What does satire mean in literature? Is the satirist a joker? What is satire? The history of the origin of satire

satire genre soviet magazine

The term "satire" comes from the Latin "lanx satura", which means "plate of fruit", "mixture". Satire is an accusatory literary work that depicts the negative phenomena of reality in a funny, ugly form,.

As a special poetic form, satire appeared in the civil culture of ancient Rome. It arose from folk art, which repeatedly and constantly refers to satire as an instrument of self-defense and self-consolation from the strong and powerful. Bright representatives of Roman satire were Ennius, Lucilius, Horace, Persia and especially Juvenal, who determined its form for the later European classicism. In medieval and new Europe, satire went beyond the framework of the old form and, developing as an independent work.

Russian satire existed already in the 17th century and earlier in the folk tale, the work of buffoons, etc. ("the parable of the hawk maker", satire on the court of Shemyaka and about Ersha Ershovich, the son of Shchetinnikov, etc.).

In the 18th century, satire flourished in Russia. New genres appear: epigram, message, fable, comedy, parody song, journalism. The creator of Russian satire as a small poetic genre focused on antique and classicistic samples was A.D. Cantemir. Kantemir, imitating Latin verse, developed a new syntax, intensively used inversions and hyphens, sought to bring the verse closer to "simple conversation", introduced vernaculars, proverbs and sayings.

However, the stylistic innovations of Cantemir did not find continuation in Russian literature.

The next step in the development of domestic satire was taken by A.P. Sumarokov, the author of numerous books on satire, in which he outlined his theoretical views on the purpose of satire and its place in the hierarchy of classicist genres.

In the second half of the 18th century, poetic satire in Russia gave way to magazine satire. In the 1760s and 1790s, new satirical magazines were opened in Russia one after another: "Useful Hobby", "Free Hours", "Mix", "Truten", published by I.S. Krylov "Mail of Spirits", "Spectator" and many others,.

Magazine satire tends more and more to the feuilleton genre. Elements of satire appear in the novel and drama. The most striking images of satire in Russian literature are represented by the works of A.S. Griboyedova, N.V. Gogol, A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylina, N.A. Nekrasov.

The history of Russian satire at the beginning of the 20th century is associated with the activities of the magazines Satyricon (1908-1914) and New Satyricon (1913-1918), which published the greatest satirical writers of the era: A. Averchenko, Sasha Cherny (A. Glikberg), Teffi (N. Buchinskaya) and others. The magazines did not avoid bold political satire, turned to a wide range of poetic and prose genres, and attracted prominent artists (B. Kustodiev, K. Korovin, A. Benois, M. Dobuzhinsky, etc.) as illustrators. )

Among the most notable phenomena of domestic satire of the 20th century are the lyrics and plays by V. Mayakovsky, the prose of M. Bulgakov, M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov, the dramatic tales of E. Schwartz. Satire of the Soviet period is a sphere of ideology, it is divided into “external”, denouncing capitalist reality (Black and White, 1926, V. Mayakovsky), and “internal”, in which the denial of particular flaws is combined with a general affirming principle. In parallel with the official satire, there are folklore genres (anecdote, ditty) and satirical literature not approved for publication. In unofficial satire, grotesque and fantasy prevail, utopian and dystopian elements are strongly developed ("A Dog's Heart" and "Fatal Eggs" by M. Bulgakov),.

Satire occupies an important place in the works of representatives of the first wave of Russian literary emigration (A. Averchenko, Sasha Cherny, Teffi, V. Goryansky, Don-Aminado (A. Shpolyansky), etc.). Their heritage is dominated by the genres of satirical story and feuilleton. In 1931 in Paris M. Kornfeld resumes the publication of "Satyricon",. In addition to the previous authors, the published numbers include I. Bunin, A. Remizov, A. Kuprin. A special place in the magazine is occupied by satire on Soviet reality and the customs of the emigration. Thus, we can conclude that satire as a literary genre is a criticism of reality with the aim of improving it, perfecting it. Satire appeared in antiquity, and its appearance can be associated with the social system in human society. In its development, satire went through different stages of evolution: it arose from folk art, but developed as an independent art; was presented as a tool for self-defense and self-consolation, but became a tool for exposing problems and shortcomings in society. Having become an independent genre, satire has earned a special attitude towards itself among the progressive people of society. The satirical genres of journalism began to be written in a special "handwriting", which was characterized by the reliability of the description, the targeting of the facts, the presence of the "acuteness" of the problem, the "open visor" in its presentation. Unfortunately, the history of Russian satire, having many examples, has not been studied deeply and in detail until now, either in relation to its classical poetic form, and even more so in relation to the huge satirical content of the Russian story, novel and everyday comedy.

In the course of the development of history, 9 types of satirical heat were formed. Let's consider each type of satirical genre in more detail.

B.V. Kakorina, naming some of the new and traditional genre forms of satire, mentions the invective: “In a number of newspapers there are some kind of 'name-calling'. The specifics of their communicative task can be called invectives based on parodying, playing on the names of the first persons of the state. " The genre archetype of invective is an accusatory message that, for the sake of refuting an opponent, widely uses attacks on his personal traits and moral qualities.

Modern invective is a genre of offensive, repulsive, cruel, pitiless ridicule based on antipathy. For the sake of insult, the invective uses various means of negative assessment - from expressive words and phrases that are within the limits of literary use, to negatively oriented and abusive vocabulary. Coarseness at the lexical level is expressed, in particular, in the wider use of vulgarisms, coarse vernacular and slang words and expressions.

Almost any word used in a particular context can be perceived as offensive. Extra-linguistic means used to attract the attention of readers are at the same time a means of psychological influence. Rough vocabulary, not to mention swear words, arouses anger and mutual hostility, makes a depressing impression, creates a gloomy mood.

The genre of invective does not stand up to the test of ethics, since criticism in the invective is not only harsh, but also biased.

In satirical journalism, the genre of parody has always been widespread. Parody is a special type of satire based on a comic, exaggeratedly emphasized "reproduction of the characteristic individual characteristics of the form of a phenomenon, which reveals its comic and degrades its content."

Parody is a multifaceted genre associated with the comprehension of literary and life processes of a certain historical period. Journalism lends journalism to parody. The journalist collects material for the parody not as a literary critic, but as a publicist.

Parody is distinguished by a special irony peculiar only to it. The ironic play with logical forms gives a sharp edge to satirical parody. Parody is a means of revealing the internal inconsistency of what is parodied. It is comical because it reveals a claim to significance.

The parody wall newspaper of the Horns and Hooves club in Literaturnaya Gazeta was guided by an ironic reading of stereotyped information. The newspaper published several thousand parodies, ridiculing newspaper stamps and pseudo-sensationalism. In the interpretation of the newspaper, the durability of one of the stamps looks like this: “Accident. Late in the evening citizen N. was returning home. At the corner of Prospect 28, two strangers approached him, and he gave them his watch and a muskrat hat. To numerous questions N. answered with embarrassment: If I were in my place, everyone would have done the same.

Parody is a means of revealing the internal inconsistency of what is parodied. It is comical because it reveals a claim to significance.

Pamphlet. One of the premises of the pamphlet genre was a sarcastic antique fable as a form of expression of social protest. However, the name of the genre is relatively new - it did not exist in antiquity. The signs of a pamphlet are the identification of a logical connection between facts, a sarcastic denunciation, containing at its core an invective. An important feature of this genre is its fundamental polemics.

Polemic tendencies can be expressed in the text in two versions: the author either refutes a certain system of opinions, subjects it to criticism based on the statements of the opponent, or expresses his point of view, confirming it in polemics, dialogue with the interlocutor.

Feuilleton. In the 19th century, a newspaper column was called feuilleton, which separated the official part of the newspaper from everything else, as well as texts written lively, easily, without a claim to depth, designed for the general public.

There was no fundamental difference between the materials placed in some newspapers in the "Mix" section, and in others - "Feuilleton". The feuilleton meant not necessarily a satirical, incriminating text, but, rather, a review of mores, stories from life, an easy, non-binding heart-to-heart talk.

