The main functions of managing an organization. Basic management functions How many basic management functions do you know

Management functions are types of management activities that provide the formation of ways to influence the activities of the organization.

Management processes at the enterprise occur on the basis of functional distribution. The essence of management activity at all levels of management is provided by management functions.

Today, the management functions include:

planning,

organization,

motivation,

· control,

regulation.

In the Soviet Union, the following management functions were distinguished:

planning,

organization,

coordination,

stimulation,

regulation,

· control.

American scientists Albert Mescon and J. Hedouri identify four management functions:

planning,

organization,

motivation,

· control.

These management functions are linked by decision-making processes and communication.

Planning function is number one in management. Implementing it, an entrepreneur or manager, based on a deep and comprehensive analysis of the situation in which the company is currently located, formulates the goals and objectives facing it, develops an action strategy, draws up the necessary plans and programs. The planning process itself makes it possible to more clearly formulate the goals of the organization and use the system of performance indicators necessary for the subsequent monitoring of results. In addition, planning provides a clearer coordination of the efforts of structural units and thus strengthens the interaction between the heads of various departments of the organization. And this means that planning is a continuous process of studying new ways and methods to improve the organization's activities due to the identified opportunities, conditions and factors. Therefore, plans should not be prescriptive, but should be modified according to the specific situation.

At its core, the scheduling function answers three main questions:

Where are we at this time? Managers must evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the organization in important areas such as finance, marketing, manufacturing, research and development, and human resources. All this is done with the aim of determining what the organization can realistically achieve.

Where do we want to go? By assessing the opportunities and threats in the environment, such as competition, customers, laws, political factors, economic conditions, technology, supply chain, social and cultural changes, management determines what might prevent the organization from achieving these goals.

How are we going to do it? Leaders must decide, both broadly and specifically, what the members of the organization must do to achieve the goals of the organization.

Planning is one of the means by which management provides the only direction for the efforts of all members of the organization to achieve its common goal.

Organization function- this is the formation of the structure of the organization, as well as the provision of everything necessary for its work - personnel, materials, equipment, buildings, funds. In any plan drawn up in an organization, there is the creation of real conditions for achieving planned goals, often this requires a restructuring of production and management in order to increase their flexibility and adaptability to the requirements of a market economy. When planning and organizing work, the manager determines what exactly this organization should do, when and who, in his opinion, should do it. If the choice of these decisions is made effectively, the manager gets the opportunity to translate his decisions into reality, using an important function of management as motivation.

Motivation function- this is an activity aimed at activating the people working in the organization and encouraging them to work effectively to achieve the goals set in the plans. To do this, they are provided with economic and moral stimulation, the very content of labor is enriched, and conditions are created for the manifestation of the creative potential of workers and their self-development. From the late 18th century to the 20th century, it was widely believed that people would always work better if they had the opportunity to earn more. Motivation was thus thought to be a simple matter, which boils down to the offer of appropriate monetary rewards in exchange for effort. Managers have learned that motivation is the result of a complex set of needs that are constantly changing.

Control function is a process that ensures the achievement of the goals of the organization. There are three aspects of managerial control. The first aspect - setting standards - is the precise definition of a goal that must be achieved at a certain time. It is based on the plans developed during the planning process. The second aspect is the measurement of what was actually achieved in a certain period, and the comparison of what was achieved with the expected results. If these two phases are done correctly, then the management of the organization not only knows that there is a problem in the organization, it also knows the source of this problem. The third aspect is the stage at which actions are taken, if necessary, to correct serious deviations from the original plan. One of the possible actions is to review the goals so that they become more realistic and correspond to the situation. Control is a critical and complex management function. One of the most important features of control, which should be taken into account in the first place, is that control should be comprehensive.

Coordination function is the central function of management. It ensures the achievement of consistency in the work of all parts of the organization by establishing rational connections (communications) between them. The most commonly used reports, interviews, meetings, computer communications, radio and television broadcasting, documents. With the help of these and other forms of connections, interaction is established between the subsystems of the organization, resource maneuvering is carried out, unity and coordination of all stages of the management process (planning, organization, motivation and control), as well as the action of managers, is ensured.

7. Friedrich Engels "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State". Chapter IX.

"The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" (German: Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats) is a work by the German thinker Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), dedicated to the main problems of the original history, the evolution of family and marriage relations, and the analysis of decomposition processes tribal society, the formation of private property, social classes and the state. The first edition of the book appeared in Zurich in early October 1884.

The book was written by Engels within two months - from the end of March to the end of May 1884. While sorting through Marx's manuscripts, Engels discovered a detailed synopsis of L. G. Morgan's Ancient Society, compiled by Marx in 1880-1881. and containing many of his critical remarks, his own provisions, as well as additions from other sources. After reviewing this synopsis, Engels decided to write a special work, considering it "to a certain extent, the fulfillment of Marx's testament". In addition to K. Marx's notes, when working on the book, Engels drew on additional materials from his own research on the history of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, ancient Ireland, ancient Germans, and others.

Based on the material of the book by the American ethnographer and historian Lewis Morgan "Ancient society, or the study of the directions of human development from the savage state to barbarism and further to civilization" (eng. Ancient society: or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization ), as well as on the work of other scientists, Engels in this work explores the main features of the development of the primitive communal system. The paper reveals the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of a class society based on private property. He traces the change in the forms of marriage and family in connection with the economic progress of society, analyzes the process of decomposition of the tribal system (using the example of three peoples: the ancient Greeks, Romans and Germans) and its economic causes.

Engels further shows that the division of labor and the growth of labor productivity led to the emergence of the exchange of private property, to the destruction of the tribal system and to the formation of classes. The work shows the general characteristics of this society; the features of the development of family relations in various socio-economic formations have been clarified; revealed the origin and essence of the state.

The emergence of class contradictions, according to F. Ergels, brought the state to life as a means of protecting the interests of the ruling class.

The main conclusions reached by Engels in this work are:

· Private property, classes and the state did not always exist, but arose at a certain stage of economic development;

· The state in the hands of the ruling classes is always only an instrument of violence, oppression of the broad masses of the people;

· Classes must inevitably disappear, just as they inevitably arose in the past. With the disappearance of classes, the state will inevitably disappear.

“Manage” means “to direct, lead” (to take care of something, to do something on behalf of, to execute and dispose). In the 60s. 20th century a new scientific direction was formed - cybernetics, the subject of which was the control processes in various fields. Using the mathematical apparatus, mathematical logic and the theory of functions, it was possible to combine the most important achievements of the theory of automatic control, computer science and many other areas of scientific knowledge. This science studies the issues of management, communication, control, regulation, reception, storage and processing of information in any complex dynamic systems. At the same time, management is considered at a high level of abstraction, and special importance is attached to management procedures, its principles, patterns and relationships of numerous elements that form a single system.

Management is the most important function, without which the purposeful activity of any socio-economic, organizational and production system (enterprises, organizations, territories) is impossible.

Management is a purposeful and constant process of influence of the subject of management on the object of management. Various phenomena and processes act as an object of control: a person, a team, a social community, mechanisms, technological processes, apparatuses. Management as a process of the influence of the subject on the object of management is unthinkable without a management system, which, as a rule, is understood as a mechanism that ensures the management process, i.e. a set of interconnected elements that function in a coordinated and purposeful manner.

The elements participating in the management process are combined into a system using information links, more specifically, according to the feedback principle.

Management is associated with the exchange of information between the components of the system, as well as the system with the environment. In the management process, information is obtained about the state of the system at each moment of time, about achieving (or not achieving) a given goal in order to influence the system and ensure the implementation of management decisions.

Management activity is a set of actions of the enterprise management and other employees of the management apparatus in relation to the object of management - the workforce or the production system. These actions consist in the development of some management decision, which is essentially the product of a management decision, and bringing this decision to the executors, followed by clarification of the results of its implementation.

Management functions are special types of specialized management activities that have emerged in the process of division of managerial labor. Any management function is implemented in a complex of management tasks. The difference between tasks and functions is manifested in the fact that functions are a recurring type of activity of the organization, and tasks are activities that pursue the achievement of the required results at a given time.

The entire function can be performed by one unit, but the same unit, alone or jointly with others, can perform another function.

The composition of the functions of departments and their scope depend on the following conditions:

• § scale, structure and level of development of production;
• § size of the organization, its independence, place in the existing system of social division of labor;
• § Company's relations with other enterprises and organizations;
• § the level of technical equipment of management.

Management functions should provide direction, management and maintenance of business activities in the organization. Each function is characterized by purpose, repeatability, uniformity of content, the specifics of the personnel necessary for its implementation. Management functions are objective in nature, which is determined by the need for the management process itself in the conditions of joint work of people.

Management functions are the basis for determining the structure and size of the management apparatus.

Management activities are aimed at uniting all relatively isolated (separate, individual), although inextricably linked functions. There are various classifications of management functions. Moreover, the differences are determined, as a rule, by the features underlying the classification. The simplest and most understandable is the division of management functions into two groups:

• § general;
• § special.

