undoubtedly reflects ancient traditions. Thus, we can conclude with certainty that the Old Testament Scriptures were usually applied to specially prepared animal skins. Perhaps when Paul asked for leather books (2 Tim. 4:13), he meant copies of portions of the Old Testament.

5. Papyrus. The important role that skin played in Old Testament times was played by papyrus in New Testament times. Indeed, of all the writing materials available, papyrus was the most important and so common in ancient times that one can almost be sure that the original letters of the New Testament were written on papyrus sheets. Entire plantations of cane, from which papyrus was made, were located along the Nile River in the past. This explains its early use in Egypt as writing material around 3000 BC. The popularity of papyrus spread from Egypt to neighboring countries, and its use became so widespread that it became a universal medium for creating books in Greece and Rome. By the fourth century BC, the use of papyrus had become so widespread that the great historian Herodotus could hardly recognize as civilized people using anything other than papyrus. He wrote: "Paper scrolls were also called parchment by the Ionians, because earlier, when paper was rare, they used the skins of sheep or goats instead - a material on which many barbarians are still in the habit of writing." The word "paper", of course, meant not modern paper, but papyrus, and Herodotus at one time called those who did not use it barbarians.

The production of papyrus sheets is one of the indicators of the level of skill of people who lived in the distant past. Thin strips were cut from the core of the cane stalks and stacked close together to form a leaf. The second layer was laid across the first and bonded to it by means of moisture and pressure. After drying and polishing, the sheet became ready for use. Sometimes papyrus was used simply in the form of single sheets, as, for example, for writing a letter or receipt; in other cases, the sheets were joined together to form a scroll. In ancient times, up to the first or second century AD, papyrus scrolls were called "books".

Almost all of us have heard of papyrus scrolls. What did they look like and what were they used for? Papyrus scrolls varied in length, but the average scroll was 9 meters long and 25 centimeters wide. Usually only one side was used for writing, although sometimes scribes could use both sides of a scroll (compare Rev. 5:1). The text was applied in the form of columns of various widths, on average from 7 to 10 centimeters. Often the inner edge of the scroll (sometimes both edges) was attached to a wooden handle in order to make it easier to unroll and fold. The heading of the document was applied to a separate strip of papyrus, which was attached to the outside of the scroll. Often the scroll was placed in a protective sheath and kept in a wooden box.

However, approximately in the first or second century after the birth of Christ, papyrus scrolls began to give way to new types of papyrus books, the so-called papyrus books. codes. The handwritten codex is simply what we call a book today. In other words, shortly after the birth of Christ, people started sewing papyrus sheets together to form a book, rather than sticking them together to form a scroll. Codices or books have certain advantages over scrolls: they are easier to carry and use to quickly find references; in addition, they could contain more information than a medium-length scroll. For these reasons, early Christians preferred codices rather than scrolls when copying and distributing the New Testament Scriptures. Indeed, it seems that it was thanks to the Christians that the codes received early and widespread circulation.

6. Vellum or parchment. Vellums gained fame and wide distribution as a material for writing thanks to the efforts of the king of Asia Minor Eumenes II (197-158 BC), who lived in the city of Pergamon. Eumenes II sought to create a world-class library, but the Egyptian king attempted to interfere with his plans by stopping the supply of papyrus from Egypt. The only alternative for King Eumenes was to create his own writing materials, for which he perfected the process of leather processing. The result of these improvements was what we now call vellum or parchment.

Nowadays, the terms "vellum" and "parchment" are used interchangeably and refer to any kind of animal skin treated for the purpose of writing on it. However, originally the word "vellum", from which the English word veal, meant the skin of calves and antelopes, while the word "parchment" was applied to the skin of sheep and goats. The word "vellum" has always suggested that the skin was good quality and differed from ordinary leather in that it was not tanned. Studying the material about vellum and its place in the history of writing is especially important, as it has been used for over a thousand years to make copies of the New Testament. This, in turn, requires consideration of the preparation of vellum. This complex process began with the fact that the skin removed from the slaughtered animal was stretched and dried. On one side of the skin, the hair was removed, and on the other, the remains of the animal's body, after which the skin was polished with stones on both sides. Vellum sheets were cut and folded in the middle so that the outer side of the sheet was turned to the outer, and the inner - to the inner. With the help of a sharp tool, lines were drawn on the sheets so that grooves remained on one side, and convex lines on the other. The texts in the vellum codices were written in the form of columns, at first three or four columns per page, and then one or two.

Vellums look very nice. Two of the most valuable New Testament manuscripts in existence today are outstanding examples of very High Quality. Sometimes, for a special effect, the vellum was dyed purple, and the inscription was applied in gold or silver. However, the most valuable characteristic of vellum is its durability. Papyrus is inherently more fragile and short-lived, and also prone to decay. For this reason, and also because of the scarcity of papyrus, its replacement by vellum became inevitable, so that from the fourth century until the Middle Ages, the vellum was the main medium for the transmission and preservation of the written Word of God.

7. Paper. Paper also has its origins in ancient world. Its production from fibrous materials has been practiced in China since the second century BC, but it was still a long time before the secret of its production became known to the rest of the world. This happened around the eighth century AD, when the Arabs captured several Chinese who mastered the art of papermaking. Gradually, knowledge about the ways of making paper began to spread, and by the thirteenth century, most of Europe was already using paper. A significant proportion of biblical manuscripts, especially those originating from the East, are written on paper.

8. Other materials. Materials such as wax, gold, silver, copper, lead, bone, linen, and pieces of pottery were also used for writing in antiquity, but those listed above are important in the study of Bible history. The tool used by the scribe depended on the nature of the surface on which the text was applied. If the material for writing was wax or clay, then a sharp instrument called stylo. In the case of using papyrus, it was used feather. There is no doubt that such a pen is mentioned in 3 John 13. The ink varied in composition, but those used to write manuscripts on vellum were very durable.