Educational portal. Management functions, management levels One of the management functions

Currently, any production activity at the enterprise is based on specialization and division of labor. Management is no exception. It specializes in the form of management functions.

Control function - these are certain types of managerial activity that have emerged in the process of specialization of managerial work.

The main functions of management were formulated as early as 1916 by A. Fayol in his work "Essential Features of Industrial Administration". In it, he showed that to manage is to predict and plan, organize, coordinate and control.

In modern management science, the following main management functions are distinguished:

• planning;
• organization;
• coordination;
• the control;
• motivation.

Let's consider the specifics of each of them in more detail.

Planning

A. Fayol believed that planning is the main form of management. He wrote: "The best program is not able to foresee all the extraordinary confluences of circumstances that may happen, but it partly takes them into account - it prepares the tool that will have to be resorted to under unexpected circumstances." Therefore, planning is pre-decision-making before action is taken.

Planning is to anticipate the goals of the organization, the resources needed to achieve them, and the results of activities.

Planning helps answer four important questions:

• What should an organization be?
• Where is the organization currently located?
• Where is she going to go?
• How, with what resources can the goals of the organization be achieved?

Thus, planning includes:

• 1. Setting the goals of the organization and concretizing them in the form of tasks.
• 2. Determination of the source and methods of distribution of the resources necessary for solving problems.
• 3. Development of the organization's management structure.
• 4. Creation of coordination mechanisms for coordinating the actions of performers.

American management theorist R. Ackoff, in the 1980s. who developed the interactive planning methodology, singled out several approaches to planning that have developed in management practice:

1. reactive approach.

The essence of this approach is to identify problems that arise in the lower levels of the organization, and plan to solve these problems. Departmental plans representing ways to eliminate deficiencies and threats are transferred to a higher level of management, and so on to the highest level, at which the corporate plan is created. This approach, therefore, is tactical and does not lead to fundamental changes in the organization, rather contributing to the conservation of the existing situation.

R. Ackoff sees another drawback of reactive planning in the fact that such planning is carried out by various parts of the organization independently of each other and thereby ignores the fact that the organization is a system. Many of the shortcomings of the organization manifest themselves as a result of interactions its parts, rather than the actions of each part separately.

2. Preactive approach.

Such planning is strategically oriented. It includes two aspects: foresight and preparation. Strategic planning is carried out at the highest level of management (foresight), and tactical issues related to the implementation of the overall plan are the responsibility of middle and lower managers (training). The latter form action programs that are sent to a higher level, where they are adjusted and coordinated with the overall development program of the organization.

Function (lat. fundio- performance, implementation). The essence of any phenomenon is expressed in its functions, i.e. the tasks for which it is intended. The content of each management function is determined by the specifics of the tasks performed within the framework of this function. Therefore, the complexity of production and its tasks determines the complexity of management and its functions.

This position is of great methodological importance for revealing the essence and role of individual management functions, which in modern conditions have expanded, become more complex and differentiated due to the growth in the scale of economic activity, diversification and internationalization of production.

The functions of managing the company's activities, and, accordingly, the methods of their implementation, are not unchanged, they are constantly modified and deepened, and therefore the content of the work performed in accordance with their requirements becomes more complicated. The development and deepening of each management function occurs not only under the influence of the internal laws of their improvement, but also under the influence of the requirements for the development of other functions. Being part of the overall management system, each of the functions should be improved in the direction determined by the general goals and objectives of the functioning and development of the company in specific conditions. This leads to a change in the content of each function.

For the first time, the management functions were formulated in A. Fayol's book "General and Industrial Management", published in 1916. A. Fayol considered management as a sequential series of operations or functions, which are divided into six groups:

• 1. Technical operations - production, manufacturing, processing.
• 2. Commercial transactions - purchase, sale, exchange.
• 3. Financial transactions - capital raising and management.
• 4. Security operations - protection of property and person.
• 5. Accounting transactions - balance, costs, statistics.
• 6. Administrative operations - foresight, organization, command, coordination and control.

Administration is only one of the six operations-functions with which management is obliged to ensure the normal course of production. A. Fayol believed that administration occupies a special place in management.

Let's take a closer look at administrative functions.

Foresight is the study of the future, the definition of a program of action, it covers the previous five operations. A. Fayol here drew attention to the fact that in order to develop an effective program of action, a leader must have: the ability to manage people, activity, moral courage, sufficient stamina, the necessary competence in this field of activity.

Organization - providing the enterprise with materials, capital, personnel. Two aspects are distinguished here - material and social, i.e., personnel provided with all the necessary material resources must be socially able to complete the task.

Management - puts into action the personnel of the enterprise, after the creation of a social organism. This is the task of management. The goal of management is to get the most benefit from employees. In all areas of production activity, management is the most important element of work that requires certain qualities.

Coordination aims to give each element of the social organism the opportunity to perform its part of the work in interaction with other elements, i.e. link and unite all actions and all efforts.

Control - it is necessary to ensure that everything happens according to the established rules and given orders. It is required to note shortcomings and errors so that they can be corrected and prevented from recurring in the future. The controller must be: competent, have a sense of duty, have an independent position in relation to the controlled object, be reasonable and tactful.

Control must be effective, i.e. carried out in a timely manner and have practical consequences; if violations are not addressed, then such control will be ineffective.

Thus, the five functions listed above were the basis of the administrative doctrine of A. Fayol and the basis for all subsequent authors on the problems of the management process. M. Meskon believes that "the management process is the total sum of all processes."

Literature review reveals the following functions: planning, organization, management, motivation, leadership, coordination, control, communication, research, evaluation, decision making, recruitment, representation and negotiation, deal making.

M. Meskon identifies four primary management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions have two characteristics in common: they all require decision-making, and all require the exchange of information, i.e. these two characteristics link all four managerial functions, ensuring their interdependence.

The planning function, according to M. Mescon, proposes a decision about what the goals of the organization should be and what the members of the organization should do to supposedly achieve these goals. The planning function answers the following three questions: where are we currently? where do we want to go? and how are we going to do it?

The function of the organization involves the formation of the structure of the organization, first the distribution and coordination of the work of employees, and then the design of the structure of the organization as a whole.

The motivation function is the process by which management encourages employees to act as planned and organized.

The control function is the process by which management determines whether the organization is achieving its goals, highlights problems and takes corrective action before serious harm occurs. Control enables management to determine whether plans should be revised because they are not feasible or have already been completed. This connection between planning and control completes the cycle that makes process management interrelated functions.

IN Gerchikova approaches the content and development of management functions in relation to the activities of TNCs. Each of the functions is aimed at solving specific and complex problems of interaction between individual divisions of the company, requiring the implementation of a large set of specific activities.

Each of the management functions is determined by the influence of objective requirements. Being part of the overall management system, each of the functions should be improved in the direction determined by the general goals and objectives of the functioning and development of the company in specific conditions. This leads to a change in the content of each function.

I. N. Gerchikova distinguishes three management functions: intra-company planning, marketing and control. Of interest is the function of marketing, the purpose of which is to ensure the activities of the company on the basis of a comprehensive, in-depth study and careful consideration of market demand, the needs and requirements of specific consumers for the product, so that it becomes really possible to obtain the highest results: maximum and sustainable profit.

For a deeper understanding of the essence of this management function, it must be emphasized that the most important integral feature of marketing is a certain way of thinking, an approach to making design, production and marketing decisions from the standpoint of the most complete satisfaction of consumer requirements, market demand. Hence marketing - not only the principles, functions, methods, structures of the organization, but also mandatory marketing thinking. Without this, it is impossible to achieve a high quality competitiveness of products, to consolidate positions in the markets. Therefore, marketing as a theory, a way of thinking, a philosophy of entrepreneurial activity requires scientific study and a realistic approach to use in management practice.

The internal life of an organization consists of a large number of different actions and processes. Depending on the types of organization, its size and type of activity, certain processes and activities may occupy a leading place in it, while some, widely implemented in other organizations, may either be absent or minimally carried out. However, despite the huge variety of actions and processes, a certain number of groups can be distinguished. O. S. Vikhansky, A. I. Naumov suggest five groups of functional processes, which, in their opinion, cover the activities of any organization and which are the object of management by management. These functions are; production, marketing, finance, work with personnel, accounting and analysis of economic activity.