General management functions were formulated by A. Fayol at the beginning of the 20th century. In the management of an organization in any field of activity, the general functions are manifested in the same way.

Among the general control functions, titration is considered the main one. Implementing it, the entrepreneur or manager:

• § operational planning (formulates goals and objectives for the next year);
• § strategic planning;
• § tactical planning

The organizational function assumes the practical implementation of plans and programs. It is implemented through the creation of the organization itself, the formation of its structure, the distribution of work among departments, employees and the coordination of their activities.

The motivational function consists in determining the needs of people, choosing the most appropriate and effective way to satisfy them in a given situation in order to ensure the maximum interest of employees in the process of achieving the goals of the organization.

Control is designed to identify impending dangers in advance, detect errors, deviations from existing standards, and thereby create the basis for improving work.

A special place in the management system is occupied by special functions, i.e. functions for managing certain objects (divisions of the organization).

In an organization, the following management objects can be distinguished:

• § production;
• § material and technical supply;
• § innovations;
• § marketing and sales of finished products;
• § personnel;
• § finance;
• § accounting and analysis of business processes, etc.

The main functions of the organization management are:

• § organization;
• § coordination;
• § motivation;
• § control;
• § regulation.

The organization of management is a set of techniques, methods, a rational combination of methods and links of the management system and its relationship with the management of objects and other management systems in time and space. In this sense, the management organization ensures the creation of the most favorable conditions for achieving goals (solving specific tasks set in a period of time with minimal expenditure of production resources).

The function of coordinating the activities of the organization is carried out in order to ensure the coordinated and coordinated work of the production and functional divisions of the enterprise and workshops involved in the process of fulfilling the planned targets. This function is implemented in the form of influence on the team of people, individual workers employed in the production process, by line managers and functional services.

The function of motivation has an impact on the team in the form of incentive motives for effective work of social influence, collective and individual incentive measures.

The control function manifests itself in the form of influencing a team of people by identifying, summarizing, accounting, analyzing the results of the production activities of each workshop and bringing them to the heads, divisions and management services in order to prepare management decisions. This function is implemented on the basis of operational, statistical, accounting data, identifying deviations from established performance indicators and analyzing the causes of deviations.

The function of regulating the activities of the organization is directly combined with the functions of control and coordination. As a result of the impact of the external and internal environment on the production process, there is a deviation from the specified parameters of the production process, identified in the course of control and operational accounting, which ultimately requires regulation of the production process.

Economic Management Methods

Control methods are a set of methods and techniques for influencing the control object in order to achieve the control goal.

In economics, it is customary to distinguish three methods of managing employees and production teams: administrative, economic, and socio-psychological. All of them are closely interconnected and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between them.

Administrative (command) methods are based on coercion, and control actions take the form of directives, orders, commands, instructions, etc. Such methods are most acceptable in the army, police, security services, etc. Administrative methods cannot be dispensed with at the enterprise, and their effectiveness depends on the reasonableness and scientific validity of orders, orders, directives. The most appropriate in the case when the achievement of the goal cannot be solved using economic and socio-psychological methods.

Economic methods are based on the impact on the object of management (individuals, teams, business entities) with the help of leverage (wages, bonuses, fines, all kinds of benefits, pricing, commercial loans, etc.). An important feature of economic management methods is the transition from “vertical” management to “horizontal” management. This means that the control effect on the control object is exerted not only and not so much by the higher management body, but by subcontractors, consumers, in a word, everyone with whom the manufacturer interacts.

Such control actions are fixed in the form of mutual obligations, in contracts, agreements, contracts. Economic methods play a decisive role in the management of a market-type economy.

Socio-psychological methods of management are persuasion, moral and moral influence on people.

Each person has a certain system of views on labor, property, money, economic relations, rules of economic behavior. This can be called economic psychology, or morality. Methods of socio-psychological management affect the psychology of people, thereby persuading them to act in accordance with the desires of the subject of management. With this approach, the control setting from the side of the subject of management, falling on fertile moral ground, becomes the performer's own setting, his conviction.

Socio-psychological methods are not inferior to economic methods in their significance and effectiveness, and in certain conditions and situations they can be even more effective.

The management process of an enterprise can be conditionally divided into three parts:

• 1. technology management;
• 2. economic management;
• 3. workforce management.

It is believed that the most difficult thing is managing people. Each person is unique and has both positive and negative traits. The task of the leader is to get to know each of his subordinates psychologically, and then imperceptibly influence him in such a direction that his positive traits develop, and the negative ones disappear. All this, of course, should be done not only for the purpose of the formation and development of an individual and the entire team, but also for the benefit of the company.

Unfortunately, some managers do not understand this, and, on the contrary, focus on the "defective" sides of their employee. M. Gorky also noted that if a person is often and persistently told that he is a “pig”, then he really “grunts”.

The main task of socio-psychological methods is to form a healthy psychological climate in the team, which in turn is the basis for the effective operation of the enterprise. Socio-psychological management methods can also be called educational, as they are designed to educate each employee in the spirit of devotion to the company, enhancing creative activity for the benefit of the company and society as a whole.

Japan has achieved the greatest success in the application of socio-psychological methods. In this country, love and respect for work, devotion to one's company, patriotism are imbibed with mother's milk. The Japanese themselves voluntarily refuse to take a vacation if things go badly at the company. In Japan, production controllers are practically not needed - the Japanese will not stoop to push through the marriage.

Japan's successes in science and technology, economics and other areas are largely due to the reasonable use of socio-psychological methods in management at all levels. Unfortunately, in Russia the role and importance of applying these methods is underestimated, which is a significant reserve for the growth of the national economy.

1.3. Essence and principles of management

Compliance with the principles of management can be considered as the key to the success of management.

Principle (from Latin - beginning, basis) - 1) the main starting point of any doctrine, theory, science, worldview, political organization, etc.; 2) the inner conviction of a person, which determines his attitude to reality, the norms of behavior and activity.

The main tasks of management are the study and practical application of the principles of development of the entire set of management goals, the development of plans, the creation of economic and organizational conditions for the effective operation of labor collectives. The study and mastery of these patterns is a necessary condition for improving the management of an organization, improving the economic infrastructure and raising the national economy of the country.

The behavior of one of the main and most complex subjects of management - a person is based on certain principles, internal beliefs that determine his attitude to reality, on the norms of morality and morality. Management principles are objective, i.e. do not depend on the will and desires of individuals, although any truth is known through the most complex system of subjective-object relations, and this is the main difficulty in managing society and an individual. These principles cannot be considered absolute truth, but only a tool that allows you to at least slightly lift the veil over the super-complex world of the individual and the team and only tell the leader how to wisely influence the controlled system and what kind of reaction should probably be expected on the control action.

The principles of management of an organization, society and personality are based on the dialectical law of development, generalizing the experience of human civilization. So, the principles of management determine the patterns of formation of a controlled system: its structures, methods of influencing the team, form the motivation of the behavior of its members, take into account the features of the technology and technical equipment of managerial work. The principles of management should determine not the obvious, but deeper, fundamental patterns and at the same time serve as a guide to practical actions. They are realized through the consciousness, intellect, will (assertiveness) and purposefulness of a person. It is important to provide such working conditions in order to maximize the use of these human qualities.

Consider the most important of the principles of managing the organization as a whole.

The principle of consistency and complexity. Any organization is a system that involves the unification of parts into a whole, the properties of which may differ from the properties of its constituent parts. The main goals and objectives of the systematic approach are as follows:

• - decrease in integrity;
• - increased synergy;
• - ensuring positive multiplicity in the organization;
• - ensuring the sustainability of the functioning of the organization;
• - ensuring the adaptability of the organization;
• - ensuring the compatibility of the work of the subsystems of the organization (for example, the subsystem "personnel" with the subsystem "management");
• - ensuring the effective operation of feedback in the organization both within subsystems and between subsystems.

The principle of consistency and complexity implies the ability to see the most significant set of interrelated and interdependent subsystems that make up the organization.

The principle of legal security of a management decision. This principle requires the heads of enterprises to be aware of the current legislation and make managerial decisions only taking into account the compliance of these decisions with the current legal acts.

Principle of control optimization. Timely processing of information about the internal processes in the system and its comprehension should allow making reasonable management decisions, improve intra-system communications, and increase the efficiency of interaction with the external environment. Control optimization allows improving the structure of the managed object and increasing its functionality, which ultimately leads to the weakening or complete elimination of internal negative processes. This important principle of control can be formulated as follows - optimization of control increases the efficiency of the controlled system. The effectiveness of a controlled system also depends on the degree of its openness, susceptibility to external information. The external environment sets the meaning of the existence of the organization, sets the requirements for activities.

The principle of delegation of authority. The principle of delegation of authority consists in the transfer by the head of a part of the powers assigned to him, rights and responsibilities to his competent employees.

The principle of conformity. The work performed must correspond to the intellectual and physical capabilities of the performer.

The principle of automatic replacement of the missing. Replacing the absent (illness, vacation, business trip) should be decided automatically on the basis of existing job descriptions and regulated formally.