Formulating his understanding of the genre, Doroshevich wrote: “Feuilleton is simpler, clearer, more accessible to everyone, more entertaining and easier to learn! The feuilleton should not be distinguished by its wit at all. "

The texts of feuilletons, as well as the work of feuilletonists in general, substantially complement the picture of public life. “The creative task of the feuilletonist is to lure the reader with the help of combinations of ready-made combinations taken from the artist and by skillfully switching a small topic into a large one of public order - to get a purely newspaper effect. Influence the mass reader quickly and strongly. "

In the 1920s, research began on the genre laws of the feuilleton. The diverse, extremely abundant literature about the feuilleton of those years contains deep and fundamental remarks about the distinctive features of the genre. One can even speak of a keen interest in the nature of the feuilleton. In the same period, the division of the feuilleton into two modifications was quite accurately defined: journalistic and fictionalized (feuilleton-story). Reliance on reliable fact and detail is an essential principle of artistic journalism in the 1920s.

The texts of feuilletons, as well as the work of feuilletonists in general, substantially complement the picture of public life. “The creative task of the feuilletonist is to lure the reader with the help of combinations of ready-made combinations taken from the artist and by skillfully switching a small topic into a large one of public order - to get a purely newspaper effect. Influence the mass reader quickly and strongly ”,.

The epigram - translated from the Greek “inscription on the stone” - is a satirical miniature, characterized by the utmost concise characterization, volume of criticism and ridicule. She marks at a certain object, in other cases it is aimed at a negative phenomenon. Often the epigram is given as a text for a caricature.

A fable is a satirical work of an edifying nature, the heroes of which are animals. A fable, as a literary and publicistic work, consists of three parts with different style and language features. The first part, or opening, has a medium style that gets the reader into action. The second part is the main one - it describes the main actions of the heroes, in the third - edification, written in a high style.

A caricature is a grotesque depiction of a criticized phenomenon, event, or person. Cartoons are verbal and pictorial.

Caricature - from the French word "heaviness", a critical image of a person, event, phenomenon. Caricature differs from caricature by hypertrophied, grotesque depiction of any part of the body or part of a phenomenon. Distinguish between friendly and satirical cartoons.

Anecdote is a small satirical work of an edifying nature, containing topical sharp criticism. The text of the anecdote is built on the principle of an "inverted pyramid" - edification at the very end, at the "top",

Summing up, it can be noted that satire, which originated in Russia in the 17th century, has a large number of subtypes, which indicates the rapid pace of development of this genre in our country. Satire was "to the taste" of many authors and a large number of writers became adherents of this genre. The popularity of satire and all of its types reached its climax in the first half of the twentieth century, thanks to which many talented, sharp, original works with their own history appeared. Each such creation was distinguished by criticism, satire, humor, the use of such techniques as irony, sarcasm, grotesque, hyperbole. A number of works literally permeated with a variety of satirical techniques are still the "golden fund" of our literature. This will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

1. Satyr - Satĭra old satura scil. lanx, meant the actual dish, which referta variis multisque primitiis sacris Cereris inferebatur (Diomedes, Diomedes), but then other items, consisting of different spices and parts ... Dictionary of Classical Antiquities
2. SATIR - SATIR (lat. Satira), 1) a way of manifestation of the comic in art, consisting in destructive ridicule of phenomena that seem to the author to be vicious. Big encyclopedic dictionary
3. satire - orph. satire, -y Spelling dictionary Lopatin
4. satire - s, f. 1. The way of manifestation of the comic in art, consisting in destructive ridicule of phenomena that seem to the author to be vicious. Small academic dictionary
5. satire - Borrowing. in the 18th century. from French. lang. where satire< лат. satira (сначала - «десерт», затем - «стихотворная смесь» и «сатира»), производного от satur «сытый». Сатира буквально - «блюдо после насыщения». Etymological Dictionary of Shansky
6. satire - Borrowing from French, where it came from Latin, where satira - "appetizer, all sorts of things" (from satur - "well-fed"). Krylov's etymological dictionary
7. satire - noun, number of synonyms: 13 mockery 18 mockery 29 mockery 18 irony 11 caricature 8 mockery 35 denunciation 15 mockery 12 mockery 13 parody 13 political satire 1 epigram 5 humor 32 Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language
8. satire - SATIRA; f. [lat. satira] 1. The way of manifestation of the comic in art, consisting in destructive ridicule of the phenomena that seem to the author to be vicious. 2. A work of art sharply and mercilessly denouncing the negative phenomena of reality. Explanatory dictionary Kuznetsov
9. satire - Latin - satira, satura. French - satire. The word "satire" has become widespread in Russian since 1729, at the time of the appearance of the satire of Cantemir (handwritten lists). In Russian dictionaries, the word has been noted since 1794 ... Etymological Dictionary of Semyonov
10. satire - Satyr / a. Morphemic-spelling dictionary
11. satire - Satyrs, w. [latin. satira]. 1. An accusatory literary work depicting the negative phenomena of reality in the funny. ugly (lit.). Wrathful satire. 2. transfer., Only units. Mockery, exposure. Large dictionary of foreign words
12. satire - SATIRE, s, g. 1. A work of fiction, sharply and mercilessly denouncing the negative phenomena of reality. 2. Denouncing, scourging ridicule. | adj. satirical, oh, oh. C. genre. C. style. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
13. Satire - Poetic denunciation of current reality: this is the most complete definition of that diverse literary form, which everyday speech, and sometimes theory behind it, is called satire. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron
14. satire - SATIRE y, g. satire<�лат. satira < satura lanx переполненное блюдо, мешанина. 1. В литературе классицизма - произведение (обычно стихотворное), осмеивающее какой-л. порок, недостаток. БАС-1. Dictionary of gallicisms of the Russian language
15. satire - An essay that ridicules the weaknesses and vices of human beings Cf. Poisonous satire ... forgotten ... at this moment he is ready to compose a panegyric in favor of Aristarkh Fyodorovich and stigmatize his closest acquaintances with satire. Goncharov. Break. 5, 15 Cf. Phraseological Dictionary of Michelson
16. satire - satire 1. A work that ridicules any vice, flaw (in the literature of classicism). 2. A work of art in which negative phenomena of reality are sharply, caricatured, exposed. 3. Wicked mockery, harsh denunciation. Efremova's Explanatory Dictionary
17. Satire - S, wives. Old. rare Derivatives: Satyrka; Satya (Sata). Origin: (Feminine to (see Satyr)) Dictionary of personal names
18. Satire - SATIRE. - In a somewhat vague and vague sense, any literary work is called satire, in which a certain definite attitude towards the phenomena of life is expressed, namely, condemnation and ridicule of them, exposing them to general laughter ... Dictionary of literary terms
19. satire - merciless ~ sharp ~ Dictionary of Russian Idioms
20. satire - see >> mockery Abramov's dictionary of synonyms
21. Satire - SATIRE is a kind of comic (see Aesthetics), which differs from other types (humor, irony) by the sharpness of denunciation. S. at its inception was a certain lyric genre. Literary encyclopedia
22. Grammar dictionary of Zaliznyak
23. satire - SAT'IR, satire, · wives. (· Latin satira). 1. An accusatory literary work depicting the negative phenomena of reality in a funny, ugly form (lit.). Satyrs of Cantemir. Playful satire. Horace. Juvenal's angry satire. The scourge of satire. Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
24. satire - SATIRE a mocking essay, a mockery of weakness and vice. A satirical composition. The satirist is such a writer. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary

Satire at the beginning of its appearance was a certain lyric genre. She was a poem, often significant in volume, the content of which included a mockery of certain persons or events. Satire as a genre originated in Roman literature.

The word "satyr" comes from the Latin name for mythical creatures, the mocking half-animal demigods - satyrs. It is also associated with the word satura, which meant a common dish of a mishmash in the common people, which indicated a mixture of different sizes (Saturnian verse, along with Greek sizes) and the presence in satire of a wide variety of descriptions of all kinds of facts and phenomena, in contrast to other lyric genres, which had strictly limited and defined area of ​​the image.