The production function assumes that the relevant services, managers of a certain level manage the process of processing raw materials, materials and semi-finished products into a product that the organization offers to the external environment.

The marketing function is called upon, through marketing activities for the implementation of the created product, to link into a single process the satisfaction of the needs of the organization's customers and the achievement of the organization's goals.

The financial function is to manage the process of movement of funds in the organization.

The function of personnel management is associated with the use of the capabilities of employees to achieve the goals of the organization.

The function of accounting and analysis of economic activities involves managing the process of processing and analyzing information about the work of the organization in order to compare the actual activities of the organization with its capabilities, as well as with the activities of other organizations. This allows the organization to uncover the issues that it needs to pay close attention to and choose the best ways to carry out its activities.

Some authors also identify five general management functions: planning, organizing, coordinating, controlling, and motivating. Of interest here is the organizing function, the task of which is to form the structure of the organization, as well as to provide everything necessary for normal work - personnel, materials, equipment, buildings, funds, etc. In a plan drawn up in an organization, there is always an organization stage, i.e. . creating real conditions for achieving the planned goals.

The second, no less important task of the organizing function is to create conditions for the formation of such a culture within the organization, which is characterized by high sensitivity to changes, scientific and technological progress, and common values ​​for the entire organization. The main thing here is work with personnel, development of strategic and economic thinking in the minds of managers, support for employees of an entrepreneurial warehouse who are prone to creativity, innovation and are not afraid to take risks and take responsibility for solving certain problems.

The authors consider the central function of the management process to be coordination, which ensures its uninterrupted and continuous operation. The main task of coordination is to achieve consistency in the work of all parts of the organization by establishing rational links between them. The nature of these links can be very different, as it depends on the coordinated processes.

B. R. Vesnin also identifies five management functions - planning, organization, coordination, motivation and control. All of these functions do not just form a single whole, they are intertwined with each other, penetrate each other so that it is sometimes difficult to separate them.

S. U. Oleyniki and others distinguish 4 management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control.

A somewhat different approach to management functions is presented by S. G. Popov. When performing any managerial function, the synthesis (association) of employees is carried out to perform the tasks set, and their activities are coordinated. It is this element of synthesis in managerial activity that distinguishes management functions from executive functions. Production management functions are a relatively independent type of synthesizing activity, due to the presence of a division of labor in production management. The relativity of this independence lies in the fact that any managerial decisions and actions are subordinated to the ultimate goal of management.

Management functions are divided into general and specialized management functions.

The functions of general management are designed to ensure the basic order of the functioning of production, as well as the interaction of this enterprise with external organizations and institutions. These functions are performed by production management bodies, endowed with the rights of linear management.

The functions of specialized management are divided into three groups: technological, providing, coordinating.

Technological functions include the development of rational systems for the production of products, technologies for its creation, processing, storage and transportation.

Providing functions provide for the fulfillment of the requirements of production technology by providing it with everything necessary. This includes engineering, logistical, cultural and household and economic services.

Coordinating functions provide forecasting of the development of the enterprise; production-economic and operational-technical planning; organization of production processes and labor of people; control and regulation of the production process.

The marketing function is considered separately. It includes the study of market conditions (demand, competition, consumers), the development of commodity, marketing, pricing and communication strategies for behavior in the markets. Marketing allows you to connect the interests of producers and consumers of products. Since everyone is a consumer, marketing allows you to decide on the release of only those goods that are necessary for society.

A peculiar approach to the functions of production management is presented by VV Glukhov. It proposes a division of functions in the following areas. On the basis of a managed object - an enterprise, workshop, site, team, unit (worker); on the basis of activity - economic, organizational, social; on the basis of homogeneity - general, specific; according to the content of labor - scientific research, preparation of production, operational management, supply and marketing, technical and economic planning and analysis, accounting, personnel management, planning and accounting of labor and wages, planning and accounting of finances; by the nature of the tasks - planning, organization, regulation, control, accounting and analysis, stimulation.

The described functions of intra-company management allow us to conclude that there is no single scheme, a single content of functions. However, despite this, all nine options for functions have much in common. A characteristic feature of all variants is that functions such as planning, organization and control are found almost everywhere. The function of motivation is widespread, in some cases it has a slightly different name. The functions proposed by S. G. Popov stand apart, although the usual content is behind the specific names.

MANAGEMENT

1 The relevance of management in a market economy. The role of the manager.

Management is very relevant in a market economy. Management- this is the ability to achieve goals using labor, intelligence, behavioral motives of people working in an organization - this is an independent type of professionally carried out activity aimed at achieving the intended goals in market conditions through the rational use of material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of the economic mechanism management. Management - management in market conditions.

Manager is a person professionally engaged in management activities, empowered to make management decisions and carry out their implementation.

The purpose of the manager's work is to ensure the stable competitiveness of the company. (in management decision making)

In the activity of a manager, the ability to anticipate changes and take timely action is considered the most valuable.

Key manager roles:

1. Decision-making role- the manager determines the direction of the organization's movement, decides on the allocation of resources, and makes current adjustments.

2. Information role- collection of information about the internal and external environment, dissemination of this information in the form of facts and regulations.

3. Leader's role– formation of relations inside and outside the organization, motivation of members of the organization to achieve goals, coordination of their efforts.

2 The main features and content of management activities.

The managerial activity of the manager ensures the effective management of the organization of various organizational and legal forms, economic processes, production and social infrastructure. He organizes and improves the management system, develops optimal management decisions and projects. The manager carries out his professional activities in the field of management and business at state enterprises, joint-stock companies and private firms. Its activities extend to scientific and production associations, scientific and design organizations, government bodies.

The objects of professional managerial activity of specialists are various organizations of the economic, industrial and social spheres, government bodies and social infrastructure of the national economy, units of management systems of state and private enterprises of various organizational and legal forms.

The entire process of management activity can be divided into several components, or stages, interconnected, the development of which ensures the effectiveness of the entire process as a whole.

Analysis is the first step in any management activity. Within its framework, information is collected, processed, classified, systematized, stored and analyzed for management purposes. The problem is divided into many separate parts, then possible interdependencies and relationships between them are identified, the entire set of causes and effects is recognized, the patterns of the emergence and existence of the system are determined. As part of the analytical activity, any manager should strive to specify the problem facing him, having processed the largest possible amount of information related to it.

3 Concept and essence of management.

Management - management in the conditions of the market, market economy.

Management is the ability to achieve goals using labor, intelligence, behavioral motives of people working in an organization - this is an independent type of professionally carried out activity aimed at achieving the intended goals in market conditions through the rational use of material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of economic management mechanism.

Means:

1. Orientation of the company to the demand and needs of the market, to the request of specific consumers and the organization of production of those types of goods (products) that are in demand and can bring the company a large planned profit.

2. Constantly striving to improve production efficiency to obtain optimal results at a lower cost

3. Economic independence, providing freedom of decision for those who are responsible for the final results of the company or its divisions.

4. Constant adjustment of goals and programs depending on the state of the market

5. Identification of the final result of the activity of the firm or its economically independent units in the market in the process of exchange.

4 Management as a kind of activity.

To manage means to decide.

In order for an organization to achieve its goals, its tasks must be coordinated. Therefore, management is an essential activity for an organization. It is an integral part of any human activity that, to one degree or another, needs to be coordinated. It is not only industry that needs to be managed, but states, cities and territories, industries, hospitals and universities, churches and welfare agencies.

Management is considered as a type of human activity aimed at achieving a specific goal or goals. Management must set the direction for the firm it manages. He must think through the mission of the firm, set its goals, and organize resources to produce the results that the firm must give to society.

The most obvious characteristic of organizations is the division of labor. As soon as there is a horizontal and vertical division of labor in the organization, there is a need for management.

Management as a type of activity is implemented through the implementation of a number of management actions, called management functions. The most important management functions include: forecasting, planning, organization, coordination and regulation, activation and stimulation, accounting and control. Consideration of management as a function is associated with the development of the composition, content of all types of management activities and their relationship in space and time. It is management that creates economic and social development.