Principle of the first leader. The principle of the first head says - when organizing the implementation of an important production task, control over the progress of work should be left to the first head of the enterprise.

The principle of one-time input of information. In the activities of the leader, information, its efficiency and reliability, plays a decisive role, because it is the subject, means and product of managerial labor. Once entered into the computer's memory, information can be repeatedly used to solve a whole range of information-related tasks. The accumulation of production, economic, personnel and regulatory information is the basis for creating databases and data banks, an indispensable tool for obtaining objective and reliable data on the progress of the technological process for the manager and all structural divisions of the enterprise

9. The principle of new tasks.

The use of modern mathematical programming systems and technical means of information processing makes it possible to solve and accumulate fundamentally new production and scientific problems.

10. The principle of advanced training.

The principle of management urgently requires the mandatory advanced training of all employees involved in the production process, regardless of their position. Recent advances in information technology open up new opportunities for solving the problems of advanced training.

11. The principle of "fitter Mechnikov"

The Mechnikov fitter principle states that any managerial decision must be documented (including, if necessary, financial documents) or financially.

12. The principle of purpose.

In management, the goal problem is central, it determines and regulates actions and is the basic law, a complex algorithm of behavior that subjugates all aspects of the control action. Every action must have a clear and definite purpose.

1.4 Effectiveness of managerial decisions

The choice of the correct and effective management decision is the result of the complex use of economic, organizational, legal, technical, informational, logical, mathematical, psychological and other aspects.

Thus, management decisions are a way of constant the impact of the control subsystem on the controlled subsystem, that is, the subject of control on the control object. This impact ultimately leads to the achievement of the intended goals.

Based on the foregoing, we can give the following definition of management decision.

A management decision in an organization is an act of a management subject (the head of an organization or a group of managers) aimed at choosing one option from several alternative options for the development of an organization that ensures the achievement of the intended goals at the lowest cost.

All management decisions can be divided into two types:

• § traditional decisions that have repeatedly taken place before; in this case, one of the already available alternatives should be selected;
• § non-traditional, non-standard management decisions; their development is associated with the search for new alternatives.

In this regard, traditional, typical, repetitive management decisions can be formalized, that is, they can be made and implemented according to a predetermined algorithm. Therefore, a formalized management decision is the result of a predetermined sequence of actions. For example, when a schedule is drawn up for the repair of machinery and equipment, they proceed from a standard that determines the ratio between the amount of equipment and the number of repair workers. So, if one hundred units of equipment work in the machine shop of a given organization, and the standard for its maintenance is 10 units per one repair worker, then ten repair workers should be kept in this shop.

As a result of the formalization of decision-making, the level of management efficiency increases by reducing the likelihood of making an error, as well as by saving time, since there is no need to develop this solution starting from scratch.

As a result, the management of the organization tries to formalize management decisions in case of those situations that are systematically repeated in the activities of this organization. Formalization of managerial decisions consists in the development of certain rules, instructions, standards that allow making and implementing a competent managerial decision.

Along with repetitive situations, there are also atypical situations that have not been encountered before and are not amenable to a formalized solution.

Most management decisions are between these two types, which makes it possible to use both formalized methods and the own initiative of the developers of these decisions when making these decisions.

The quality and effectiveness of managerial decisions are determined by the degree of validity of the methodology for solving problems, namely approaches, principles and methods.

An analysis of the economic management of organizations makes it possible to determine the need for the following approaches:

• § system;
• § complex;
• § integration;
• § marketing;
• § functional;
• § dynamic;
• § reproductive;
• § process;
• § regulatory;
• § quantitative (mathematical);
• § administrative;
• § behavioral;
• § situational.

Any of these approaches expresses one of the directions of the management process. Let's give a brief description of them.

The system management approach assumes that any system or object is considered as a set of interrelated components that has an output, that is, a goal, an input, a connection with the external environment, and feedback. In such a system, "input" is transformed into "output".

In the context of using an integrated approach to enterprise management, it is necessary to take into account the technical, environmental, economic, organizational, social, psychological, political, demographic areas of management, as well as their interrelations. If at least one of these areas is not taken into account, then a complete solution to this problem will not be achieved.

Unfortunately, in reality, as a rule, an integrated approach is not observed. Thus, in the context of the construction of new enterprises and organizations, the solution of social problems is often delayed. This delays the commissioning of this facility or causes its partial use. Other examples can be cited. Thus, in the process of designing new equipment, insufficient attention is paid to its environmental friendliness, which leads to the non-competitiveness of this equipment.

The integration management approach involves the study and strengthening of the relationship between individual subsystems and elements of the management system, as well as between the stages of the life cycle of the management object, between individual levels of management vertically, and, finally, between individual management subjects horizontally.

The marketing management approach provides for the orientation of the control subsystem to the consumer in the conditions of solving any problems. The main criteria of the marketing approach are:

• § improving the quality of the control object in accordance with the requirements of consumers;
• § cost savings for the consumer by improving the quality;
• § saving resources in own production due to factors of scale of production, scientific and technological progress, as well as the use of a scientifically based management system.

The functional approach of enterprise management is that any need is considered as a set of functions that should be carried out to satisfy it. After the functions are defined, several alternative objects are created to implement these functions. Then, one of these objects is selected, which requires a minimum of total costs during the life cycle of this object per unit of its useful effect.

The essence of the dynamic management approach lies in the fact that when it is applied, the management object is considered in its dialectical development, in its cause-and-effect relationships. Here, a subsequent retrospective analysis is carried out for the past 5-10 or more years, as well as a prospective (forecast) analysis.

The reproductive approach of enterprise management focuses on the constant resumption of production of this type of product in order to meet market needs. At the same time, this type of product should have lower total costs per unit of useful effect than the best similar product on this market. The main elements of the reproduction approach are the following:

• § the use of a leading comparison base when planning the renewal of this type of product;
• § saving the amount of past, living and future labor during the life cycle of a given type of product per unit of its useful effect;
• § consideration in the relationship of manufactured, designed and promising models of this type of product;
• § proportional reproduction of the elements of the external environment (mainly the macro environment of a given country and the infrastructure of a given region);
• § integration of science and production in large organizations.

The process approach of managing an organization considers management functions in their relationship. The management process is the total sum of all functions, that is, it is a series of continuous interrelated actions.

The normative management approach consists in establishing management standards for all its subsystems. These standards should be determined by the most important elements:

• § the target subsystem (it covers indicators of quality and resource intensity of products, market parameters, indicators of the organizational and technical level of production, indicators of the social development of the organization's team, indicators of environmental protection);
• § functional subsystem (standards for the quality of plans, organization of the management system, standards for the quality of accounting and control, standards for stimulating high-quality work);
• § supporting subsystem (standards for the provision of employees, as well as individual departments of the organization with everything necessary for successful work, to fulfill their tasks, standards for the efficiency of the use of certain types of resources in the whole organization). The listed standards must meet the requirements of complexity, efficiency, and prospects.
• § As for the standards for the functioning of the elements of the external environment, the organization does not manage these standards, however, it must have a bank of these standards and strictly comply with them, in particular legal and environmental standards. The organization should also take part in the formation and development of the system of environmental standards.

The essence of the quantitative management approach is the transition from qualitative to quantitative assessments, using mathematical and statistical methods, engineering calculations, expert assessments, a scoring system, etc.

The administrative (directive) approach to enterprise management involves the regulation of functions, rights, obligations, quality cost standards.

The main task of the behavioral approach to managing an organization is to increase the efficiency of the organization by improving the use of its labor resources. The use of behavioral science helps to improve the performance of both individual employees and the organization as a whole. The fact is that as a result of applying the science of behavior to the management of an organization, individual employees are assisted in understanding their capabilities and creative abilities, which ultimately leads to an increase in the efficiency of the organization.

The essence of the situational approach to enterprise management is that the degree of suitability of individual management methods is determined by a specific situation. Since there are many factors that affect the activities of the organization, both internally and externally, it is impossible to find any single best way to manage. Effective in this particular situation will be the method that best suits the current situation.

These are the main approaches that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions.

Organization of the process of developing a management decision is a complex set of works. Consider the main stages in the development of management decisions.

The first stage is obtaining information about the situation. This information must be complete and true. Incomplete or inaccurate information may lead to erroneous or ineffective decisions. To better represent the situation, not only quantitative, but also qualitative information is used.

The second stage is the definition of goals. Only after they have determined these goals, the factors, mechanisms, patterns, resources that influence the development of this situation are determined. A significant role here is played by the identification of the priority of goals, since the choice of any goals is always made in the management process.

The third stage is the development of an evaluation system. At the stage of making a managerial decision, it is necessary to adequately assess this situation, its various sides. All this must be taken into account in the decision-making process leading to success.

The fourth stage is the analysis of the situation. If there is the necessary information about the situation and about the specific goal that the organization is striving for, then you should begin to analyze the situation. The purpose of such an analysis is to establish the factors influencing the development of this situation.