Roman satire was most evident in the works of Horace, Persia and especially Juvenal.

The generally recognized legislator of literary rules Boileau in his treatise "Poetic Art" writes that the genre of satire is more needed by society than an ode.

Over time, satire loses its significance as a specific genre, as happened with other classical genres, for example, elegy, idyll, etc. Exposure has become the main feature of satire.

The basis of satire is denunciation and laugh, with the help of laughter, the author exposes shortcomings, human vices.

A characteristic feature of satire is negative attitude towards the object of the image and, at the same time, the presence of a positive ideal, against the background of which the negative features of the depicted are revealed.

The author of a satirical work, creating an object of "high degree of conventionality", uses hyperbole and grotesque... A fantastic plot ("Gulliver's Travels" by J. Swift, "The Story of a City" by ME Saltykov-Shchedrin), allegory (fables of Aesop, J. La Fontaine, IA Krylov) can be embodied in grotesque forms.

In Russian literature, satire first appeared in a satirical story of the late 17th century. The satire genre was developed by A.P. Sumarokov, D.I.Fonvizin, N.I. Novikov.

The work of A.D. Kantemir played a special role in the development of satire in the 18th century. A.D. Kantemir based on the European literary tradition and considered his predecessors D.Yu. Juvenal, N. Boualo. Satyrs A.D. Kantemir were divided into philosophical and pictorial. VA Zhukovsky in his article "On Satire and Satyrs of Kantemir" wrote that AD Kantemir's satire is clearly divided into Russian and foreign: Russian - "picturesque", that is, they represent a gallery of portraits of carriers of vice; foreign satires are "philosophical", since in them A.D. Kantemir tends to talk about vice as such.

Russian satire reached its peak in the 19th century. First, the fables of I.A. Krylov, the satirical verses of G.R. Derzhavin. Then A.S. Griboyedov in his comedy "Woe from Wit" "branded the Molchalins and Skalozubov", and N.V. Gogol satirically showed the "dead souls" of landlord Russia.

We also find elements of satire in the works of the poet of revolutionary democracy N.A. Nekrasov (Reflections at the Front Entrance, Modern Ode, etc.).

An important stage in the development of Russian satire at the beginning of the 20th century was the activity of the magazines "Satyricon" and "New Satyricon". The largest satirical writers of the era were published in them: A. Averchenko, Sasha Cherny (A. Glikberg), Teffi, etc.

Russian satire of the first half of the 20th century is also represented in the satire-fables of D. Bedny, the satire of V. Mayakovsky, short stories by M. Zoshchenko, satirical novels by I. Ilf and E. Petrov, dramatic tales by E. Schwartz, essays and feuilletons by M. Koltsov, comedies A. Bezymensky.