5 The concept of "management" and the concept of "management".

In general, management /management/ should be represented as the ability to achieve goals using labor, behavioral motives and people's intellect. We are talking about a targeted impact on people in order to turn unorganized elements into an effective and productive force. In other words, management is the human capabilities by which leaders use resources to achieve the organization's strategic and tactical goals.

In the Dictionary of Foreign Words "management" is translated into Russian as production management and as a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management in order to increase the efficiency of production and its profitability.

In modern theory and practice, management is understood as the process of leadership (management) of an individual employee, a working group and an organization as a whole. Almost all well-known foreign encyclopedias interpret the concept of "management" as the process of achieving the organization's goals through the hands of other people. The subject of this process is the manager.

Management is an integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, necessary to achieve the goals of the organization.

6 Basic principles of management.

Basic principles of management These are general rules of thumb. They belong to the category of universal ones, the observance of which should lead the team to a common goal: the prosperity of a company, enterprise, organization or other structure. They are a guide for managers, which suggests that they choose the most universal strategy for achieving goals.

Principles of strategic management Here we list the basic rules that the employees of an organization must follow in order to achieve their goals.

Single direction. This means that a group of employees must have a clear idea of ​​a common goal and interests.

development dominant. Presenting a growth perspective is another important point in strategic management. Here employees see the rate of return and technology, and on the basis of this they represent the most important areas of management

Scientific. At this point, the situational and systemic approaches are applied. Based on scientific knowledge, the most optimal ways to perform the tasks are selected.

Submission of personal interests to the general. Here you can see the hierarchy of interests: the aspirations and interests of one employee or group should not be more significant than organizational ones.

Profitability. Here, the solution of problems occurs on the basis of an assessment of the available resources and, depending on this, a method for solving them is chosen.

Division of labor. The manager must set two types of tasks for the organization: short-term (it takes a little time to complete them) and strategic (the implementation of which ultimately leads to profitability). One group of people works on the first category, and the other on the second.

7 Features of Russian management

Like any other type of activity, management has its own characteristics. The Russian system of governance is undoubtedly different from the European one. This is due to many factors. In Russia, management appeared relatively recently, with the emergence of market relations and the development of entrepreneurship. It is based on human resources (employees) and entrepreneurial activity. - Read more on FB.ru:

Features of Russian management are:

1. extremely high speed of political and socio-economic processes in the country, which cannot but have a significant impact on all spheres of human activity;

2. a combination of factors that contribute to the development and strengthening of the management system or, conversely, hinder it;

3. special features of the mentality of the Russian people.

The peculiarities of Russian management also lie in the fact that the very concept of "manager" in our country is very vague. In the narrow sense of the word, a manager is a manager, head of an enterprise, a large company. In our country today, this term denotes a different type of activity. In Russian companies, a secretary, an administrator responsible for small paperwork, is also called a manager, which is not entirely true.

The main feature is the mentality of the Russians, the main obstacle to the Americanization of Russia. He is the reason for the failure of Yeltsin's economic and socio-political reforms. Any attempt to bring about change in Russia if it ignores the Russian mentality is doomed to failure.

In terms of the level of development of market relations, Russia lags behind Western countries by at least half a century. Today our country is going through the stage of development of market relations that Europe passed several decades ago. In Russia, there is no such rich experience in managing enterprises in conditions of free competition, which is available in the West, in connection with which such problems of Russian management are noted as:

insufficient knowledge of demand. Demand for a particular product is determined only after the achievement of the final result of the activity;

lack of long-term business development goals;

the lack of an independent assessment of the activities of Russian managers;

the absence of a leadership reserve school, corruption, the inability to achieve the desired result of one's entrepreneurial activity without having connections in high circles, money, etc.

The features of modern Russian management are most of all manifested in four main factors:

management infrastructure, political and socio-economic conditions of its existence;

setting priority tasks and directing efforts towards their implementation;

a set of measures aimed at developing the sphere of management in Russia;

a feature of public consciousness, the change of which requires a very long period of time.

Today, many managers of Russian enterprises are trying to adopt the experience of managing Western firms, which does not always end well. It should be understood that some of the laws and management rules that are successfully operating in Europe are completely unsuitable for work in Russian conditions. Features of Russian management are considered as the main distinguishing feature in the management of a company in Russia and in the West. A person who grew up in our country and received a Russian education has his own approach to solving a particular problem, reacts in his own way to various situations, which creates certain difficulties in following the Western model of management. This does not mean at all that we should completely abandon the experience of developed countries in the field of governance and look for its new ways from scratch. Taking into account all the main features of Russian management, thoroughly studying the experience of a country that has come a long way in the field of management, one can be very successful in many areas of activity available to a Russian entrepreneur and manager.

8 Formation of the concept of management in Russia.

The most important factor influencing the specifics of management is the mentality of the nation. Currently, in the main concepts of the formation of Russian management put forward, mentality is given different meanings. The transition to the market put forward the task of forming Russian management.

1.The concept of copying Western management theory. It does not take into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality. Russia “needs to take a ready-made management model and use it in managing the economy...”. To master the theory, it will only be necessary to translate Western textbooks and monographs into Russian. Then, without changing anything, use these provisions in practice. The likelihood of this concept being implemented is very high due to its simplicity and the habit of thoughtlessly copying Western experience. But it also carries a great danger. It suffices to recall the use of the theory of “monetarism”, not adapted to the conditions of Russia, the concepts of “shock therapy”, voucherization, etc. It is possible to predict new shocks that await Russia in the implementation of this concept.

2. The concept of adaptation of Western management theory. It assumes partial consideration of the peculiarities of the Russian mentality, i.e. not blind copying, but the adaptation of Western theory to modern Russian conditions. This raises an important problem, which of the Western management theories will we adapt? The control systems of Japan, the USA, Western Europe are very different from each other. Which of these options should be taken as analog? But with any choice, we run the risk of using a theory that takes into account specific features, the conditions for the functioning of the economy, the level of socio-economic development of these countries, the mentality of their inhabitants. Here it is advisable to recall the words of M. Weber: “Western-type capitalism could arise only in Western civilization”

3.The concept of creation of the Russian theory of management. It proceeds from the full consideration of the peculiarities of the Russian mentality using aspects of world management experience. At the same time, neither blind copying of the Western and Eastern experience, nor a complete denial of the achievements of the Western and Eastern schools of management is possible. Both the first and the second are equally inapplicable. It should be noted that even A. Marshall argued that: “Economics is not a collection of specific truth, but only a tool for discovering specific truth” 3. In our opinion, this statement can be completely transferred to the science of management. Therefore, Russian management must have its own specific content, forms and methods of management that correspond to the specifics of the Russian mentality.

The object of management, its fundamental category is the organization (enterprise).

The nature, properties and formal structure of the organization as an object of management depend on its type, hierarchical level and functional area of ​​activity.

Managers (subjects management) - managers of various levels who hold a permanent position in the organization and are empowered to make decisions in certain areas of the organization's activities.

* leaders of the organization;

* Head of structural units;

* organizers of certain types of work (administrators).

Types of management- special areas of management activities related to the solution of certain management tasks.

general or general management consists in managing the activities of the organization as a whole or its independent economic units.

functional or special management consists in the management of certain areas of activity of the organization or its links, for example, the management of innovation, personnel, marketing, finance, etc.

Based on content There are normative, strategic and operational management.

Regulatory management provides for the development and implementation of the philosophy of the organization, its entrepreneurial policy, determining the position of the organization in a competitive market niche and the formation of common strategic intentions.

Strategic management involves the development of a set of strategies, their distribution over time, the formation of the potential for success of the organization and the provision of strategic control over their implementation.

Operational management provides for the development of tactical and operational measures aimed at the practical implementation of the adopted strategies for the development of the organization.

Can be distinguished main categories of management that determine the effectiveness of management.

Control functions. At each stage of the organization's activities, it is necessary that the composition of the management functions correspond to the complexes of the organization's work. According to the management functions, a minimum, but necessary composition of resources should be performed.