The fifth stage is the diagnosis of the situation. It is necessary to identify the most important problems that should be addressed first of all in the conditions of purposeful process management. It is also necessary to study the nature of the influence of these problems on the processes under consideration. This is the task of diagnosing the situation. A

Achieving the goals that an organization has constantly requires targeted actions. This is necessary to ensure that the situation develops in the direction that is desirable for the organization.

Adequate diagnosis of the situation largely ensures the adoption of effective management decisions.

The sixth stage is the development of a forecast for the development of the situation. You cannot manage an organization without predicting the course of events. Therefore, the most important role in the decision-making process is played by issues related to the assessment of the expected development of the analyzed situations, as well as the expected results of the implementation of various alternative management decisions.

At the seventh stage, alternative options for management decisions are generated. In this process, it is necessary to fully use information about the decision-making situation, as well as the results of the analysis and assessment of this situation, the results of its diagnosis and forecasting the development of the situation for various possible directions of development of events.

The eighth stage includes the selection of options for management actions.

After the development of alternative options for managerial influences, which have the form of certain ideas, concepts, technological sequence of actions, as well as possible ways to implement various solutions, it is necessary to conduct their preliminary analysis to filter out unviable, uncompetitive, and ineffective options.

The ninth stage involves the development of scenarios for the development of the situation.

The most important task in the process of developing scenarios is to establish the factors that characterize a given situation and its development trends. In addition, one of the main tasks here is to determine alternative options for changing the situation and trends in its change over time, as well as identifying probable alternative options for expected changes in the situation in the presence of control actions, as well as in the absence of them.

The analysis of a number of alternative options for the development of the situation contributes to the adoption of the most effective management decisions, since this analysis is the most information-intensive.

At the tenth stage, an expert assessment of the main options for control actions is carried out.

An expertise that provides a comparative assessment of alternative options for control actions, firstly, characterizes the degree of feasibility of these actions, as well as the possibility of achieving certain goals with their help, and secondly, makes it possible to rank control actions using the existing evaluation system in accordance with various the level of expected achievement of the goal, the necessary costs of labor, material and financial resources, as well as in accordance with the most likely scenarios for the development of this situation.

The eleventh stage is the stage of collective peer review. If important management decisions are made, then collective expertise should be used, which provide the greatest validity and effectiveness of the decisions made.

The twelfth stage is the stage of developing an action plan. At this stage, certain organizational and technical measures are outlined, aimed at implementing the adopted management decision.

At the thirteenth stage, the implementation of the developed plan is monitored. The progress of the plan should be systematically monitored, and any changes in conditions or deviations in the implementation of the plan should be systematically reviewed.

At the final, fourteenth stage of development of managerial decisions, an analysis of the results of the development of this situation after managerial influences is carried out. Here, the completed management action plan is subjected to a thorough analysis to assess the effectiveness of the management decisions made and their implementation.

An analysis of the results of managerial influences, along with forecasting for the future, may be the basis for a refined assessment of the capabilities of a given organization.

The adoption of a managerial decision, in essence, is an intermediate phase between a managerial decision and a managerial impact. Based on this, the effectiveness of management decisions should be characterized as a combination of the effectiveness of the development of management decisions and the effectiveness of the implementation of these management decisions.

Efficiency is the effectiveness of production, labor or management

A large number of private indicators of the economic efficiency of the organization's staff are calculated (there are more than sixty such indicators in total).

These indicators include profitability, turnover of working capital, capital productivity, capital intensity, return on capital investments, labor productivity, the ratio of growth rates of labor productivity and average wages, etc.

It is possible to evaluate both the effectiveness of the activities of the management apparatus of a given organization as a whole, and the effectiveness of individual management decisions. Also volume indicators, as well as specific quality indicators. Here, the effectiveness of organizational and technical measures implemented in accordance with the adopted management decision is expressed by comparing the costs of these activities and the results obtained as a result of their implementation.

When evaluating the effectiveness of management activities, the concept of the cumulative economic effect can be used, since the results obtained include a certain labor contribution of members of the organization's team with different professions.

Organizations are guided, on the one hand, by the need to meet the requirements of consumers of their products (works, services), and on the other hand, by improving the economic performance of their economic and financial activities. As a result, when evaluating the effectiveness of management decisions, it is necessary to take into account both social and economic aspects of efficiency.

Consider the procedure for evaluating the effectiveness of management decisions on the example of a trade organization.

In order to correctly determine the effectiveness of management decisions, it is necessary to carry out separate accounting of income and expenses of a trade organization in the context of individual product groups. However, in practice, maintaining such records is very difficult. As a result, it is advisable to use in the analysis the so-called specific qualitative indicators, namely, profit per 1 million rubles of trade turnover, as well as distribution costs per 1 million rubles of commodity stocks.

The effectiveness of managerial decisions in an organization is manifested in a generalized way in a quantitative form as an increase in the volume of trade, an acceleration in the turnover of goods, a decrease in the amount of inventory.

The final financial and economic result of the implementation of management decisions is manifested in an increase in the income of a trade organization and in a decrease in its expenses.

The determination of the economic efficiency of management decisions, as a result of which the turnover increased, and, consequently, the profit increased, can be carried out according to the following formula:

Ef \u003d P * T \u003d P * (Tf - Tpl)

• § Ef - economic efficiency (in thousand rubles);
• § P - profit per 1 million rubles of turnover (in thousand rubles);
• § T - increase in the value of trade (in million rubles);
• § Tf - the actual turnover that takes place after the implementation of this management decision;
• § Tpl - planned turnover (or turnover for a comparable period before the implementation of this management decision).

In the example under consideration, the economic efficiency of making and executing a managerial decision is expressed in a reduction in the value of distribution costs (sales expenses, or commercial expenses) attributable to the balance of goods. This leads to an increase in the amount of profit received. This efficiency can be determined by the following formula:

Ef \u003d IO * Z \u003d IO * (Z 2 - Z 1),

• § Ef - economic efficiency of this management measure (in thousand rubles);
• § IO - the value of distribution costs attributable to 1 million rubles of inventory (in thousand rubles);
• § 3 - the size of the change (decrease) in commodity stocks (millions, rubles);
• § 3 1 - the amount of commodity stocks before the implementation of the management decision (measure) (million rubles);
• § 3 2 - the amount of stocks of goods after the implementation of this management decision.

In addition, the economic efficiency of the implemented management decision affected the acceleration of trade. This influence can be determined by the following formula:

Eph \u003d Io * Ob \u003d Io (Ob f - Ob pl),

management economy social

• § Ef - economic efficiency of the management decision (thousand rubles);
• § Io - the simultaneous value of distribution costs (thousand rubles);
• § Ob - acceleration of turnover of goods (in days);
• § Ob pl - turnover of goods before the implementation of a management decision (in days).
• § Ob f - turnover of goods after the implementation of a management decision (in days).

Let us consider the procedure for applying the main methods and techniques of analysis in assessing the effectiveness of making and executing managerial decisions.

The comparison method makes it possible to evaluate the activities of the organization, identify deviations in the actual values ​​of indicators from the base values, establish the causes of these deviations and find reserves for further improvement of the organization's activities.

The index method is used in the analysis of complex phenomena, the individual elements of which cannot be measured. As relative indicators, indices are necessary to assess the degree of fulfillment of planned targets, as well as to determine the dynamics of various phenomena and processes.

This method makes it possible to decompose the generalizing indicator into factors of absolute and relative deviations.

The balance method consists in comparing interrelated indicators of the organization's performance to identify the influence of individual factors, as well as to search for reserves to improve the organization's performance. At the same time, the relationship between individual indicators is expressed in the form of equality of the results obtained as a result of certain comparisons.

The elimination method, which is a generalization of the methods of index, balance and chain substitutions, makes it possible to isolate the influence of a single factor on the general indicator of the organization's performance, based on the assumption that other factors acted under otherwise equal conditions, i.e. as planned according to plan.

The graphical method is a way of visually illustrating the activities of the organization, as well as a way to determine a number of indicators and a way to present the results of the analysis.

Functional cost analysis (FCA) is a systematic research method used in accordance with the purpose of the object under study (processes, products) in order to increase the beneficial effect, that is, the return per unit of total costs for the life cycle of the object.

The most important feature of the functional cost analysis is to establish the appropriateness of the list of functions that the designed object must perform in certain specific conditions, or to check the need for the functions of an existing object.

Economic and mathematical methods of analysis are used to select the best options that determine management decisions in existing or planned economic conditions.

With the help of economic and mathematical methods of analysis, the following tasks can be solved:

• § assessment of the production plan developed using economic and mathematical methods;
• § optimization of the production program, its distribution between workshops and individual types of equipment;
• § optimizing the distribution of available production resources, cutting materials, as well as optimizing the norms and standards of stocks and consumption of these resources;
• § optimization of the level of unification of individual components of the product, as well as technological equipment;
• § determination of the optimal size of the organization as a whole, as well as individual workshops and production sites;
• § establishment of the optimal range of products;
• § determination of the most rational routes for intra-factory transport;
• § determination of the most rational terms of operation of equipment and its repairs;
• § comparative analysis of the economic efficiency of using a unit of a resource type from the point of view of the optimal variant of a management decision;
• § determination of possible intra-production losses in connection with the adoption and implementation of the optimal solution.