Satire

Satire

SATIR is a kind of comic (see. Aesthetics), which differs from other types (humor, irony) by the sharpness of denunciation. S. at its inception was a certain lyric genre. It was a poem, often significant in volume, the content of which included a mockery of certain persons or events. S. as a genre originated in Roman literature. The very word "S." comes from the Latin name for mythical creatures, mocking half-animal demigods - satyrs. Philologically, it is also associated with the word satura, which in the common people meant a dish of mishmash, which indicated a mixture of different sizes (Saturnian verse, along with Greek sizes) and the presence in S. of the most diverse descriptions of all kinds of facts and phenomena, unlike other lyric genres, to -rye had a strictly limited and defined area of ​​the image. Roman S. gave its highest examples in the works of Horace, Persia, and especially Juvenal.
Over the course of time, S. lost its significance as a definite genre, as happened with other classical genres (elegy, idylls, etc.). Exposing mockery has become the main characteristic of S., defining its basic essence. S. performed this appointment with the help of various literary forms and genres. True, every time the forms of ancient literature were revived in literature, the old genre S. was partially revived. So it was, for example. in Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century, when the classical form of S. was used by Kantemir, Sumarokov, and others. But at the same time there were satirical comedy and satirical magazines with their feuilleton, cartoons, stories, etc.
Comicism lies at the heart of S., regardless of the genre. Laughter is always a huge social impact. "... In all morality, there is no medicine that is more real, stronger than the presentation of what looks funny" (Lessing, Hamburg Drama, Collected Works, vol. V, p. 76, published by Wolf, 1904).
The social functions of the comic determine its form: humorous, satirical and ironic. The social function of laughter and S. consists in the effective struggle with the comically depicted object. This is the difference between S. from humor and irony. It differs from all forms of comic satire in its activity, strong-willed orientation and purposefulness. Laughter always contains denial. Along with laughter in S., therefore, indignation and indignation are no less strong. Sometimes they are so strong that they almost drown out the funny, push it into the background. The weakness of the comic element in S. gave rise to some researchers to assert that S. can do without comic devices altogether, that she can expose insignificant and hostile only with her indignation. But indignation itself, with the greatest strength and tension, does not create S. Thus, Lermontov's "Duma" and "On the Death of Pushkin", with all its pathos of protest and indignation, is not C. Elements of laughter and indignation can be combined in S. But it is impossible to construct S. outside the comic. Denying the comic as a necessary method of constructing S., we come to the identification of S. with criticism, with negation in general. The exposure of the Russian autocracy and bureaucracy can be expressed in satirical terms (Saltykov-Shchedrin) and in terms of direct criticism and denial (Leo Tolstoy). Mayakovsky satirically denounced the philistine and bourgeoisie, Gorky also denounced the philistine and bourgeoisie, but in terms of direct denial.
The specificity of S. is not that she reveals negative, harmful or shameful phenomena, but that she always implements this by means of a special comic law, where indignation is a unity with comic exposure, the denounced is shown as normal, in order to then be revealed through the funny, that this is the norm - only an appearance that obscures evil. This is confirmed by the entire history of S. Suffice it to name such names as Rabelais, Beaumarchais, Voltaire, Swift, Saltykov-Shchedrin. Therefore, the classical division of S. into "laughing" and "pathetic", a cut by Schiller in his article "On a naive and sentimental comedy", does not have a sufficient basis.
Satire on the enemy is, first of all, a denial of the entire socio-political system. This type of S. was created by the world's greatest satirists, who in different epochs gave brilliant examples of criticism and denial of the social reality of their epoch. Rabelais, Swift, Saltykov-Shchedrin - each with their own individual characteristics created this very type of S.
In the history of S. we repeatedly meet with the second type of S., when the satirist calls for the correction of individual vices, and not for the destruction of the system that gave rise to these vices. This satire is aimed mostly at everyday life, customs, cultural skills and customs. Moliere criticized his rising class. The image of "Bourgeois in the nobility", covering a whole series of similar Moliere images ("Georges Danden", "Ridiculous Cutie") is constructed in such a way that, for all its shortcomings, it is funny, but not negative. The shortcomings of these characters need to be fought, but they can be corrected. Figaro at Beaumarchais is given in the same way. The comic associated with this image does not lead to its denial. Such is Fonvizin, to-ry tried to put forward in place of the ignorant patriarchal nobility - the Europeanized, cultural nobility.
The main types of S. differ not only in their material and in the nature of the writer's attitude to this material. It is possible to observe completely different forms of the construction of S.. Bourgeois aesthetics and the history of literature have repeatedly spoken about the tendentiousness of S., that S. is a semi-artistic, semi-publicistic genre. S. is a “borderline view of a work of art” because it combines “visual-contemplative liveliness” with “extra-aesthetic goals” (Jonas Kon, General Aesthetics). Unfortunately, similar views have penetrated into our Soviet criticism (see the preface to the collection "Satire" in the "Academia" publishing house, Piksanov's article in the state literary one-volume "Saltykov-Shchedrin", where a lack of understanding of the specifics of the form turns the great satirist into a talented essayist) ...
Meanwhile, the forms of satirical works are extremely unique. It should be not only about the degree of artistry of S., but also about its artistic originality.
If we turn to that type of S., which is built on the denial of the social system, we will see that the work of the great satirists - Rabelais, Swift, Saltykov-Shchedrin, is separated from each other by time and space, so different in its socio-political genesis, is a great affinity of form. The main feature of this type of S. is that everything depicted in it is given in terms of complete negation. The author's positive ideological attitudes, in the name of which this negation goes, are not given in the work itself. Their essence is clear from the comic revelation of the insignificance of what is depicted. Hence the often encountered vulgar assertion that satirists of this type do not have a positive ideal.
Such satire is usually built on grotesque hyperbolism that turns reality into fantasy. Rabelais talks about extraordinary giants, about the colossal accessories of their life, about their fantastic adventures, about sausages and sausages coming to life, about pilgrims traveling in the mouth of Gargantua. Swift fantastically displaces all human concepts, confronting his hero alternately with midgets and giants, talks about a flying island, etc. Saltykov-Shchedrin depicts the mayor with a winding mechanism in his head, always pronouncing the same two phrases, etc.
They often tried to find explanations for hyperbolism and fantasy in the need for a writer to speak Aesopian language. But this, of course, is not the main thing. Strengthening the comic to the degree of grotesque, giving it the form of the incredible, the fantastic, the satirist thereby reveals its absurdity, its indefiniteness, its contradiction with reality.
The realistic-grotesque fantasy of satirists as the basis of their style determines a number of individual techniques. The most important of them consist in the fact that the fantastic is given with an accurate and very extensive enumeration of naturalistic details (Rabelais) or even an exact measurement of its dimensions (Swift).
The striving for an all-embracing realistic criticism of the social system determined the very genre of S. of this type. The great satirical writers, who used their gift to expose a hostile socio-political system, made the novel their main genre. The form of the novel made it possible for a wide coverage of reality. At the same time, the usual form of the novel, in connection with its satirical function, received its own characteristics as a form of a satirical novel. The satirical novel is not bound by the framework of a specific plot. The plot here is just a canvas on which everything is strung that serves to depict and expose one side of life or the other. The satirist does not limit himself to the number of characters, just as he is not obliged to follow their fate to the end.
This also determines the special construction of the characters-images and their significance in the general composition of this kind of satirical work. Not understanding this peculiarity, Gornfeld eg. believes that “a type in satire is not so much a living poetic image as a schematic depiction, devoid of individualizing details that give such vitality and charm to the creations of humor ... .) lyrics and suppresses the creator of objective types in him. "
There is an obvious lack of understanding of S.'s methods. The satirist is no less capable of artistic embodiment of the reality he reflects than any other artist. Suffice it to recall the images of the epicurean philosopher Panurge by Rabelais or Judas Golovlev by Saltykov-Shchedrin. But this individualization and typification is achieved by other means than in humor - not through the psychological development of the image, but through large generalizations, on which S. is built and to-rye make it possible in each character, taken on a very small segment of place and time , to capture the socially typical. But this is precisely why the social-typical does not become a scheme; it is embodied in artistically convincing individualized life images.
The absence of a solid plot allows the satirist not to be constrained by the requirements for the development of a single action, for the compositional movement of a S. is determined by the requirements of the location of that system of criticism, which the author seeks to give in his S., and not by the requirements of the compositional development of a single plot intrigue. This is not taken into account by theorists, who, not understanding the originality of the satirical form, speak of S.'s compositional precariousness and vagueness as one of her main sins against artistry. The universalism of criticism in a satirical novel determines the need to use the most diverse material. The satirical novel uses comic characters, positions, dialogues and words in equal measure. This is the difference between C. of this type and other types of C.
In a different way, satire is constructed, based on the opposition of positive and negative, virtue and vice. The satirist opposes the Skotinins and Prostakovs to Starodum, the Famusovs and Molchalin to Chatsky, Tartuffe is opposed by Cleant, Harpogon is by Anselm. But the nature of the distribution of negative and positive elements in this S. differ sharply from analogous unsatirical works, say, from the bourgeois tearful drama. To the fore, S. puts forward negative types and characters, giving the positive only as a background for them, or not at all. This page is for the most part a page of types and characters. The satirist embodies certain negative aspects of the social structure in individual characters. Negative types are built for the most part on some one sharply outstanding line; on the avarice of Harpagon, on the hypocrisy of Tartuffe, on the servility and servility of Molchalin, on the stupid soldierism of Skalozub. This satirically sharpened character trait sometimes creates a social mask instead of an individualized image.
We have so far talked about two main types of C. Within the framework of these types, we find diverse genres of C.: along with the satirical novel, satirical drama, and comedy S. uses a number of small genres - an epigram, anecdote, satirical satirical feuilleton, and caricature. And these small genres are subdivided, depending on the author's satirical attitude, into the same two types. So, if we compare S. "Iskra" of the 60s. and "Satyricon", then the distinctive features of these two types of S.
It should be emphasized that in addition to the main types of S. we meet in literary practice very often with elements of S. in the works of writers of a non-satirical direction. These elements of S. are especially strong in the work of writers, to-rye are representatives of critical realism (Stendhal, Balzac, Flaubert, Maupassant, etc.).
In European literature, the history of S. is closely connected with the history of the struggle of the young bourgeoisie against the feudal order.For example, as early as the 14th century, as the forces that so clearly declared themselves as the Renaissance, the Reformation, S. was gaining an increasing place. The church and its ministers, the medieval way of life, the dogmas of religion, and even more - the arbitrariness of the guardians of these dogmas, the viciousness and stupidity of Catholic priests, the stupidity and narrow-mindedness of scholastic scientists, are satirically ridiculed in various ways. S. genres are becoming extremely diverse. Here is a fable in which a donkey in a lion's skin depicts the papacy, and individual small satirical novellas, Schwanki, and animal epic ("The Fight of Mice and Frogs"), and large satirical novels using folk satirical poetry.
The Renaissance, the Reformation were the first great attack by the young bourgeoisie on the old feudal order. This era therefore gave S.'s masterpieces in France and Germany. The royal aristocratic character of the English Reformation and the puritanical character of the bourgeois revolution led to the fact that England did not know in the XVI-XVII centuries. such a wide development of satirical genres as France and Germany. The extensive German satirical literature of the Reformation begins with the famous Narrenschiff (1434) Seb. Brant. Fischart (1546-1590) was the most prominent German satirist of the Reformation. He wrote a free adaptation of Rabelais' novel Gargantua, a satirical work containing a comprehensive criticism of the social order and its shortcomings. However, the pinnacle of satirical literature of the Reformation era are the "Letters of Dark People" (1515-1517) and "Praise of Foolishness" (1509) by Erasmus of Rotterdam, which played a world-historical role. S. humanists and the Reformation - scourging, poisonous, contemptuous. It seeks not to improve and correct, but to reduce, offend, destroy.
This huge, mostly nameless satirical literature or the literature of forgotten writers, extremely diverse in different countries depending on the specific conditions of the struggle of the emerging young bourgeoisie, realizing itself the third estate, is crowned in France with the genius grotesque Rabelais (see) "Gargantua and Pantagruel" - genuine satirical encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. But as the first round of battles of the young bourgeoisie against feudalism ended, as Catholic reaction triumphed and feudalism, after a series of its retreats, took hold on new positions, S., aimed at blowing up the very foundations of feudal society, gave way to S., the task of -roy was only a criticism of particular shortcomings of the system ("Comic Novel" by Scarron, 1651; "Simplicissimus" by Grimmelshausen, 1668, etc.). This S. opposes imitation of the foreign, against oblivion of the German foundations of life (Lauremberg, 1590-1658; Mosherosh, 1601-1669), against the savagery and coarseness of manners brought about by the thirty-year war (Grimmelshausen, Mosherosh). The revival of the classical form of Roman S. as a lyric poem (Rachel), which blossomed in French literature by the end of the 16th century, dates back to this time. (Vire, "Satyres chrestiennes de la cuisine", du Verdier, "Les omonymes, satire contre les mOur corrompues de ce siecle").
S. denial again begins to loudly declare itself, when the third estate in the XVIII century. began to prepare for a decisive battle against feudalism.
Of course, even in the era of the triumph of Catholic reaction and absolutism, the third estate did not abandon the tool of S. Suffice it to recall Moliere, the first classic of the French bourgeoisie, who created such masterpieces of S. as Tartuffe and Bourgeois in the Nobility.