Management structures. The management structure of the organization should have a reasonable number of management levels and structural units. Management structures should be flexible (if necessary, quickly rebuild). They should be reviewed periodically. Moreover, it is necessary to conduct a separate analysis of linear and functional control. When analyzing linear management, it is advisable to single out a linear management structure that excludes functional links (planning department, accounting, etc.) and consider all the relationships that have developed in it between management employees at different levels in terms of resources, results and lost benefits.

Management methods. They should be applied in a single system: economic, socio-psychological and administrative, and correlated with specific goals (tasks) of the organization.

Management processes and management decisions. The sources of management efficiency in these categories are the efficiency of the implementation of the stages of managerial decision-making and the quality of the performance of individual management functions at individual stages. In many ways, the quality and efficiency of management services depends on the qualifications of management employees, their work experience, activity and creativity.

Responsibility of employees (bodies) of management. It is necessary to develop a system of responsibility and clearly regulate in the job descriptions of employees the duties, relationships, rights and measure of responsibility for the general and individual results of work.

Management personnel. Under the new conditions, it is necessary to change the methods of selecting personnel when they are admitted to the organization, to improve the system for evaluating their performance, leadership style and methods of remuneration of managers.

10 Management functions: purpose, diversity, composition.

Management function - a type of management activity, with the help of which the subject of management influences the managed object

All management functions can be divided into two groups according to the following criteria: according to the content of the management process (basic functions) and according to the direction of impact on management objects (specific or concrete functions).

General (basic) management functions.

These include:

1) planning;

2) organization;

3) leadership;

4) motivation;

The control.

The number of specific management functions in the enterprise will be as many as the areas (types) of production and economic activities that serve as objects of management. To manage a particular area of ​​activity, a management body (department, service, bureau) is created. The formulation of a specific management function begins with the word "management". Specific management functions include: management of scientific and technical preparation of production; main production management; management of auxiliary and service production; product quality management; labor and payroll management; personnel management; logistics management; financial and credit management; product marketing management; capital construction management; management of the social development of the team. A specific function is assigned to a management body (accounting, personnel department, financial department, planning and economic department, etc.), whose team is engaged in the performance of this function along with participation in the performance of all five general (basic) management functions. Each specific function at the enterprise is complex in content and includes five general management functions (planning, organization, leadership, motivation and control) to influence organizationally separate management objects.

The carrier of general (basic) management functions is the entire management system, and the carrier of specific (specific) management functions are parts (departments, services) of the management system

All common (basic) functions mutually penetrate each other. Thus, for example, planning is organized, motivated, controlled, and managed. The organization is planned, motivated, controlled, etc. Each specific function includes all general functions. It turns out that in any management unit, all three groups of management functions (general, specific and special) are performed, which closely interact with each other in time and space and form a complex of activities carried out by the subject of management when influencing the object of management. The totality of all management functions performed by managers, specialists and technical executives in the management system forms the content of the management process, which will be discussed in a separate topic.

Planning is the process of preparing for the future decisions about what, by whom, how, when should be done.

The function of the organization is to prepare in advance all that is necessary to carry out the plan.

Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act in order to achieve personal and organizational goals.

Control is the process of measuring (comparing) the actual results achieved with the planned ones.

Management decisions are the connecting link of all functions. After the analysis, during the control, the planning is corrected - this is feedback.

11 Types of communication and criteria for their classification.

Communication is the process of transferring information.

The main goal of the communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people, ensuring the understanding of information.

Main communication methods:

1. Methods of interpersonal communications.

2. Methods for collecting, processing and transmitting information.

3. Methods for making and implementing management decisions.

Types of communications of the organization:

A) External organizational:

1. With consumers.

2. With the public.

3. Reporting to government agencies.

B) Intraorganizational:

1. Communication between the organization and the environment.

2.Communications between levels and divisions.

Downlink communications.

In order to improve the efficiency of information flow management, organizational communications require that each manager has an idea of ​​the barriers that arise in the way of information exchange in organizations and methods for improving such exchange.

The main barriers in organizational communications:

1. Distortion of messages:

unintentional;

conscious misrepresentation;

Filtration

mismatch of the statuses of the levels of the organization;

Fear of punishment and a sense of worthlessness.

2. Information overload.

3. Unsatisfactory structure of the organization.

4. Improving and reducing barriers:

* to the qualitative and quantitative determination of the internal structure of communications, i.e. systematization of the transfer of information between the structural elements of the control system;

*to substantiate the external structure of communications, i.e. the system of channels through which information will be transmitted between the elements of the control system and the external environment;

* to determine for each channel of information transmission, the composition and volume of messages transmitted through it and the level of their confidentiality;

*to improve managerial actions, short meetings with subordinates, operational meetings.

The communication process can be represented as a set of basic elements that ensure the transmission of component messages:

1. Sender (communicator) - a person who generates ideas or collects information, selects a channel for transmission, encodes a message and transmits.

2. A message is information that the sender sends to the recipient. In this case, the message can be transmitted in a vertical, i.e. verbal form, non-vertical (gestures, facial expressions or graphic images), and can also be encoded, i.e. transformed into a system of signs, impulses.

3. A channel is a means of transmitting information. Usually, they are media (print, radio, television) and interpersonal channels - a direct personal exchange of messages between the sender and recipient of information.

4. Recipient (recipient) - the person to whom the information is intended.

When exchanging information, the sender and receiver go through several interrelated stages:

1. The birth of an idea.

2. Coding information and forming a message. To convey a formulated idea, the sender must encode it using symbols understandable to the recipient, giving it a certain form. The most commonly used symbols are words, gestures, graphics, etc., which turn an idea into a message.

3. The choice of a communication channel and the transfer of information. To send a message, the sender must select a communication channel that is compatible with the type of characters used for encoding. The most frequently used channels are: telephone, fax, speech and written materials, electronic means of communication, including computer communications, e-mail, etc.

4. Decoding. After the message is transmitted by the sender, the receiver decodes it, i.e. translates the sender's characters into the recipient's thoughts.

However, as a result of various kinds of interference and distortion (noise), the recipient may give a slightly different meaning to the message than in the sender's head. To improve the efficiency of information exchange, to compensate for negative distortions, feedback is used in communications.

4. Feedback is the recipient's response to a message. In other words, feedback is a reaction to what is heard, read and seen.

12 Scientific approaches to management: systemic, situational, procedural, target, results-based management.

General scientific methods of management.

Process Approach- activity to perform a function is a process that requires certain costs, resources and time. – the management process reflects the sequence of performance of the main management functions. The management function is a specific type of management activity that is carried out by a specialist. Techniques and methods, as well as the appropriate organization of work and control of activities (planning, organization, motivation, control)

1960 According to the process approach, management is a series of interrelated and universal management processes (planning, organization, motivation, control and connecting processes - the communication process and the decision-making process). Management calls these processes management functions, and the management process is the sum of the listed management functions (Fig. 1.

The "father" of the process approach - Henri Fayol - argued that "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control."

Systems approach- an enterprise within the framework of this approach is considered as a set of interrelated elements (divisions, functions, processes, methods) - the main idea of ​​the system theory is that any decision has consequences for the whole country.

With a systematic approach, any system (object) is considered as a set of interrelated elements that has an output (goal), input, connection with the external environment, feedback. In the system, "input" is processed into "output". The most important principles:

the decision-making process should begin with the identification and clear formulation of specific goals;

it is necessary to identify and analyze possible alternative ways to achieve the goal;

the goals of individual subsystems should not conflict with the goals of the entire system;

the ascent from the abstract to the concrete;

unity of analysis and synthesis of logical and historical;

manifestation in the object of different-quality connections and interactions.

situational approach– focuses on situational differences between and within firms. - tries to identify significant, variable situations and their impact on the performance of enterprises.

20th century. The situational approach states that different management methods should be applied depending on the specific situation, since an organization is an open system that constantly interacts with the outside world (external environment), so the main reasons for what happens inside the organization (in the internal environment) should be seek in the situation in which this organization is forced to act.

The central point of the approach is the situation - a specific set of circumstances that affect the organization's activities at the current time. The situational approach is related to the systems approach and attempts to link specific management techniques and concepts to specific situations.

This approach aims at the direct application of new scientific methods in specific situations and conditions.

Program-targeted approach is based on a clear definition of the goals of the organization and the development of programs for the optimal achievement of these goals, taking into account the resources necessary for the implementation of programs.