It is important to understand how functions differ from tasks. A task is an activity aimed at achieving the required results at a certain time. A function is a repeating activity of an organization. The complex of management tasks is a management function.

As a rule, one function is performed by one division, however, some functions may be performed jointly by different divisions or one division may perform several functions.

Figure 1 shows the factors on which the composition of functions depends.

Figure 1 - Factors affecting the composition of management functions

Management functions are needed in order to provide leadership, management and maintenance of production activities in the organization.

All functions have the following main characteristics:

• appointment;
• repeatability;
• homogeneity of content;
• performance specifics.

Management functions are distinguished by the presence of an objective nature, which is determined by the need for the management process itself in the conditions of joint labor activity.

The main functions of the organization management are:

• organization - a set of methods and techniques for combining all parts of the management system;
• rationing - the process of developing scientifically based calculated values ​​that establish the quantity and quality of the assessment of the developed elements used in the production and management process;
• planning is a function that occupies a central place in the organizational structure and is aimed at regulating the behavior of the control object;
• coordination - the impact on a team of people in order to manage various but interconnected units;
• motivation is a function that stimulates labor activity;
• control - analysis and accounting of possible errors and deviations from the planned plans;
• regulation is a function closely related to the functions of control and coordination.

Management functions are the basis of the administrative apparatus, determining its size and structure. The main task of the administrative apparatus is to combine different, but related functions.

There are several options for classifying the management function, but the simplest and most understandable divides them into two groups:

• general;
• special.

General control functions

General functions were formulated by Ani Fayol at the beginning of the 20th century. They exist in the management of any organization in any business area.

Among all the general functions of management, titration is considered the main one - a method of mass quantitative and qualitative analysis. In performing this function, a manager, usually a senior manager, performs the following:

• formulates goals and objectives for the future;
• carries out strategic planning;
• draws up operational plans.

The implementation of all plans depends on the organizational function. It is aimed at creating an organization, forming its structure, distributing tasks among staff, and coordinating their work.

The motivational function is responsible for stimulating the labor activity of the staff. It is based on the analysis and identification of people's needs, the choice of how to meet them, in order to stimulate the productivity of workers as much as possible.

The control function is aimed at identifying possible risks, dangers, errors and deviations, and thus it helps to improve the work.

Special Features

Functions for managing individual objects occupy a special place in the organization. How control objects can be distinguished:

• production activities;
• logistics;
• innovation;
• marketing and sales activities;
• recruitment;
• financial activities;
• accounting and analysis.

The management of these objects is the content of special management functions. Table 1 shows examples of the content of some functions.

Table 1 - Content of special control functions

Function(literally - action) in relation to management characterizes the types of management activities that arise in the process of division and specialization of labor in the field of management.

M. Meskon identifies four general management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions have two characteristics in common: they all require decision-making, and all require the exchange of information, i.e. these two characteristics link all four managerial functions, ensuring their interdependence.

planning function, according to M. Mescon, offers a decision about what the goals of the organization should be and what the members of the organization should do to allegedly achieve these goals. The planning function answers the following three questions: where are we currently? where do we want to go? and how are we going to do it?

Organization function involves the formation of the structure of the organization, first the distribution and coordination of the work of employees, and then the design of the structure of the organization as a whole.

Motivation function is a process by which management encourages employees to act as planned and organized.

"Control function is the process by which management determines whether an organization is achieving its objectives, highlighting problems and taking corrective action before serious harm occurs. Control enables management to determine whether plans should be revised because they are not feasible or have already been completed. This relationship between planning and control completes the cycle that makes process management interrelated functions.

The internal life of an organization consists of a large number of different actions and processes. Depending on the types of organization, its size and type of activity, certain processes and actions may occupy a leading place in it, while some, widely implemented in other organizations, may either be absent or minimally carried out. However, despite the huge variety of actions and processes, a certain number of groups can be distinguished. O. S. Vikhansky, A. I. Naumov and others offer five groups of functional processes, which, in their opinion, cover the activities of any organization and which are the object of management by management.

The special functions of managing a certain resource are: production, marketing, finance, work with personnel, accounting and analysis of economic activity.

production function assumes that the relevant services, managers of a certain level manage the process of processing raw materials, materials and semi-finished products into a product that the organization offers to the external environment.

Marketing function It is called upon, through marketing activities for the implementation of the created product, to link into a single process the satisfaction of the needs of the organization's customers and the achievement of the organization's goals.

financial function consists in the management of the process of movement of funds in the organization.

Personnel management function associated with the use of the capabilities of employees to achieve the goals of the organization.

Function of accounting and analysis of economic activities involves managing the process of processing and analyzing information about the work of the organization in order to compare the actual activities of the organization with its capabilities, as well as with the activities of other organizations. This allows the organization to uncover the issues that it needs to pay close attention to and choose the best ways to carry out its activities.

24. Planning function

Planning- this is the definition of a system of goals for the functioning and development of the organization, as well as ways and means to achieve them. Any organization cannot do without planning, as it is necessary to make management decisions regarding:

distribution of resources;

coordination of activities between individual departments;

coordination with the external environment (market);

creating an effective internal structure;

control over activities;

development of the organization in the future. Planning ensures the timeliness of decisions, avoids hasty decisions, sets a clear goal and a clear way to achieve it, and also provides an opportunity to control the situation.

In general, the planning process can be distinguished:

· the process of goal-setting (definition of a system of goals);

· the process of combining (coordinating) goals and means to achieve them;

· the process of development or the unity of the existing system of work of the organization with its future development.

goal setting- this is the process of developing a system of goals, starting from the general goals of the organization and ending with the goals of its individual divisions. The result is a goal tree that underpins the entire planning process.

In itself, the presence of a goal does not mean that it will be achieved, it is necessary to have appropriate material, financial and human resources. At the same time, the level of achievement of the goal often depends on the amount of these resources. So, for example, to create an enterprise in a certain industry, an initial investment of at least N million rubles is required. This financial resource must be available, and then a combination of the goal and the means to achieve it will be provided. As a result of coordination, plans appear that combine activities to achieve goals, deadlines, means and performers.

To implement the planning process, it is also necessary to have an established organizational system. The work of the organization is aimed at achieving the target, and the result depends on how this work is built and coordinated. Even the most ideal plans will not be realized without proper organization. There must be an executive structure. In addition, the organization must have the possibility of future development, since without this the organization will collapse (if we do not develop, then we die). The future of the organization depends on the conditions of the environment in which it operates, on the skills and knowledge of the staff, on the place that the organization occupies in the industry (region, country).

The entire planning process in an organization is divided into: strategic, tactical and operational levels.

Strategic planning- this is the definition of the goals and procedures of the organization in the long term, operational planning is the system for managing the organization for the current period of time. These two types of planning connect the organization as a whole with each specific unit and are the key to successful coordination of actions. If we take the organization as a whole, then planning is carried out in the following order:

The mission of the organization is being developed.

Based on the mission, strategic guidelines or directions of activity are developed (these guidelines are often called quality goals).

An assessment and analysis of the external and internal environment of the organization is carried out.

Strategic alternatives are identified.

Choosing a specific strategy or way to achieve a goal. The answer to the question "what to do?".

After setting the goal and choosing alternative ways to achieve it (strategy), the main components of formal planning are:

tactics, or how to achieve this or that result (the answer to the question "how to do it?"). Tactical plans and operational plans are developed on the basis of the chosen strategy, they are designed for a shorter period of time ( tactical- for 1 year - a business plan for the development of the organization for one year, for example; operational plan- at the moment), are developed by middle managers;

policies, or general guidelines for action and decision-making that facilitate the achievement of goals;

procedures, or a description of the actions to be taken in a particular situation;

rules, or what should be done in each specific situation.

Planning and plans

Distinguish between planning and planning . Plan is a detailed set of decisions to be implemented, a list of specific activities and their executors. The plan is the result of the planning process. Plans and planning come in many variations and can be viewed from different perspectives.

By breadth of coverage:

corporate planning (for the entire company as a whole);

planning by type of activity (planning the production of carpets);

planning at the level of a specific unit (planning the work of the shop).

By function:

production;

financial;

personnel;

marketing.

By sub-function (for example, for marketing):

assortment planning;

sales planning.

By time period:

long-term planning - 5 years or more;

medium-term planning - from 2 to 5 years;

short-term planning - up to a year.

According to the level of detail of plans:

strategic planning;

operational;

tactical planning.

As required:

directive plans for direct enforcement;

indicative plans that are indicative and depend on indicators of economic, political, etc. activity.

The plan as a result of planning for performers is a policy document and should include both mandatory and recommendatory indicators, and with an increase in planning time, the number of indicative (recommendatory) indicators grows. This is due to the fact that with long-term planning, the result cannot be determined absolutely precisely, since it depends on changes in business conditions and is of a probabilistic nature. Specific activities, goods, services and works, as well as structures, technologies and procedures can be planned. For example, planning for the expansion of an organization, planning for a better process, or planning for a product launch.