However, bourgeois S. flourished only in the 18th century. S. also captured adjacent ideological areas, penetrating into journalism and sociology. So, for Montesquieu, his "Persian Letters" were a form of political exposure of the arbitrariness and lawlessness of French absolutism and opposing the English system of parliamentary power to it. Bourgeois Enlightenment of the 18th century because he used S. so widely that the task of the Enlightenment was to fight the feudal system in the name of the triumph of the bourgeois one. It is quite natural that the classic French S. XVIII century. became one of the greatest enlighteners of France - Voltaire (see). His "Orleans virgin", his "Candide", his pamphlets are masterpieces of satirical denial and explosion of all the shrines of feudal Catholic society, ridicule of the foundations on which this society rested for centuries. With the crushing denunciation of the Church merged another central motive of Voltaire's satire - the struggle against the arbitrariness of the absolute monarchy. Voltaire was the highest expression of the satirical denial of the feudal world among the French enlighteners. But his arrival was prepared and continued by numerous satirists, forgotten or remained unknown. The masterpieces of French S. are "Rameau's Nephew" by Diderot (see) and the Beaumarchais trilogy (see).
The influence of the extremely strong and politically acute French S. influenced S. of the Enlightenment in Germany. But these are only echoes of the strong political excitement of the neighboring country. German absolutism was strong, but the German bourgeoisie was just emerging and did not muster its forces to fight it. Therefore, German S., devoid of political acuteness, acquires a moralizing, moralizing character. It is directed against a deceitful lawyer, an insignificant scientist, against the desire of the middle class for titles. Its best representatives are Lichtenberg (1742-1799), Rabener (1714-1771) and Liskov (1701-1760).
S. flourishes in England in the same era. But in England, S. was associated with the struggle of the aristocracy against the firmly established bourgeois relations. Already in the second half of the 17th century. Dryden acted as an ardent defender of the aristocracy and denouncer of bourgeois narrow-mindedness and bourgeois virtue. Along with S. on the life and customs of the bourgeoisie, he gives sharply satirical sketches of the political opponents of the aristocracy. The most significant monuments of English S. and in the XVIII century. created by aristocratic writers: Pop (see), Swift (see) "Gulliver's Travel", Sheridan (see) "School of Backbiting". The masterpiece of English S. is Gulliver's Travels. Swift's satire has little to do with religion, edges being the main target for S. of the French enlighteners. The aristocratic character of S. is sharply manifested in the desire to humiliate and ridicule all legislators and social reformers, who thought "to teach the monarchs the knowledge of their true interests, which are based on the interests of their peoples." Swift's skepticism regarding possible transformations of social reality is associated with his deepest misanthropism. His criticism was supposed to reveal not only the relativity of all human institutions, but also the relativity of the human personality itself. But the positive significance of Swift's satire lies in the artistic acuteness of its anti-bourgeois character.
The anti-bourgeois satirical line was continued in English literature by Byron (see). The satirical motifs aimed both at exposing the deceit and sacredness of the aristocracy and the stupidity and narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie were distinguished in his work by an exceptional acuteness.
Serbia diminished after the French bourgeois revolution at the end of the 18th century, when the problems of destroying the feudal system hostile to the bourgeois order were largely resolved. We now find strong elements of S. only in the works of oppositional democratic writers, primarily in Beranger (see). The cowardice and betrayal of the bourgeoisie after the July days were exposed by Barbier (see) in his "Yambs" and "Satyrs", W. Hugo (see) in his political lyrics (in "Chatiments"). The most striking manifestation of S. XIX century. is the political lyrics of Heine, (see), directed against the feudalism that has not survived in Germany, against the cowardly German bourgeoisie ("Winter's Tale"), S.'s defense in lyric poetry is also Herwegh and Freiligrath.
Bourgeois S. by the end of the XIX century. gradually turns into skepticism and irony. Here it sometimes reaches great acuteness (A. France, Jean Girodoux and many others), but never again plays such a huge world-historical role as it played in the days when it was imbued with the pathos of the struggle against the feudal order. We find strong elements of S. by the end of XIX and in the beginning. XX century in English literature by Bernard Shaw (see). His S. is directed against capitalism, clergy, philistinism. But the half-hearted nature of the denial of the bourgeois system deprives them of that revolutionary daring, without which their S. turns only into a talented wit.
Russian S. is poorer than Western European. In the West, S. developed during the centuries-old struggle of the third estate against the old order. In Russia, S., indignant and scourging, reaches its heights when the ideologists of revolutionary democracy (Saltykov-Shchedrin, Nekrasov) appeared on the stage of Russian history.
In the preceding epochs, S. also more than once became the dominant genre in Russian literature - recall the flourishing of Russian S. in the second half of the 18th century. But this S., according to the extremely apt expression of Dobrolyubov, "tried to reduce, not to exterminate evil." Not to mention the abundant satirical journalism in which the ruling elite took a direct part ("There were fables," "All sorts of things," "And this and that," "," Mix "," Drone "), even Novikov's editions (" Parnassian scraper "," Evenings "," Painter "," Purse "), satires of Kantemir, Sumarokov, Fonvizin's comedies passed over in silence such egregious phenomena as serfdom right. A sharp contrast to S. of this type is presented by the satirical exposing paintings "Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by Radishev.
Griboyedov (see) in his comedy branded the Molchalin and Skalozubov. Gogol satirically showed the "dead souls" of landlord Russia. And contrary to Gogol's subjective tendencies, his S. had a deeply revolutionary significance. The nobility (Griboyedov, Gogol), which objectively performed an enormous revolutionary role, was replaced by revolutionary democratic S., which contained a decisive rejection of the feudal-serf, tsarist-bureaucratic system, no less decisive criticism of the predatory Russian capitalism and the cowardice of the liberal bourgeoisie. This S. is fundamentally different from the noble S., edges came not from denial, but from self-criticism. Gogol for example. all his life he strove to create positive images and was dissatisfied with his comic characters. Saltykov (see) in them found the deepest expression of his ideological and artistic. designs. Saltykov gives complete decomposition, comprehensively shows the worthlessness, and most importantly, the harmfulness of his Judas Golovlev. His best works - the genius grotesques "Lord Golovlevs", "The History of a City" and "Pompadours and Pompadurs" - are extraordinary in their strength and accuracy of exposing autocracy, bureaucratic stupidity and stupidity, feudal barbarism and tyranny, liberal complacency. In the immortal image of Judas Golovlev, Shchedrin gave a great symbol of the degeneration of the entire system.
We also find strong satirical elements in the work of the great poet of revolutionary democracy Nekrasov (see) (Reflections at the front entrance, "Wretched and well-dressed", "Contemporaries", etc.). Against the new enemy of the working people, the predatory capital and the kulaks, the satire of Ch. Uspensky (see) ("Mores of Rasteryaeva Street"). After the years of reaction, S. began to flourish again with the revolution of 1905. During the years 1905–1908, a huge number of satirical journals, mostly liberal-democratic, appeared. But in the same years, proletarian S. was created, satirical workers' magazines, the direct successor of which was the initiator of proletarian satire, Demyan Bedny, and S. of the Bolshevik newspapers Zvezda and Pravda. Proletarian S. reaches its heights in the works of M. Gorky.
Soviet proletarian S. differs from S. of the capitalist classes not only in its subject matter. It introduces significant qualitative changes. In a proprietary society, S. was either a denial of the entire social system as a whole or a criticism of certain aspects of this system. Soviet socialism is directed primarily against the class-hostile reality, against its direct class enemy opposing the Soviet socialist system. When Soviet socialism is aimed at the shortcomings of its class reality, it reveals these shortcomings as alien class layers, as a result of a different, hostile social system, for these shortcomings were not created by the socialist society that was under construction, but by the unrequited consciousness of the owner. M. Koltsov sharply formulates the meaning of Soviet satire: “Is it possible satire, the nature of which is dissatisfaction with the existing, angry or acrimonious attitude towards existing reality in a country where exploitation does not exist and where socialism is being built? Yes, it is possible. With the blade of satire, the Soviet writer fights against the baseness of sycophancy, ignorance and stupidity. The working class is the last in the history of classes, and it will be the last to laugh ”(speech at the International Congress of Writers). Proletarian S. is aimed not only at criticizing its own shortcomings. It exposes above all the hostile capitalist system. Only from a proletarian position is true S. to the capitalist system possible now. The bourgeois satirist does not know the recipes for improving and correcting his system and cannot come to terms with its complete denial. This makes his S. half-hearted, deprives it of its sharpness and effectiveness. Only by moving to proletarian positions can he give a comprehensive satirical criticism. Soviet S. is busy exposing the shortcomings in its own ranks. On this path, she managed to conquer a number of various genres: satire-fables by D. Bedny, satire by Mayakovsky, short stories by Zoshchenko and great satirical novels by Ilf and Petrov, essays and feuilletons by M. Koltsov, comedies by Bezymensky ("Shot"), Kirshon (" Wonderful alloy "), Konstantin Finn. This introduction of S. into almost all genres, this variety of satirical forms, in itself proves how necessary and relevant the Soviet S. Bibliography:
Theory: Lehmann R., Satire und Humor, in his book. Poetik, 2 Aufl., Munchen, 1919; Wiegand J., Satire; RehmW., Satirischer Roman, in the book. Reallexikon der deutschen Literaturgeschichte, Bd. III, Berlin, 1928-1929. General works: Hannay J., Lectures on satire and satirists, L., 1854; Soldini E., Breve storia della satira, Cremona, 1891; Schneegans H., Geschichte der grotesken Satire, Strassb., 1894. Antique satire: Fraenkel E., Das Reifen der horazischen Satire, in sb. "Festschrift fur R. Reitzenstein", Lpz., 1931. Italian satire: Cian V., La satira italiana, Milano, 1924. English satire: Cranstoun G., ed., Satirical poems of the time of Reformation, 2 vv., Edinb. , 1891-1833 (texts); Alden R. M., The rise of formal satire in England under classical influence, Philadelphia, 1899; Hazlitt W., Lectures on the English comic writers, L., 1900; Tucker S. M., Verse satire in England before the Renaissance, N.Y., 1909; Previte-Orton C. W., Political satire in English poetry, N.Y., 1910; Russell F. T., Satire in the Victorian novel, N.Y., 1920; Walker H., English satire and satirists, L., 1925; CazamianL., The development of English humor, N.Y., 1930. German satire: FlogelK.F., Geschichte des Grotesk-Komischen, neubearb. v. F. W. Ebeling, Lpz., 1862; The same, neubearb. v. M. Bauer, 2 Bde, Munchen, 1914; Ebeling F. W., Geschichte der komischen Literatur in Deutschland seit der Mitte des XVIII Jahrhunderts, 3 Bde, Lpz., 1862-1869; Schade O., Satiren und Pasquine aus der Reformationszeit, 2 Bde, 2 Aufl., Hannover, 1863; Geiger L., Deutsche Satiriker der XVI Jahrhunderts, Berlin, 1878; Glass M., Klassische und romantische Satire, Stuttg., 1905; Klamroth H., Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Traumsatire im XVII u. XVIII Jh., Diss., Bonn, 1912; Satirische Bibliothek, Quellen u. Urkunden zur Geschichte der deutschen Satire, hrsgb. v. O. Mausser, Bd. I-II, Munchen, 1913; Wiegand J., Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung in Strenger Systematik ... dargestellt, Koln, 1922. French satire: Lenient C., La satire en France au Moyen-age, P., 1859; Him, La Satire en France ou la litterature militante au XVI-e siecle, P., 1866; Gottschalk W., Die humoristische Gestalt in der franzosischen Literatur, Hdlb., 1928; MaxH., Die Satire in der franzosischen Publizistik unt. bes. Berucks. d. franz. Witzblattes, Die Entwicklung v. d. Anfangen bis zum Jahre 1880, Diss., Munchen, 1934; LippsT., Komik und Humor, 2 Aufl., Lpz., 1922; Naguevsky D.I., Roman satire and Juvenal. Literary Critical Research, Mitava, 1879; Ostolopov N. F., Dictionary of Ancient and New Poetry, Part 3, St. Petersburg, 1821; Belinsky VG, Russian Literature in 1843, "Notes of the Fatherland", v. 32, 1844 (statements about satire when assessing the work of Gogol); Dobrolyubov N.A., Interlocutors of lovers of the Russian word, “Polnoe sobr. Sochin. ", under the general editorship of PI Lebedev-Polyansky, vol. I, (M.), 1934 (originally in Sovremennik, 1856, books VIII and IX signed by N. Laibov); His own, Answer to the remarks of A.D. Galakhov about the previous article, ibid, vol. I (M.), 1934 (originally in Sovremennik, 1856, book IX; Galakhov's article - Criticism on “There were also fables "(In" Otechestvennye zapiski ", 1856, October.); His, On the degree of participation of the nationality in the development of Russian literature, ibid, v. I, (M.), 1934 (originally in" Sovremennik ", 1858, vol. 2 signed: "-bov"); His same, Russian satire in the age of Catherine, ibid, v. II, (M.), 1935 (regarding the work of A. Afanasyev mentioned below; originally in Sovremennik, 1859, book 10, unsigned); Afanasyev A.N., Russian satirical journals 1769-1774, M., 1859; The same, new edition, Kazan, 1921; Pokrovsky V., About Russian satirical journals: "Truten", "Hell's mail "," Pustomelya "," Painter "," An industrious ant and others, M., 1897 Him, Dandies in satirical literature of the 18th century., M., 1903; Lemke M.K., From the history of Russian satirical journalism (1857-1864 ), "The World of God", 1903, No. 6-8; The same, in his book: Essays on the history of Russian censorship and journalism of the XIX century, St. Petersburg, 1904; Gornfeld A., Satire, "Encyclopedic Dictionary", ed. F.A., I.A. Efron, half-written. 56, St. Petersburg, 1900; Chebotarevskaya Anastasia From life and literature. (Russian satire of our days), "Education", 1906, no. 5; Masanov I.F., Russian satiro-humorous journalism. Bibliographic description, issue I-III, Vladimir, 1910-1913 ("Works of Vlad. Academic archival commission", books XI, XV-XVIII); Sakulin P.N., Sociological satire, "Bulletin of education", 1914, No. 4; Satirical. Sat. No. 1 - Berangerovtsy, M., 1914; The same, Sat. 2 - Heinevtsy, M., 1917; Begak B., Kravtsov N., Morozov A., Russian literary parody, M. - L., 1930; Imaginary poetry, Materials on the history of poetic parody of the 18th and 19th centuries, Edited by Yu. Tynyanov, ed. "Academia", M. - L., 1931; Epigram and satire. From the history of the literary struggle of the 19th century, vol. I, 1800-1840, composition. Orlov, vol. II, 1840-1880, comp. A. Ostrovsky, ed. "Academia", M. - L., 1931-1932; Kravtsov N. and Morozov A., Satire of the 60s, ed. and before. N. Belchikova, ed. "Academia", M. - L., 1932; Iskra Poets, ed. and note. Yampolsky, (L. ), 1933 (Library of the poet, Edited by M. Gorky); Vinogradov Nikolay, Satire and Humor in 1905-1907. Bibliographic index, "Bibliographic news", 1916, No. 3-4; Botsyanovsky V. and GolerbakhE., Russian satire of the first revolution of 1905-1906, L., 1925; Dreiden S., 1905 in satire and humor, L., 1925; ChukovskyK. and Dreyden S., Russian revolution in satire and humor: L., 1925; Album of revolutionary satire of 1905-1906, ed. S.I. Mitskevich, M., 1926 (Museum of the USSR Revolution); Isakov S., 1905 in satire and caricature, L., 1928; Timonich A.A., Russian satirical and humorous magazines 1905-1907. in connection with satirical magazines of the 18th and 19th centuries. Materials for bibliography, M., 1930 (steklographer, ed.). Av Y., Satirical literature and preparation for the coup. (From memoirs), "Time", 1917, no. 887; Fritsche V., Satire, Satirical magazines, "Encyclopedic Dictionary", ed. "Br. A. and I. Granat and Co. ", ed. 7, b.y .; Maevich A., Humor and satire, "Journalist", 1925, No. 4; Shafir Ya., Comic and satirical techniques. (To the characteristics of satirical journalism in 1917), "Journalist", 1927, No. 9-10; L. L., Satire in 1917, "Reader and Writer", 1928, No. 10; Shafir A., ​​On the question of a satirical novel, "Print and Revolution", 1929, no. 12; Yakubovsky, G., On the satire of our days, "Literaturnaya gazeta", 1929, no. 12; Boychevsky V., Ways of Soviet satire, "Soviet Land", 1931, No. 1; Nusinov I., Questions of the genre in proletarian literature, "Literature and Art", 1931, No. 2-3; Mezier 4. V., Dictionary of Bibliology, P., 1924, pp. 277-279, 308-309. see also the literature on individual satirists. magazines and satirical writers.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 volumes; Moscow: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V.M. Fritsche, A.V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Satire