Result-Based Approach. Even at the stage of formulating the desired goals, a generalized model of the organization arises. Then alternative options for management decisions are considered, one of them is selected, and the development of programs begins. At each stage of the program, the strategic goal of the organization is divided into subgoals, the main tasks and priorities for their solution are identified, which are linked to material, labor and financial resources. The evaluation of the results of the implementation of the stage is carried out according to the following indicators: main result, volume and term.

The new steps in the results-based management process are the results-determining process, the ad-hoc management process, and the results-monitoring process.

The process of defining results begins with a deep analysis of the aspirations, on the basis of which the desired results for different levels are determined. This process ends with the definition of an activity strategy and practical ideas for its implementation. Results that are consistent with the aspirations of the organization are expressed in the form of specific goals, strategies, outcomes and intermediate goals. The results corresponding to the aspirations of the main officials of local self-government are manifested in the form of final results, goals and calendar plans for the use of working time. The aspirations of each municipal employee are manifested in turn in the form of plans for career advancement and in general in life.

The process of management by situation can also be called management by day. The basis of this process is the organization of affairs, the activities of personnel and the environment in such a way that plans turn into desired results. Especially difficult is the management of personnel and the environment, it is impossible to foresee it in all details. Mastery of the art of situational management implies that managers have the ability to analyze and take into account significant external and internal situational factors. It is also necessary to master different styles of leadership and influence in order to use them in accordance with the requirements of the current situation. In addition, when managing according to the situation, assertiveness and creativity are needed.

In the process of control, it turns out which results are achieved according to the plan and which are accidental. In addition, it is determined how the plans of the staff regarding the promotion and life plans of each municipal employee are carried out. An essential part of the control process is the adoption of decisions based on the results of control in order to implement appropriate measures. These measures can be planned as part of day-to-day management or as part of the next annual plan. If these measures are large-scale, they are taken into account in strategic planning. The most important conclusions in terms of planning career advancement and in life serve the purpose of maintaining work and life motivation.

Results-Based Management is a process that aims to achieve major and supporting results in which:

a) using the planning process, the activities of local governments and municipal employees are determined at different time intervals (in other words, the requirements for results and expected results);

b) persistent implementation of plans is supported by daily conscious management of affairs, personnel and environment;

c) results are evaluated to make decisions leading to follow-up activities.

In the content of results-based management, the most significant is precisely the emphasis on results, which has both fundamental and functional significance. In results-based management, the local government's capabilities are used in such a way that the action plans extend from their strategic level to plans for the individual use of working time by each municipal employee. Already at the planning stage, the use of the desire and ability of all municipal employees is activated.

In results-based management, the implementation of plans (operational management) and control are highly valued as equal stages of the management process along with planning. Creativity, commitment, and assertiveness are also essential features of results-based management. One of the important factors determining the activity of local self-government bodies is the so-called sense of situation.

Based on the results obtained, it is necessary to draw appropriate conclusions.

13 The essence and types of management decisions.

To manage is to decide

Key concepts:

A decision is a choice of an alternative

Decision making is an integral part of managing an organization of any kind.

A problem is a situation where the set goals are not achieved.

1. Scale level

6. Uniqueness

Solution types:

1. Organizational decision: programmed, unprogrammed

2. Compromises

3. Intuitive solution

4. Decision based on judgment

5. Rational decision

Organizational decisions- the choice that a manager must make in order to fulfill the duties due to his position. The purpose of the organizational decision is to ensure the achievement of the tasks set for the organization. Organizational decisions can be classified as programmed and non-programmed decisions.

Programmed decisions are the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken when solving mathematical equations. As a rule, the number of possible alternatives is limited, and the choice must be made within the directions given by the organization.

Unprogrammed decisions required in situations that are somewhat new, internally unstructured, or involving unknown facts. Non-programmed solutions include solutions of the type:

what should be the goals of the organization?

how to improve products?

Compromises. An effective manager understands and accepts as a fact that the alternative he has chosen may have drawbacks, possibly significant ones. He makes this decision because, all things considered, it seems much more desirable in terms of the final effect.

Intuitive Solution- a choice made on the basis of a feeling that it is the right one. The decision maker does not need to understand the situation, the person simply makes a choice.

Judgment Based Decisions Choice based on knowledge or experience.

Rational Decisions

14 Classification of methods for developing management decisions.

SCHEME OF THE MANAGEMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

1. Analysis of the situation, identification of the problem

2. Assessment of the problem

3. Definition of selection criteria

4. Development of solutions

5. Choosing the best result

6. Coordination and decision making

7. Organization of the implementation of the decision

8. Monitoring and evaluation of results --------go to point 1.

Management decisions are qualified according to the following criteria:

1. Scale level

2. Field of activity (example no suitable employee has to be hired)

3. Action time (little time to make a decision)

4. Decision in form (the possibility of consequences in the decision)

5. Degree of structure (recurring problem)

6 Uniqueness

In the process of developing and making managerial decisions, the decision maker can use various methods that directly or indirectly contribute to making optimal decisions.

For the convenience of studying and using these methods, their totality is divided into groups according to the stages of the process of developing and making managerial decisions. Of course, some methods are universal and can be used at several or even all stages of the development and decision-making process. Therefore, methods are included in one or another group on the basis of their most frequent use within the framework of a particular stage of the development and decision-making process.

It should be noted that most of the methods are universal in nature, however, their grouping was carried out on the basis of many years of research by the authors and is aimed at systematizing the set of methods, to simplify the process of getting to know them, studying them, and also for the convenience of their practical application.

Function(literally - action) in relation to management characterizes the types of management activities that arise in the process of division and specialization of labor in the field of management.

M. Meskon identifies four general management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions have two characteristics in common: they all require decision-making, and all require the exchange of information, i.e. these two characteristics link all four managerial functions, ensuring their interdependence.

planning function, according to M. Mescon, offers a decision about what the goals of the organization should be and what the members of the organization should do to allegedly achieve these goals. The planning function answers the following three questions: where are we currently? where do we want to go? and how are we going to do it?

Organization function involves the formation of the structure of the organization, first the distribution and coordination of the work of employees, and then the design of the structure of the organization as a whole.

Motivation function is a process by which management encourages employees to act as planned and organized.

"Control function is the process by which management determines whether an organization is achieving its objectives, highlighting problems and taking corrective action before serious harm occurs. Control enables management to determine whether plans should be revised because they are not feasible or have already been completed. This connection between planning and control completes the cycle that makes process management interrelated functions.

The internal life of an organization consists of a large number of different actions and processes. Depending on the types of organization, its size and type of activity, certain processes and activities may occupy a leading place in it, while some, widely implemented in other organizations, may either be absent or minimally carried out. However, despite the huge variety of actions and processes, a certain number of groups can be distinguished. O. S. Vikhansky, A. I. Naumov and others offer five groups of functional processes, which, in their opinion, cover the activities of any organization and which are the object of management by management.

The special functions of managing a certain resource are: production, marketing, finance, work with personnel, accounting and analysis of economic activity.

production function assumes that the relevant services, managers of a certain level manage the process of processing raw materials, materials and semi-finished products into a product that the organization offers to the external environment.

Marketing function It is called upon, through marketing activities for the implementation of the created product, to link into a single process the satisfaction of the needs of the organization's customers and the achievement of the organization's goals.

financial function consists in the management of the process of movement of funds in the organization.

Personnel management function associated with the use of the capabilities of employees to achieve the goals of the organization.

Function of accounting and analysis of economic activity involves managing the process of processing and analyzing information about the work of the organization in order to compare the actual activities of the organization with its capabilities, as well as with the activities of other organizations. This allows the organization to uncover the issues that it needs to pay close attention to and choose the best ways to carry out its activities.

24. Planning function

Planning- this is the definition of a system of goals for the functioning and development of the organization, as well as ways and means to achieve them. Any organization cannot do without planning, as it is necessary to make management decisions regarding:

distribution of resources;

coordination of activities between individual departments;

coordination with the external environment (market);

creating an effective internal structure;

control over activities;

development of the organization in the future. Planning ensures the timeliness of decisions, avoids hasty decisions, sets a clear goal and a clear way to achieve it, and also gives you the opportunity to control the situation.