There are three main forms of organizing planning:

"top down";

"upwards";

"targets down - plans up."

Top down planning is based on the fact that the management creates plans that must be carried out by their subordinates. This form of planning can only work if there is a rigid, authoritarian system of enforcement.

Planning from the bottom up based on the fact that plans are created by subordinates and approved by management. This is a more progressive form of planning, but in the conditions of deepening specialization and division of labor it is difficult to create a single system of interrelated goals.

Planning "goals down - plans up" combines the advantages and eliminates the disadvantages of the two previous options. Governing bodies develop and formulate goals for their subordinates and stimulate the development of plans in departments. This form makes it possible to create a single system of interrelated plans, since common targets are mandatory for the entire organization.

Planning is based on data from past periods of activity, but the purpose of planning is the activity of the enterprise in the future and control over this process. Therefore, the reliability of planning depends on the accuracy and correctness of the information that managers receive. The quality of planning largely depends on the intellectual level of competence of managers and the accuracy of forecasts regarding the further development of the situation.

Organization function

Purpose of the organization function- preparing and ensuring the implementation of planned activities and the achievement of planned goals.

Job design - in the course of it, it is decided who and how should act. Design allows you to clearly identify and describe the area of ​​work, to ensure the implementation of the functions of the organization.

Work design includes the following steps:

1. Analysis of work.

2. Establishing its parameters.

3. Determination of the technology for performing work.

4. Perception by the performers of the content of the work.

Purpose of job analysis- is to give an objective description of the work itself, i.e. its content, its requirements and its environment or context. There are many job analysis techniques to help managers identify these three elements of any job.

Depending on the chosen method of analysis of the work, the description of its content can be broad or narrow, i.e. may be a simple statement of what to do, or a detailed explanation of each individual operation, each movement of the hand or body.

Functional analysis of work (PAR) includes a description of:

What the employee does in relation to other employees and other jobs;

What methods and operations should be used;

What machines and equipment are used in the performance of this work;

What product / service is produced in the process of doing work.

The first three positions are associated with actions, the fourth - with the result of work. The FAR provides a job description based on a job classification for each of the four positions. This method is widely used in practice for the preparation of so-called staffing tables.

Job Requirements reflect the qualities of the individual necessary for its implementation: skills, abilities, education, experience, health, upbringing and other individual qualities

To compile a list of these requirements in a particular organization, the method of official analytical questionnaire (DAQ) is used.

DAV method involves the description of the specified characteristics of the individual by analyzing the following parameters of work:

Information sources important for the performance of the work;

Information processed and decisions made necessary to carry out the work;

The physical actions and skills required to perform the job;

The nature of the interpersonal relationships desired for the job;

the nature of the individual's reaction to working conditions .

It is used for all types of work, including management. It serves as a basis for the preparation of qualification handbooks.

The context of the work is made up of physical, social and other factors external to the work, describing the conditions in which it must be performed, as well as rights and responsibilities.

Operation parameters determined on the basis of the results of its analysis.

Job options include:

its scale;

complexity;

relationships in which its performer enters with other employees.

Scale of work associated with the content of the work and represents the number of tasks or operations that the employee responsible for this work must perform.

Usually, the more tasks or operations an employee has to perform, the more time it will take him.

The complexity of the work is predominantly qualitative in nature and reflects the degree of independence in decision-making and the degree of ownership of the process. It depends on the personal characteristics of the performer and the rights delegated to him for its implementation.

You can meet people who formally occupy the same positions in the organization, but perform work of different complexity.

Relations at work in its design - the establishment of interpersonal relationships between the performer of the work and other employees, both about the work itself and in connection with other types of work in the organization.

Perception of the content of the work characterizes it from the point of view of understanding its nature by an individual performer. There is a distinction between the objective and subjective properties of work as reflected in people's perceptions. To improve the result of the work, it is necessary to change the perception of the content of the work. Changes in this case may relate to job design, personal qualities or social environment, i.e. everything that affects the perceived content of the work.

A number of methods are used to measure the perceived content of a job in a variety of settings. These are usually questionnaires filled out by interviewees that measure the perception of certain job characteristics.

Americans R. Hackman and E. Lawler identify 6 such characteristics: diversity, autonomy, completeness, effectiveness, interaction and sociability

Diversity- the level of diversity in the set of operations or the level of diversity of tools and processes used in the performance of work.

Anonymity- the level of independence in making decisions on the planning of their work, as well as the choice of means for its implementation.

completeness - the level of bringing the created product (service) to the final result within the framework of this work.

Efficiency(feedback) - the level of awareness of the performer through the work on the effectiveness of his actions.

Interaction- the level of interaction required from the performer with other employees to complete the work.

Sociability- the level to which the job allows the performer to communicate with colleagues and establish informal friendships.

Technology- these are actions, knowledge, methods and physical objects (technology) used in work to obtain a result (products or services).

The relationship between technology and job design can be seen in terms of:

the employee's knowledge of when and where work should be done and how to do it;

in terms of job interdependence.

Informing the employee about when and where the work to be performed determines the degree of freedom in deciding on the start and place of work.

Thus, the assembler on the conveyor has a very small degree of such freedom due to the fact that he must start work with the start of the conveyor, which is his workplace.

Informing the employee about how the work to be done determines the degree of freedom in the choice of means (subjects and methods) by which the desired result is to be obtained.

So, a designer in a design office apparently has a high degree of such freedom due to the fact that he creates a new, unknown. In such a situation, experience, judgment, intuition and the ability to solve problems are usually required.

The third characteristic of technology that affects job design is interdependence of work in the organization- it determines the degree to which interaction between two or more employees (or groups of employees) is carried out, ensuring the fulfillment of their tasks.

There are four types of job interdependencies:

folding

consistent

Related

group

Emerging Interdependence occurs when an individual worker is not required to interact with other workers to complete the work as a whole.

Sequential interdependence assumes that before one worker starts work, another must perform a series of operations to do so. What is the beginning of work for one is the end of work for another. Example: car manufacturing.

Related interdependence- a situation where the end of the work of one becomes the beginning of the work of another, and vice versa.

Example: the work of a surgeon with assistants during an operation, a goalkeeper with a player in a football team, groups of different levels in making a decision, etc.

This type of interdependence usually requires clarity and continuity in work.

Group interdependence is based on the simultaneous participation of all parties in this action and, as it were, includes all previous interdependencies together.

The group approach is used when there is high uncertainty in the work and requires from the participants a high degree of cooperation and interaction, effective communication and the ability to make group decisions.

Work design models. The work design models that exist in practice are divided into 3 groups depending on which work parameter (scale, complexity and relationships) is predominantly used or subject to change.

The choice of model is influenced by intra-organizational factors: management style, trade unions, working conditions, technology, culture and structure of the organization, incentive systems and work with personnel, etc.

The work design model includes the definition of such elements of the projected work as intended for the operation; methods used, time and place of work; performance indicators and the relationship between man and machine.

These elements are determined on the basis of the Taylor system of studying movements and time. The time for the work operation and the actions required to complete it are determined.

Specialization and efficiency of performance of work are put in a basis of construction of work.

Scaling up model the number of operations or tasks performed by the worker is expanding.

Example: In the assembly of a car, a worker is assigned to install not only springs, but also shock absorbers.

The purpose of the model is to diversify and increase the attractiveness of work by adding work functions. In job design, the model is based on job despecialization, which makes it possible to establish a positive relationship between the expansion of the scope of work and job satisfaction.

Work rotation - is to move an employee from one job to another and, accordingly, to provide him with the opportunity to perform more diverse functions.

Job rotation is closely related to the scale-up model, as it is based on adding variety of tasks to increase interest in the job.

Work enrichment means adding to the work performed by the individual functions or tasks that increase the responsibility of the performer for planning, organizing, controlling and evaluating his own work.

Enrichment refers to such dimensions of work as its complexity and work relationships, which together constitute the concept of work organization.

Functions of motivation.

Motivation- is a set of driving forces that encourage a person to activities that have a specific target orientation.

The process of motivation (motivation) is built around human needs, which are the main object of influence in order to encourage a person to act. In the most general way need- this is a feeling of lack in something that has an individualized character with all the generality of manifestation. Innate needs common to all people (primary needs) are called - need. For example, the need for food, sleep, etc. Acquired (secondary) needs are associated with the existence of a person in a group, are more personalized and are formed under the influence of the environment. For example, the need for respect, for achieving results, for love, etc.

As long as the need exists, a person experiences discomfort, and that is why he will strive to find means to satisfy the need (to relieve stress). Eliminated (satisfied) need disappears, but not forever. Most needs are renewed, while changing the form of manifestation, moving to another level of the hierarchy of needs. Needs are the main source of human activity, both in practical and cognitive activities.

A need recognized and formulated by a person does not always lead to an action (motive) to eliminate it. This requires certain conditions:

the presence of a sufficiently strong desire to change the situation, to satisfy the need (I want ...) at the level of sensations that it is impossible to live like this. This condition is key and determines the direction of efforts for resource provision (material, financial, temporary) for the implementation of actions and the development of abilities, knowledge, skills to meet needs (I can ...).