(lat. satira), one of the types comic, a specific way of depicting reality, the purpose of which is to reveal it as something incongruous, inconsistent and cause laughter. Satire creates an image of reality, highlighting the most ridiculous or negative features in it. For this, it resorts to grotesque, irony etc. A characteristic feature of satire is a negative attitude towards the object of the image and, at the same time, the presence of a positive ideal, against the background of which the negative features of the image are revealed.
Satire as a genre appeared in ancient Roman literature - one of the genres of lyrics with an accusatory orientation. Then she began to define the specifics of many genres: fables, comedy, pamphlet, feuilleton, epigrams etc., it can permeate any other genre: satirical story, satirical novel, etc. Fantastic, allegorical satire stands out - ridicule using Aesopian language, deducing real people and events under the guise of animals or personified concepts. Such satire is typical of fables. In prose, this technique was used by J. Swift("Gulliver's Travels"), M. Ye. Saltykov-Shchedrin(fairy tales, "The history of one city"). Psychological satire studies the negative traits of the human personality, their origin and nature: "Dead Souls" N.V. Gogol, "Lord Golovlevs" by ME Saltykov-Shchedrin.
In ancient literature, satire is not only a genre education; she infiltrates comedy Plauta and Terence, into an adventure novel: "Satyricon" by Petronius, "The Golden Donkey" Apulea... In medieval literature, satirical genres of fablio and farce; the Renaissance gives rise to social satire. Unlike farce, which makes fun of funny situations, and fablio (funny stories about ridiculous situations that heroes find themselves in), the Renaissance satire ridicules the vices of society as a whole: "Praise of stupidity" Erasmus of Rotterdam, "Decameron" J. Boccaccio, "Gargantua and Pantagruel" F. Rabelais, "Don Quixote" M. Cervantes, comedy W. Shakespeare... Classicism tends towards the satire of strictly defined types; for example, masks of prude, hypocrite, etc. have found a vivid expression in comedies Moliere... In the era of the Enlightenment, the philosophical satire of D. Diderot, Voltaire, C. Montesquieu, J. Swift. In the 19th and 20th centuries. satire penetrates all genres, exposing the vices of modern civilization: M. Twain, A. France, G. Wells, TO. Chapek, I AM. Hasek, G.K. Chesterton, B. Show, G. Mann, B. Brecht etc. Satire modernism has a tinge of hopelessness, mockery of the absurdity of the surrounding world (E. Ionesco).
In Russian. literature satire appears in the late. 17th century: democratic stories "The Tale of the hawk maker", "Shemyakin court", "Kalyazin petition" and poems Simeon of Polotsk... In the era of classicism and enlightenment, A.D. Cantemir, N. I. Novikov, I. A. Krylov; the satirical beginning penetrated the genres of comedy, travel and others by A.D. Sumarokova, D. I. Fonvizin, A. N. Radishcheva, I. A. Krylova. In the 19th and 20th centuries. the genre of satire as such is rarely developed ("Satires in Prose" by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin), but the satirical beginning colors the genres of comedy, parody, novel: "Woe from Wit" by A. S. Griboyedov, "The Inspector General" and "Dead Souls" by N. V. Gogol, comedies by A. N. Ostrovsky, satirical poetry of the magazine "Iskra". In the literature of the 20th century. satirical tendencies are manifested in the works of V.V. Mayakovsky, MM. Zoshchenko, M. A. Bulgakov, A. P. Platonov, E. L. Schwartz, I. Ilf and E. Petrov and others. A special place in the history of satire is occupied by the work of Russian absurdists - the poets of the group OBERIU: A. I. Vvedensky, D. I. Kharms.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M .: Rosman. Edited by prof. A.P. Gorkina 2006 .