In general, the planning process can be distinguished:

· the process of goal-setting (definition of a system of goals);

· the process of combining (coordinating) goals and means to achieve them;

· the process of development or the unity of the existing system of work of the organization with its future development.

goal setting- this is the process of developing a system of goals, starting from the general goals of the organization and ending with the goals of its individual divisions. The result is a goal tree that underpins the entire planning process.

In itself, the presence of a goal does not mean that it will be achieved, it is necessary to have appropriate material, financial and human resources. At the same time, the level of achievement of the goal often depends on the amount of these resources. So, for example, to create an enterprise in a certain industry, an initial investment of at least N million rubles is required. This financial resource must be available, and then a combination of the goal and the means to achieve it will be provided. As a result of coordination, plans appear that combine activities to achieve goals, deadlines, means and performers.

To implement the planning process, it is also necessary to have an established organizational system. The work of the organization is aimed at achieving the target, and the result depends on how this work is built and coordinated. Even the most ideal plans will not be realized without proper organization. There must be an executive structure. In addition, the organization must have the possibility of future development, since without this the organization will collapse (if we do not develop, then we die). The future of the organization depends on the conditions of the environment in which it operates, on the skills and knowledge of the staff, on the place that the organization occupies in the industry (region, country).

The entire planning process in an organization is divided into: strategic, tactical and operational levels.

Strategic planning- this is the definition of the goals and procedures of the organization in the long term, operational planning is the system for managing the organization for the current period of time. These two types of planning connect the organization as a whole with each specific unit and are the key to successful coordination of actions. If we take the organization as a whole, then planning is carried out in the following order:

The mission of the organization is being developed.

Based on the mission, strategic guidelines or directions of activity are developed (these guidelines are often called quality goals).

An assessment and analysis of the external and internal environment of the organization is carried out.

Strategic alternatives are identified.

Choosing a specific strategy or way to achieve a goal. The answer to the question "what to do?".

After setting the goal and choosing alternative ways to achieve it (strategy), the main components of formal planning are:

tactics, or how to achieve this or that result (the answer to the question "how to do it?"). Tactical plans and operational plans are developed on the basis of the chosen strategy, they are designed for a shorter period of time ( tactical- for 1 year - a business plan for the development of the organization for one year, for example; operational plan- at the moment), are developed by middle managers;

policies, or general guidelines for action and decision-making that facilitate the achievement of goals;

procedures, or a description of the actions to be taken in a particular situation;

rules, or what should be done in each specific situation.

Planning and plans

Distinguish between planning and planning . Plan is a detailed set of decisions to be implemented, a list of specific activities and their executors. The plan is the result of the planning process. Plans and planning come in many variations and can be viewed from different perspectives.

By breadth of coverage:

corporate planning (for the entire company as a whole);

planning by type of activity (planning the production of carpets);

planning at the level of a specific unit (planning the work of the shop).

By function:

production;

financial;

personnel;

marketing.

By sub-function (for example, for marketing):

assortment planning;

sales planning.

By time period:

long-term planning - 5 years or more;

medium-term planning - from 2 to 5 years;

short-term planning - up to a year.

According to the level of detail of plans:

strategic planning;

operational;

tactical planning.

As required:

directive plans for direct enforcement;

indicative plans that are indicative and depend on indicators of economic, political, etc. activity.

The plan as a result of planning for performers is a policy document and should include both mandatory and recommendatory indicators, and with an increase in planning time, the number of indicative (recommendatory) indicators grows. This is due to the fact that with long-term planning, the result cannot be determined absolutely precisely, since it depends on changes in business conditions and is of a probabilistic nature. Specific activities, goods, services and works, as well as structures, technologies and procedures can be planned. For example, planning for the expansion of an organization, planning for a better process, or planning for a product launch.

There are three main forms of organizing planning:

"top down";

"upwards";

"targets down - plans up."

Top down planning is based on the fact that the management creates plans that must be carried out by their subordinates. This form of planning can only produce positive results if there is a rigid, authoritarian system of coercion in place.

Planning from the bottom up based on the fact that plans are created by subordinates and approved by management. This is a more progressive form of planning, but in the conditions of deepening specialization and division of labor it is difficult to create a single system of interrelated goals.

Planning "goals down - plans up" combines the advantages and eliminates the disadvantages of the two previous options. Governing bodies develop and formulate goals for their subordinates and stimulate the development of plans in departments. This form makes it possible to create a single system of interrelated plans, since common targets are mandatory for the entire organization.

Planning is based on data from past periods of activity, but the purpose of planning is the activity of the enterprise in the future and control over this process. Therefore, the reliability of planning depends on the accuracy and correctness of the information that managers receive. The quality of planning largely depends on the intellectual level of competence of managers and the accuracy of forecasts regarding the further development of the situation.

Organization function

Purpose of the organization function- preparing and ensuring the implementation of planned activities and the achievement of planned goals.

Job design - in the course of it, it is decided who and how should act. Design allows you to clearly identify and describe the area of ​​work, to ensure the implementation of the functions of the organization.

Work design includes the following steps:

1. Analysis of work.

2. Establishing its parameters.

3. Determination of the technology for performing work.

4. Perception by the performers of the content of the work.

Purpose of job analysis- is to give an objective description of the work itself, i.e. its content, its requirements and its environment or context. There are many job analysis techniques to help managers identify these three elements of any job.

Depending on the chosen method of analysis of the work, the description of its content may be broad or narrow, i.e. may be a simple statement of what to do, or a detailed explanation of each individual operation, each movement of the hand or body.

Functional analysis of work (PAR) includes a description of:

What the employee does in relation to other employees and other jobs;

What methods and operations should be used;

What machines and equipment are used in the performance of this work;

What product / service is produced in the process of doing work.

The first three positions are associated with actions, the fourth - with the result of work. The FAR provides a job description based on a job classification for each of the four positions. This method is widely used in practice for the preparation of so-called staffing tables.

Job Requirements reflect the qualities of the individual necessary for its implementation: skills, abilities, education, experience, health, upbringing and other individual qualities

To compile a list of these requirements in a particular organization, the method of official analytical questionnaire (DAQ) is used.

DAV method involves the description of the specified characteristics of the individual by analyzing the following parameters of work:

Information sources important for the performance of the work;

Information processed and decisions made necessary to carry out the work;

The physical actions and skills required to perform the job;

The nature of the interpersonal relationships desired for the job;

the nature of the individual's reaction to working conditions .

It is used for all types of work, including management. It serves as a basis for the preparation of qualification handbooks.

The context of the work is made up of physical, social and other factors external to the work, describing the conditions in which it must be performed, as well as rights and responsibilities.

Operation parameters determined on the basis of the results of its analysis.

Job options include:

its scale;

complexity;

relationships in which its performer enters with other employees.

Scale of work associated with the content of the work and represents the number of tasks or operations that the employee responsible for this work must perform.

Usually, the more tasks or operations an employee has to perform, the more time it will take him.

The complexity of the work is predominantly qualitative in nature and reflects the degree of independence in decision-making and the degree of ownership of the process. It depends on the personal characteristics of the performer and the rights delegated to him for its implementation.

You can meet people who formally occupy the same positions in the organization, but perform work of different complexity.

Relations at work in its design - the establishment of interpersonal relationships between the performer of the work and other employees, both about the work itself and in connection with other types of work in the organization.

Perception of the content of the work characterizes it from the point of view of understanding its nature by an individual performer. There is a distinction between the objective and subjective properties of work as reflected in people's perceptions. To improve the result of the work, it is necessary to change the perception of the content of the work. Changes in this case may relate to job design, personal qualities or social environment, i.e. everything that affects the perceived content of the work.

A number of methods are used to measure the perceived content of a job in a variety of settings. These are usually questionnaires filled out by interviewees that measure the perception of certain job characteristics.

Americans R. Hackman and E. Lawler identify 6 such characteristics: diversity, autonomy, completeness, effectiveness, interaction and sociability

Diversity- the level of diversity in the set of operations or the level of diversity of tools and processes used in the performance of work.

Anonymity- the level of independence in making decisions on the planning of their work, as well as the choice of means for its implementation.

completeness - the level of bringing the created product (service) to the final result within the framework of this work.