Based on the foregoing, a conclusion follows. Motivation- is the creation of conditions that affect human behavior.

The motivational process includes:

assessment of unmet needs;

formulating goals aimed at meeting needs;

determination of the actions necessary to meet the needs.

Consider the elements of the motivation process in more detail.

Incentives perform the role of stimuli that affect the employee from the outside in order to encourage him to work. The impact of incentives translates existing needs into motives, provided that they correspond to each other.

as incentives individual objects, actions, other people, promises and obligations, opportunities provided, etc., that a person would like to receive for certain actions (production behavior) can act.

But incentive to action can come not only from the outside (stimulation), but also from the person himself (motive). Here, the source of motivation is the motivational structure of the individual, which is formed under the influence of personal factors, upbringing, and training. Motives are generated by the person himself, faced with a task or problem. For example, the motive of achievement, knowledge, etc., or the motive of fear.

motive- this is what causes certain actions caused by one's own needs, emotions, a person's position.

One and the same motive can be generated, depending on the situation, both by an external influence (the stimulus is external motivation) and by an internal motivational structure (intrinsic motivation). For example: interest as a motive can be generated by natural curiosity and / or skillful actions of the leader.

There are two ways to find ways to meet needs.

Finding a way to achieve success in realizing a need. This path activates human activity and gives the actions a target orientation. Examples of motives that determine this way of fulfilling needs: interest, career growth, self-affirmation, etc.

The search for ways to avoid any circumstances, object or conditions makes a person inactive, incapable of independent action. The main motives for human behavior in this situation are anxiety and a sense of fear.

Human behavior leads to a specific result, which is evaluated. The degree of satisfaction affects the behavior of a person in similar situations in the future. At the same time, people tend to repeat the behavior that is associated with satisfaction of the need, and avoid those that are associated with dissatisfaction.

The main task of the manager- create and / or activate those needs of the personnel that can be satisfied within the framework of the enterprise (subdivision) management system.

Effective personnel management involves a harmonious combination of incentives, motivation and satisfaction of the needs of employees, by influencing the content of the various stages (elements) of the motivation process.

There are a fairly large number of motivational theories that try to give a scientific explanation for the phenomenon of motivation.

hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow;

two-factor theory of F. Herzberg;

McClelland's theory of three needs.

1. Abraham Maslow identifies 5 hierarchical levels of needs. Satisfying the needs of the lower level leads to the activation of the needs of the higher level. So, for example, a well-fed person who feels safe develops social needs (the need for communication, love, etc.). Satisfying the need for communication with the desired social group expands the possibilities of appearing and finding ways to satisfy the need for respect, etc. Therefore, the process of motivation through needs is endless.

Ways to satisfy primary needs are obvious and, as a rule, are associated with the organization (creation) of a system of material incentives. The higher and more diverse, according to L. Maslow, the level of needs of employees (their motivational structure), the more difficult it is to find ways to satisfy them.

The manager is required to have a special approach to managing creative people, which involves non-standard and diverse solutions in the field of motivation.

It must be remembered that the possibility of influencing an employee on the part of management is determined by how much the manager in the eyes of employees is perceived as a source of satisfaction of their needs.

2. Friederik Herzberg all factors influencing human activity in a production situation, divided into motivating and "health" factors (hygienic factors).

Motivating factors contribute to the growth of the degree of job satisfaction and are considered as an independent group of needs, which can be generally called the need for growth: the need for achievement, recognition, work itself, etc.

Social needs

Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate.

Create a team spirit in the workplace.

Hold periodic meetings with subordinates.

Do not try to break up informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.

Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside of its framework.

Respect needs

Offer subordinates more meaningful work.

Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved.

Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates.

Involve subordinates in goal setting and decision making.

Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.

Promote subordinates through the ranks.

Provide training and retraining that enhances competencies.

Needs for self-expression

Provide subordinates with learning and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.

Give subordinates difficult and important work that requires their full dedication.

Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.

"health" factors are the factors of the environment in which the work takes place. They can be seen as a need to eliminate/avoid difficulties. The absence of these factors causes a feeling of irritation, dissatisfaction. The presence of environmental factors provides normal working conditions and, as a rule, does not contribute to the activation of human activity. For example, comfortable working conditions, normal lighting, heating, etc., working hours, wages, relationships with management and colleagues.

Conclusions:

Salary, as a rule, is not a motivating factor.

To eliminate the feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager needs to pay special attention to the factors of "health". In the absence of a feeling of dissatisfaction and irritation, it is useless to motivate staff with the help of "health" factors.

After the employee is provided with everything necessary to achieve the goals, the manager must concentrate all efforts on motivational factors.

3. McClelland's three-factor theory considers only three types of acquired needs that activate human activity: power, success, involvement.

There is a certain similarity of this theory with the theory of A. Maslow. The need for power and success is characteristic of people who have reached the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs - the need for respect. The need for involvement is characteristic of people who have reached the satisfaction of the third level of needs - social needs.

Unlike A. Maslow, McClelland believes that only the need for power is a motivational factor. Therefore, in practice, this theory is applicable to a greater extent for people seeking to occupy a certain position in the organization.

Process theories of motivation.These theories are based on I. Pavlov's concept that any human behavior is the result of a stimulus. Therefore, human behavior is subject to influence through the restructuring (change) of the environment or process in which the person works. Also, human behavior is determined by the result (consequences) of the type of behavior chosen in this situation.

The most popular process theories include:

Victor Vroom's expectancy theory;

the theory of justice by S. Adams;

complex theory of Porter-Lawler.

1. In accordance with the theory of expectations, motivation is considered as a function of three types of expectations:

the expected result of the work;

expected reward from this result;

the expected value of the reward.

The magnitude of the efforts made by a person to implement the task assigned to him will directly depend on what is the assessment of the probability of success in completing the task, as well as the probability of receiving valuable rewards for the efforts made.

The higher the degree of correspondence between actual events and expected ones, the more likely this type of behavior will be repeated.

The important practical findings are listed below.

When setting goals, the manager must clearly formulate the goal in terms of the result, as well as the criteria for evaluating the result.

To increase the likelihood of achieving the goal, the manager must provide the conditions (organizational and resource) for the successful implementation of the task.

It is necessary to distribute tasks among employees in accordance with their abilities and professional skills.

Only that remuneration will be of value to the employee, which corresponds to his structure of needs.

Only that reward will increase motivation, which follows the result achieved. The advance is not a motivating factor.

2. Theory of justice proceeds from the fact that a person subjectively evaluates the results of work and the remuneration received, comparing them with the results and remuneration of other employees. At the same time, the effort expended is subject to subjective evaluation.

If the reward is perceived as fair, the production behavior is repeated, if not, then the following human reactions are possible:

reducing the cost of their own forces ("I do not intend to give all the best for such a salary");

an attempt to increase remuneration for one's work (demand, blackmail);

overestimation of one's capabilities (decreased self-confidence);

an attempt to influence the organization or a manager in order to change the pay or workload of other employees;

MANAGEMENT

1 The relevance of management in a market economy. The role of the manager.

Management is very relevant in a market economy. Management- this is the ability to achieve goals using labor, intelligence, behavioral motives of people working in an organization - this is an independent type of professionally carried out activity aimed at achieving the intended goals in market conditions through the rational use of material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of the economic mechanism management. Management - management in market conditions.

Manager is a person professionally engaged in management activities, empowered to make management decisions and carry out their implementation.

The purpose of the manager's work is to ensure the stable competitiveness of the company. (in management decision making)

In the activity of a manager, the ability to anticipate changes and take timely action is considered the most valuable.

Key manager roles:

1. Decision-making role- the manager determines the direction of the organization's movement, decides on the allocation of resources, and makes current adjustments.

2. Information role- collection of information about the internal and external environment, dissemination of this information in the form of facts and regulations.

3. Leader's role– formation of relations inside and outside the organization, motivation of members of the organization to achieve goals, coordination of their efforts.

2 The main features and content of management activities.

The managerial activity of the manager ensures the effective management of the organization of various organizational and legal forms, economic processes, production and social infrastructure. He organizes and improves the management system, develops optimal management decisions and projects. The manager carries out his professional activities in the field of management and business at state enterprises, joint-stock companies and private firms. Its activities extend to scientific and production associations, scientific and design organizations, government bodies.

The objects of professional managerial activity of specialists are various organizations of the economic, industrial and social spheres, government bodies and social infrastructure of the national economy, units of management systems of state and private enterprises of various organizational and legal forms.

The whole process of management activity can be divided into several components, or stages, interconnected, the development of which ensures the effectiveness of the entire process as a whole.

Analysis is the first step in any management activity. Within its framework, information is collected, processed, classified, systematized, stored and analyzed for management purposes. The problem is divided into many separate parts, then possible interdependencies and relationships between them are identified, the entire set of causes and effects is recognized, the patterns of the emergence and existence of the system are determined. As part of the analytical activity, any manager should strive to specify the problem facing him, having processed the largest possible amount of information related to it.