Satire

SATIRE... - In a somewhat vague and vague sense, any literary work is called satire, in which a certain attitude towards the phenomena of life is expressed, namely, condemnation and ridicule of them, exposing them to general laughter, shame and indignation. In this sense, an epic can also be a satire - a fairy tale, a fable, a legend in the genus "Reineke the fox", or "Aeneid on the wrong side", a story and a novel (many of Saltykov's satires, adjoining artistic description of life, like his "Lord Golovlevs"), and comedy, like "The Inspector General" and "Woe from Wit" and lyric works. The satirical attitude of literature to the phenomena of life should be distinguished from humorous (see. Laugh and especially Humor ). In contrast to humor, a special mood, in which the author's laughter is always softened by the author's explicit or hidden sympathy for the mocked person or phenomenon, satire's laughter is more rational. He is an instrument of struggle and indignation, does not smile or laugh merrily, but brings the phenomenon of life to public shame, ridicule and condemnation. With this last feature, an appeal to the public, satire reveals its always journalistic essence. It is a poetic denunciation of reality in the name of a more or less definite social ideal. In its historical origin, precisely in ancient Roman literature, satire is a poetic, lyrical poem of a more or less significant volume, in which we find a more or less negative or sharply condemning and indignant image of the properties and qualities of certain typical persons or a more or less extensive area , or a group of persons and phenomena. Pamphlet and libel should be distinguished from satire by the definitely personal content of attacks and denunciations in the work; the latter is characterized most of all by the moral impurity of the author's motives in his attack and denunciations against this or that person, while a pamphlet is sometimes only a publicistic speech, but it can also be artistic satire against a certain person, standing at the full height of a responsible free speech. In this regard, the moral and social content of satire is also its artistic value, depending on the correspondence between its lyrical rise and the height of the satirist's ideal, on the one hand, and between the significance of the denounced phenomenon, on the other. Lyrical subjective coloring in relation to types and phenomena usually deprives satire of objective artistic meaning and gives it often fleeting meaning. Satire is rapidly aging, for example, purely satirical sketches of Saltykov are already little directly understood in our time, and only those phenomena of satire are tenacious in which the author, in private and transient phenomena of life, caught gradual and enduring universal and general social weaknesses and vices, persistent features of the individual psychology, repetitive and pervasive perversions of social psychology. As a special poetic form, satire appeared in the civil culture of ancient Rome. It arose from purely folk art, which, in general, in the development of new literatures, repeatedly and constantly refers to satire, as an instrument of self-defense and self-consolation from the strong and powerful. The name of the satyr comes from the word satura - a dish of mishmash - but it is also associated with the name of the mocking Greco-Roman semi-deities - half-animals - satyrs. Roman satire, starting from Ennius and Lucilius, flourished in the hands of Horace, Persia and especially Juvenal, who determined its form for later European classicism. In medieval and new Europe, satire went beyond the framework of the old form and, developing as an independent mood and creativity, had complex and varied destinies, putting forward a number of famous names: in France - Rabelais, Boileau, Voltaire, from the new ones - Courier, Beranger, Barbier, V . Hugo; in England, the genius satirist Swift is of absolutely exceptional importance; in Germany, from Brant's Ship of Fools, there are a large number of satirists who have no general European significance; above all, of course, the brilliant Heine with "Atta Troll"; among the Italians - Ariosto, Gozzi, Alfieri; the Spaniards have a world luminary (more likely, however, a humorist) - Cervantes. Russian satire lived already in the 17th century and earlier in a semi-popular story, the work of buffoons, etc. ("the parable of the hawk maker", satire at the court of Shemyaka and about Ersha Ershovich, the son of Shchetinnikov, etc.). Since the 18th century. satire develops in the Russian century of classicism, as a special lyrical classical form, starting from the satire of Cantemir; have to name: Nikolaev, Kapnist, Dmitrieva, Prince. Vyazemsky, etc. But the magnificent development of satire, as an element of exposure and comic, is especially important. Satire, like an element, captured all journalism in satirical magazines (starting from the 18th century) and comedy and especially a story, a story, a novel. The classical form of satire has disappeared by the 19th century, but its influence is all the stronger, as a trend that does not capture a rare talented writer: here are the lyrics - Pushkin: - "On the recovery of Lucullus" and others "Chronicle of the village of Goryukhin"; Ryleev - "Temporary worker"; Lermontov - "Duma" and others; Nekrasov - "Reflection at the front door", "Wretched and elegant" and many others. his other works, and playwrights (Fonvizin, Griboyedov, Gogol, Ostrovsky), and novelists (Gogol with his poem - "Dead Souls" and especially Saltykov-Shchedrin, whose scourging and biting satire at times reaches Swift's strength). The history of Russian satire has not been studied in detail either in relation to its classic, now clearly and long-extinct, poetic form, and even more so in relation to the huge satirical content of the Russian story and novel and everyday comedy, closely related to the shifts of class moods in society. We have to refer the reader to general works on the history of literature and on the study of individual satirical writers.