Efficiency(feedback) - the level of awareness of the performer through the work on the effectiveness of his actions.

Interaction- the level of interaction required from the performer with other employees to complete the work.

Sociability- the level to which the job allows the performer to communicate with colleagues and establish informal friendships.

Technology- these are actions, knowledge, methods and physical objects (technology) used in work to obtain a result (products or services).

The relationship between technology and job design can be seen in terms of:

the employee's knowledge of when and where work should be done and how to do it;

in terms of job interdependence.

Informing the employee about when and where the work to be performed determines the degree of freedom in deciding on the start and place of work.

Thus, the assembler on the conveyor has a very small degree of such freedom due to the fact that he must start work with the start of the conveyor, which is his workplace.

Informing the employee about how the work to be done determines the degree of freedom in the choice of means (subjects and methods) by which the desired result is to be obtained.

So, a designer in a design office apparently has a high degree of such freedom due to the fact that he creates a new, unknown. In such a situation, experience, judgment, intuition and the ability to solve problems are usually required.

The third characteristic of technology that affects job design is interdependence of work in the organization- it determines the degree to which interaction between two or more employees (or groups of employees) is carried out, ensuring the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to them.

There are four types of job interdependencies:

folding

consistent

Related

group

Emerging Interdependence occurs when an individual worker is not required to interact with other workers to complete the work as a whole.

Sequential interdependence assumes that before one worker starts work, another must perform a series of operations to do so. What is the beginning of work for one is the end of work for another. Example: car manufacturing.

Related interdependence- a situation where the end of the work of one becomes the beginning of the work of another, and vice versa.

Example: the work of a surgeon with assistants during an operation, a goalkeeper with a player in a football team, groups of different levels in making a decision, etc.

This type of interdependence usually requires clarity and continuity in work.

Group interdependence is based on the simultaneous participation of all parties in this action and, as it were, includes all previous interdependencies together.

The group approach is used when there is high uncertainty in the work and requires from the participants a high degree of cooperation and interaction, effective communication and the ability to make group decisions.

Work design models. The work design models that exist in practice are divided into 3 groups depending on which work parameter (scale, complexity and relationships) is predominantly used or subject to change.

The choice of model is influenced by intra-organizational factors: management style, trade unions, working conditions, technology, culture and structure of the organization, incentive systems and work with personnel, etc.

The work design model includes the definition of such elements of the projected work as intended for the operation; methods used, time and place of work; performance indicators and the relationship between man and machine.

These elements are determined on the basis of the Taylor system of studying movements and time. The time for the work operation and the actions required to complete it are determined.

Specialization and efficiency of performance of work are put in a basis of construction of work.

Scaling up model the number of operations or tasks performed by the worker is expanding.

Example: In the assembly of a car, a worker is assigned to install not only springs, but also shock absorbers.

The purpose of the model is to diversify and increase the attractiveness of work by adding work functions. In the design of work, the model proceeds from its despecialization, which makes it possible to establish a positive relationship between the expansion of the scope of work and job satisfaction.

Work rotation - is to move an employee from one job to another and, accordingly, to provide him with the opportunity to perform more diverse functions.

Job rotation is closely related to the scale-up model, as it is based on adding variety of tasks to increase interest in the job.

Work enrichment means adding to the work performed by the individual functions or tasks that increase the responsibility of the performer for planning, organizing, controlling and evaluating his own work.

Enrichment refers to such dimensions of work as its complexity and work relationships, which together constitute the concept of work organization.

Functions of motivation.

Motivation- is a set of driving forces that encourage a person to activities that have a specific target orientation.

The process of motivation (motivation) is built around human needs, which are the main object of influence in order to encourage a person to act. In the most general way need- this is a feeling of lack in something that has an individualized character with all the generality of manifestation. Innate needs common to all people (primary needs) are called - need. For example, the need for food, sleep, etc. Acquired (secondary) needs are associated with the existence of a person in a group, are more personalized and are formed under the influence of the environment. For example, the need for respect, for achieving results, for love, etc.

As long as the need exists, a person experiences discomfort, and that is why he will strive to find means to satisfy the need (to relieve stress). Eliminated (satisfied) need disappears, but not forever. Most needs are renewed, while changing the form of manifestation, moving to another level of the hierarchy of needs. Needs are the main source of human activity, both in practical and cognitive activities.

A need recognized and formulated by a person does not always lead to an action (motive) to eliminate it. This requires certain conditions:

the presence of a sufficiently strong desire to change the situation, to satisfy the need (I want ...) at the level of sensations that it is impossible to live like this. This condition is key and determines the direction of efforts for resource provision (material, financial, temporary) for the implementation of actions and the development of abilities, knowledge, skills to meet needs (I can ...).

Based on the foregoing, a conclusion follows. Motivation- is the creation of conditions that affect human behavior.

The motivational process includes:

assessment of unmet needs;

formulating goals aimed at meeting needs;

determination of the actions necessary to meet the needs.

Consider the elements of the motivation process in more detail.

Incentives perform the role of stimuli that affect the employee from the outside in order to encourage him to work. The impact of incentives translates existing needs into motives, provided that they correspond to each other.

as incentives individual objects, actions, other people, promises and obligations, opportunities provided, etc., that a person would like to receive for certain actions (production behavior) can act.

But incentive to action can come not only from the outside (stimulation), but also from the person himself (motive). Here, the source of motivation is the motivational structure of the individual, which is formed under the influence of personal factors, upbringing, and training. Motives are generated by the person himself, faced with a task or problem. For example, the motive of achievement, knowledge, etc., or the motive of fear.

motive- this is what causes certain actions caused by one's own needs, emotions, a person's position.

One and the same motive can be generated, depending on the situation, both by an external influence (the stimulus is external motivation) and by an internal motivational structure (intrinsic motivation). For example: interest as a motive can be generated by natural curiosity and / or skillful actions of the leader.

There are two ways to find ways to meet needs.

Finding a way to achieve success in realizing a need. This path activates human activity and gives the actions a target orientation. Examples of motives that determine this way of fulfilling needs: interest, career growth, self-affirmation, etc.

The search for ways to avoid any circumstances, object or conditions makes a person inactive, incapable of independent action. The main motives for human behavior in this situation are anxiety and a sense of fear.

Human behavior leads to a specific result, which is evaluated. The degree of satisfaction affects the behavior of a person in similar situations in the future. At the same time, people tend to repeat the behavior that is associated with satisfaction of the need, and avoid those that are associated with dissatisfaction.

The main task of the manager- create and / or activate those needs of the personnel that can be satisfied within the framework of the enterprise (subdivision) management system.

Effective personnel management involves a harmonious combination of incentives, motivation and satisfaction of the needs of employees, by influencing the content of the various stages (elements) of the motivation process.

There are a fairly large number of motivational theories that try to give a scientific explanation for the phenomenon of motivation.

hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow;

two-factor theory of F. Herzberg;

McClelland's theory of three needs.

1. Abraham Maslow identifies 5 hierarchical levels of needs. Satisfying the needs of the lower level leads to the activation of the needs of the higher level. So, for example, a well-fed person who feels safe develops social needs (the need for communication, love, etc.). Satisfying the need for communication with the desired social group expands the possibilities of appearing and finding ways to satisfy the need for respect, etc. Therefore, the process of motivation through needs is endless.

Ways to satisfy primary needs are obvious and, as a rule, are associated with the organization (creation) of a system of material incentives. The higher and more diverse, according to L. Maslow, the level of needs of employees (their motivational structure), the more difficult it is to find ways to satisfy them.

The manager is required to have a special approach to managing creative people, which involves non-standard and diverse solutions in the field of motivation.

It must be remembered that the possibility of influencing an employee on the part of management is determined by the extent to which the leader is perceived in the eyes of employees as a source of satisfaction of their needs.

2. Friederik Herzberg all factors influencing human activity in a production situation, divided into motivating and "health" factors (hygienic factors).

Motivating factors contribute to the growth of the degree of job satisfaction and are considered as an independent group of needs, which can be generally called the need for growth: the need for achievement, recognition, work itself, etc.

Social needs

Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate.

Create a team spirit in the workplace.

Hold periodic meetings with subordinates.

Do not try to break up informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.

Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside of its framework.

Respect needs

Offer subordinates more meaningful work.

Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved.

Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates.

Involve subordinates in goal setting and decision making.

Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.

Promote subordinates through the ranks.

Provide training and retraining that enhances competencies.

Needs for self-expression

Provide subordinates with learning and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.

Give subordinates difficult and important work that requires their full dedication.

Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.

"health" factors are the factors of the environment in which the work takes place. They can be seen as a need to eliminate/avoid difficulties. The absence of these factors causes a feeling of irritation, dissatisfaction. The presence of environmental factors provides normal working conditions and, as a rule, does not contribute to the activation of human activity. For example, comfortable working conditions, normal lighting, heating, etc., working hours, wages, relationships with management and colleagues.

Conclusions:

Salary, as a rule, is not a motivating factor.

To eliminate the feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager needs to pay special attention to the factors of "health". In the absence of a feeling of dissatisfaction and irritation, it is useless to motivate staff with the help of "health" factors.

After the employee is provided with everything necessary to achieve the goals, the manager must concentrate all efforts on motivational factors.

3. McClelland's three-factor theory considers only three types of acquired needs that activate human activity: power, success, involvement.

There is a certain similarity of this theory with the theory of A. Maslow. The need for power and success is characteristic of people who have reached the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs - the need for respect. The need for involvement is characteristic of people who have reached the satisfaction of the third level of needs - social needs.

Unlike A. Maslow, McClelland believes that only the need for power is a motivational factor. Therefore, in practice, this theory is applicable to a greater extent for people seeking to occupy a certain position in the organization.

Process theories of motivation.These theories are based on I. Pavlov's concept that any human behavior is the result of a stimulus. Therefore, human behavior is subject to influence through the restructuring (change) of the environment or process in which the person works. Also, human behavior is determined by the result (consequences) of the type of behavior chosen in this situation.

The most popular process theories include:

Victor Vroom's expectancy theory;

the theory of justice by S. Adams;

complex theory of Porter-Lawler.

1. In accordance with the theory of expectations, motivation is considered as a function of three types of expectations:

the expected result of the work;

expected reward from this result;

the expected value of the reward.

The amount of effort made by a person to implement the task assigned to him will directly depend on what is the assessment of the probability of success in completing the task, as well as the probability of receiving valuable rewards for the efforts made.

The higher the degree of correspondence between actual events and expected ones, the more likely this type of behavior will be repeated.

The important practical findings are listed below.

When setting goals, the manager must clearly formulate the goal in terms of the result, as well as the criteria for evaluating the result.

To increase the likelihood of achieving the goal, the manager must provide the conditions (organizational and resource) for the successful implementation of the task.

It is necessary to distribute tasks among employees in accordance with their abilities and professional skills.

Only that remuneration will be of value to the employee, which corresponds to his structure of needs.

Only that reward will increase motivation, which follows the result achieved. The advance is not a motivating factor.

2. Theory of justice proceeds from the fact that a person subjectively evaluates the results of work and the remuneration received, comparing them with the results and remuneration of other employees. At the same time, the effort expended is subject to subjective evaluation.

If the reward is perceived as fair, production behavior is repeated, if not, then the following human reactions are possible:

reducing the cost of their own forces ("I do not intend to give all the best for such a salary");

an attempt to increase remuneration for one's work (demand, blackmail);

overestimation of one's capabilities (decreased self-confidence);

an attempt to influence the organization or a manager in order to change the pay or workload of other employees;

FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL METHODS

Issues under consideration:

Selection in management individual functions- an objective process generated by the complexity of production and management. The emergence of management functions is the result of differentiation of purposeful influences, division and specialization of labor in the field of management.

IN general form under control function is understood as a set of objectively necessary, steadily recurring, actions, united by the same content and target orientation .

IN the present time exists many qualifications of management functions. However, management is always a set of cycles, interconnected, in many cases repeating, which can be identified as general management functions. These include: planning, organization, motivation (including selection and placement of personnel), control and coordination. Moreover, the works related to the coordination function are inherent in the works on other functions to one degree or another, as if woven into them. Therefore, it is expedient to graphically depict the listed functions as shown in Fig. 6.1.

To some extent, isolating these functions, it should be remembered that:

In the process of executing one of them, the others are necessarily executed;

Without the implementation of any of them, the control process is violated.

Let's take a closer look at these functions and the activities that make them up..

Planning - designing the achievement of the organization's goals under existing constraints (determining what and when should and can be done). Planning usually involves the following activities:

1) forecasting - assessment of the prospects for the development of the situation in which the managed organization is located and the possibilities for carrying out its activities in this situation;

2) setting goals means the definition of the desired results of the activity of a managed organization, as a certain reaction to the influence of the external environment (superior, interacting and public organizations, as well as social groups and individual members of society), due to the current economic, political, scientific, technical, social and other conditions for the development of society . Determining the nature and range of work for the future;

3) specification of goals - formulation of specific goals of the activity of the managed organization with specification of the resources required for this;

4) development of a work plan (programming) - formation of an action plan to achieve goals, carried out, as a rule, on the basis of a previously developed strategies. Estimation of resource and time costs for individual stages of work. Determination of the time sequence of work to achieve the goal. Calculation of the volume of costs and distribution of resources for the stages of these works with linkage to all other existing plans.

Organization- definition of forms, rules and methods of performance of works on achievement of the purposes, creation of the organizational environment. Organization usually involves the following works (actions):

1) structuring - breakdown (differentiation) of work to achieve the goal into elements and a corresponding breakdown of available resources. Clarification of the functions performed by them. Technological grouping of these resources with respect to sub-goals and in accordance with the functions performed;

2) formation of procedures - development of expedient and systematized methods of work performance;

3) setting organizational policy - the final formation of the management structure (checking the compliance of the current management structure of the organization with the planned activity plan), the establishment of general rules of action, the preparation of guidance documents (the formalization of the management structure).

Motivation- creation of conditions for the performance by teams and individual employees of the actions necessary to achieve the goals of the organization, which usually involves the performance of the following work (actions):

1) selection and placement of personnel . Analysis of works and determination of requirements for their performers. Identification and appointment of persons with the necessary qualifications;

2) personnel training - training in methods and techniques of work. Creation of conditions for professional development of employees;

3) targeted impact on staff is to organize jobs and work of individual performers in order to ensure the required efficiency of their activities. Influence on people in order to carry out the actions desired for the organization;

4) the formation of a favorable internal culture the team is associated with the development of interpersonal relations, stereotypes of behavior of workers and their favorable informal relationships, unity regarding production, economic and social goals.

Control- comparison of the actual state or functioning with the set goals, identification of the causes of deviations and options for their elimination. Usually, the implementation of the control function involves the following works (actions):

1) creation of evaluation criteria aimed at determining the recorded and evaluated parameters (indicators) of the organization's activities and the performance of work to achieve the goals, at establishing methods for evaluating and forming a scale for measuring the results of these works;

2) measurement of work parameters - assessment of the compliance of the actual results of the work with what is established in the planned targets and other regulatory documents;

3) corrective actions - identifying the causes of emerging deviations and developing proposals for improving the parameters of work to achieve the goals.

Coordination- establishing harmony between the participants in the performance of work, which usually involves the implementation of the following work (actions):

1) ensuring communications - creation of a socio-psychological climate and conditions for the exchange of information for the effective joint work of interconnected organized units;

2) task distribution - assigning responsibility to specific performers for the work entrusted to them;

3) from voicing - prevention of disproportions in the work aimed at achieving group goals.

Function coordination allocate not all authors (for example, its concept is present in the textbook by V.R. Vesnin " Management"). Indeed, the “coordination” function is, as it were, auxiliary, and, apparently, its role and place are more correctly reflected as shown in Fig. 4.1. Moreover, the well-known textbook by M. Mescon, M. Albert and F. Hedouri "Fundamentals of Management" deals only with the four main functions of management, and one of the most popular textbooks in the United States by S. Robins and P. Coulter "Management" is broken into 6 parts, of which 4 parts are devoted to the functions: planning, organization, leadership ("coordination" in it), control.