V. Cheshihin-Vetrinsky. Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M .; L .: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925

Hello dear readers of the blog site. Modern satirical writers often appear in front of the audience on television screens. Satirical works remain in memory for a long time.

But who would have thought that the philosophical sketches of M. Zadornov or the caustic humoresques of M. Zhvanetsky are the offshoots of a mighty tree rooted in archaic antiquity?

Satire is considered one of oldest art forms... What is the meaning and origin of the term, what is satire in literature - let's try to figure it out together.

Definition of satire - what it is

Exists several meanings of the term:

1. Satire is itself a type of attitude towards reality that criticizes the vices of society.

2. Satire in literature Is a small genre aimed at ridiculing a specific, separately taken flaw. It belongs to the comic genres, to which humor also belongs, and.

3. Literary device of denial through laughter, applicable within the framework.

The first and second definitions are easy to understand, but the third one must say the following: if you compare a work of art with a culinary masterpiece, then:

satire can be served not only as a main course, but also as a seasoning.

When is satire served in the form of seasoning(in its third meaning), it can penetrate both the epic and: for example, Ryleev's thought, Ostrovsky's play or Chekhov's story.

The history of the origin of satire

Literary critics say that the nature of satire has not been sufficiently researched. At school, it is customary to talk about who the author makes fun of and whom the author defends, how this is connected with the socio-political situation and how the government reacted to the satirical attack of the writer.

Without this, for example, the study of the comedy "The Inspector General" and the poem "Dead Souls" by Gogol cannot pass. Meanwhile, the history of satire is very interesting.

The word itself comes from the Latin "satira" and is associated with the concept "".

This was the name of the ritual street festivities that were associated with the changing seasons. On Saturnalia, the outgoing year and its events were subjected to ridicule.

His departure (death) was perceived as something comic, and therefore did not cause the sadness that usually accompanies farewell. But the onset of a new time was perceived calmly.

This ritual of experiencing death and rebirth was familiar to the pagans. The perception of natural and life cycles, an agrarian cult with the myth of Demeter and Persephone was based on it. These ordinances were called mysteries and came in many varieties.

Satire inherited from ancient festivals striving for cleansing through laughter, a shame. It frees a person from vice, depicted in the brightest colors.

Imagine that the inhabitants of a small Greek polis attended a performance, the hero of which, a selfish curmudgeon, disgraced himself on stage. Every word of a miser the next day became a proverb, and his behavior, typical of every miser, becomes the object of ridicule.

Now, realizing the comic nature of his situation, the lover of profit each time remembers what he saw and is wary of exposure.

It turns out that satire - it is a powerful weapon necessary for people to strive for excellence.

Satire genres

As we have found out, satire can penetrate into any literary genre, decorating both classical tragedy and the pages of a realistic novel.

However, there are a number of varieties of verbal creativity that cannot be imagined without a satirical filling.

The most famous genres of satire:

1. satire itself;
2. satirical novel;
3. epigram;
4. pamphlet;
5. libel.

Initially, the genre of satire belonged to lyric poetry, later it appeared epic samples:

1. In the satirical works of Juvenal, Horace, Martial, Virgil, not only human mores are criticized, but also specific politicians, the debauchery and recklessness of tyrants.
2. In the works of N. Boileau, the features of personal satire, addressed to specific individuals, are preserved. They also criticize the vain life in the capital, the worship of false values: wealth, fame, external beauty.
3. In the satirical works of Kantemir, which marked the beginning of the Russian history of the genre, dandies and imitators, denigrating their families and the entire people, are ridiculed.

It arose during the collapse of the Roman Empire. His classic example is the Satyricon by Petronius. We can call the great novel by F. Rabelais "Gargantua and Pantagruel", as well as the book by S. Brant "The Ship of Fools", satirical.

In Russia, the genre is represented by the novel by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlevs".

Fables also known to man from antiquity. The most famous fabulists (Aesop, Lafontaine, Moliere, Krylov) were certainly satirists.

Epigram Is a small satirical genre that makes fun of certain character traits or unseemly actions. In Russian lyrics, the epigram can be found in the works of Zhukovsky, Pushkin, Yazykov, Lermontov, Baratynsky, Batyushkov.

In the genre of a pamphlet first of all, publicists worked. It firmly established itself in magazine literature and became a favorite form of expression during the Enlightenment.

But libel Is not a genre that everyone should practice. This is the name of the written libel created by the author with ill-intentioned intentions. Usually, with the help of libels, personal scores are settled with someone, therefore this contemptible name is called an essay of bad taste, created indiscriminately for purely personal purposes.

Signs of satirical works

In Russia, satire is usually opposed to humor. There is another tradition: the humorous is divided into satirical, ironic and other types of funny. One way or another, contrasting, we see the differences better.

To understand that we have a satire, but or a funny poem, let's see if the work has these signs:

1. disadvantages are not just named, but also ridiculed(sometimes with or);
2. the mockery cannot be called harmless: by its nature, it sharp, angry sometimes stinging;
3. purpose of satire: destroy, eradicate the old and provoke the emergence of the new;
4. the satirist's tasks are global: he fights "weeds" both in one human heart and in the field of all mankind;
5. satire cannot be imagined outside the life of society;
6. satire knows no shades and compromises, using the most ruthless means of ridicule.

If we talk about the means of artistic expression that help satirists to sharpen the weapon of struggle, then hyperbole, litota, and other ways of creating contrast.

Examples of satire in literature

You can find samples of satirical images from both Russian and foreign writers. In addition to the books already named in our article, pay attention to following works:

In domestic literature the following examples are worth highlighting:

The list is endless.

Brief summary

Satire has lived and will live forever, while writers are worried about the imperfections of our world. It reflected the longing for the ideal and the understanding that it is hardly possible to completely correct human nature.

Good luck to you! See you soon on the pages of the blog site

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