3 Concept and essence of management.

Management - management in the conditions of the market, market economy.

Management is the ability to achieve goals using labor, intelligence, behavioral motives of people working in an organization - this is an independent type of professionally carried out activity aimed at achieving the intended goals in market conditions through the rational use of material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of economic management mechanism.

Means:

1. Orientation of the company to the demand and needs of the market, to the request of specific consumers and the organization of production of those types of goods (products) that are in demand and can bring the company a large planned profit.

2. Constantly striving to improve production efficiency to obtain optimal results at a lower cost

3. Economic independence providing freedom of decision-making to those who are responsible for the final results of the company or its divisions.

4. Constant adjustment of goals and programs depending on the state of the market

5. Identification of the final result of the activity of the firm or its economically independent units in the market in the process of exchange.

4 Management as a kind of activity.

To manage means to decide.

In order for an organization to achieve its goals, its tasks must be coordinated. Therefore, management is an essential activity for an organization. It is an integral part of any human activity that, to one degree or another, needs to be coordinated. It is not only industry that needs to be managed, but states, cities and territories, industries, hospitals and universities, churches and welfare agencies.

Management is considered as a type of human activity aimed at achieving a specific goal or goals. Management must set the direction for the firm it manages. He must think through the mission of the firm, set its goals, and organize resources to produce the results that the firm must give to society.

The most obvious characteristic of organizations is the division of labor. As soon as there is a horizontal and vertical division of labor in the organization, there is a need for management.

Management as a type of activity is implemented through the implementation of a number of management actions, called management functions. The most important management functions include: forecasting, planning, organization, coordination and regulation, activation and stimulation, accounting and control. Consideration of management as a function is associated with the development of the composition, content of all types of management activities and their relationship in space and time. It is management that creates economic and social development.

5 The concept of "management" and the concept of "management".

In general, management /management/ should be represented as the ability to achieve goals using labor, behavioral motives and people's intellect. We are talking about a targeted impact on people in order to turn unorganized elements into an effective and productive force. In other words, management is the human capabilities by which leaders use resources to achieve the organization's strategic and tactical goals.

In the Dictionary of Foreign Words "management" is translated into Russian as production management and as a set of principles, methods, means and forms of production management in order to increase production efficiency and profitability.

In modern theory and practice, management is understood as the process of leadership (management) of an individual employee, a working group and an organization as a whole. Almost all well-known foreign encyclopedias interpret the concept of "management" as the process of achieving the organization's goals through the hands of other people. The subject of this process is the manager.

Management is an integrated process of planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, necessary to achieve the goals of the organization.

6 Basic principles of management.

Basic principles of management These are general rules of thumb. They belong to the category of universal, the observance of which should lead the team to a common goal: the prosperity of the company, enterprise, organization or other structure. They are a guide for managers, which suggests that they choose the most universal strategy for achieving goals.

Principles of strategic management Here we list the basic rules that the employees of an organization must follow in order to achieve their goals.

Single direction. This means that a group of employees must have a clear idea of ​​a common goal and interests.

development dominant. Presenting a growth perspective is another important point in strategic management. Here employees see the rate of return and technology, and on the basis of this they represent the most important areas of management

Scientific. At this point, the situational and systemic approaches are applied. Based on scientific knowledge, the most optimal ways to perform the tasks are selected.

Submission of personal interests to the general. Here you can see the hierarchy of interests: the aspirations and interests of one employee or group should not be more significant than organizational ones.

Profitability. Here, the solution of problems occurs on the basis of an assessment of the available resources and, depending on this, a method for solving them is chosen.

Division of labor. The manager must set two types of tasks for the organization: short-term (it takes a little time to complete them) and strategic (the implementation of which ultimately leads to profitability). One group of people works on the first category, and the other on the second.

7 Features of Russian management

Like any other type of activity, management has its own characteristics. The Russian system of governance is undoubtedly different from the European one. This is due to many factors. In Russia, management appeared relatively recently, with the emergence of market relations and the development of entrepreneurship. It is based on human resources (employees) and entrepreneurial activity. - Read more on FB.ru:

Features of Russian management are:

1. extremely high speed of political and socio-economic processes in the country, which cannot but have a significant impact on all spheres of human activity;

2. a combination of factors that contribute to the development and strengthening of the management system or, conversely, hinder it;

3. special features of the mentality of the Russian people.

The peculiarities of Russian management also lie in the fact that the very concept of "manager" in our country is very vague. In the narrow sense of the word, a manager is a manager, head of an enterprise, a large company. In our country today, this term denotes a different type of activity. In Russian companies, a secretary, an administrator responsible for small paperwork, is also called a manager, which is not entirely true.

The main feature is the mentality of the Russians, the main obstacle to the Americanization of Russia. He is the reason for the failure of Yeltsin's economic and socio-political reforms. Any attempt to bring about change in Russia if it ignores the Russian mentality is doomed to failure.

In terms of the level of development of market relations, Russia lags behind Western countries by at least half a century. Today our country is going through the stage of development of market relations that Europe passed several decades ago. In Russia, there is no such rich experience in managing enterprises in conditions of free competition, which is available in the West, in connection with which such problems of Russian management are noted as:

insufficient knowledge of demand. Demand for a particular product is determined only after the achievement of the final result of the activity;

lack of long-term business development goals;

the lack of an independent assessment of the activities of Russian managers;

the absence of a leadership reserve school, corruption, the inability to achieve the desired result of one's entrepreneurial activity without having connections in high circles, money, etc.

The features of modern Russian management are most of all manifested in four main factors:

management infrastructure, political and socio-economic conditions of its existence;

setting priority tasks and directing efforts towards their implementation;

a set of measures aimed at developing the sphere of management in Russia;

a feature of public consciousness, the change of which requires a very long period of time.

Today, many managers of Russian enterprises are trying to adopt the experience of managing Western firms, which does not always end well. It should be understood that some of the laws and management rules that are successfully operating in Europe are completely unsuitable for work in Russian conditions. Features of Russian management are considered as the main distinguishing feature in the management of a company in Russia and in the West. A person who grew up in our country and received a Russian education has his own approach to solving a particular problem, reacts in his own way to various situations, which creates certain difficulties in following the Western model of management. This does not mean at all that we should completely abandon the experience of developed countries in the field of governance and look for its new ways from scratch. Taking into account all the main features of Russian management, thoroughly studying the experience of a country that has come a long way in the field of management, one can be very successful in many areas of activity available to a Russian entrepreneur and manager.

8 Formation of the concept of management in Russia.

The most important factor influencing the specifics of management is the mentality of the nation. Currently, in the main concepts of the formation of Russian management put forward, mentality is given different meanings. The transition to the market put forward the task of forming Russian management.

1.The concept of copying Western management theory. It does not take into account the peculiarities of the Russian mentality. Russia “needs to take a ready-made management model and use it in managing the economy...”. To master the theory, it will only be necessary to translate Western textbooks and monographs into Russian. Then, without changing anything, use these provisions in practice. The likelihood of this concept being implemented is very high due to its simplicity and the habit of thoughtlessly copying Western experience. But it also carries a great danger. It suffices to recall the use of the theory of “monetarism”, not adapted to the conditions of Russia, the concepts of “shock therapy”, voucherization, etc. It is possible to predict new shocks that await Russia in the implementation of this concept.

2. The concept of adaptation of Western management theory. It assumes partial consideration of the peculiarities of the Russian mentality, i.e. not blind copying, but the adaptation of Western theory to modern Russian conditions. This raises an important problem, which of the Western management theories will we adapt? The control systems of Japan, the USA, Western Europe are very different from each other. Which of these options should be taken as analog? But with any choice, we run the risk of using a theory that takes into account specific features, the conditions for the functioning of the economy, the level of socio-economic development of these countries, the mentality of their inhabitants. Here it is advisable to recall the words of M. Weber: “Western-type capitalism could arise only in Western civilization”

3.The concept of creation of the Russian theory of management. It proceeds from the full consideration of the peculiarities of the Russian mentality using aspects of world management experience. At the same time, neither blind copying of the Western and Eastern experience, nor a complete denial of the achievements of the Western and Eastern schools of management is possible. Both the first and the second are equally inapplicable. It should be noted that even A. Marshall argued that: “Economics is not a set of specific truths, but only a tool for discovering specific truths” 3. In our opinion, this statement can be completely transferred to the science of management. Therefore, Russian management must have its own specific content, forms and methods of management that correspond to the specifics of the Russian mentality.

The object of management, its fundamental category is the organization (enterprise).

The nature, properties and formal structure of the organization as an object of management depend on its type, hierarchical level and functional area of ​​activity.

Managers (subjects management) - managers of various levels who hold a permanent position in the organization and are empowered to make decisions in certain areas of the organization's activities.

* leaders of the organization;

* Head of structural units;

* organizers of certain types of work (administrators).

Types of management- special areas of management activities related to the solution of certain management tasks.

general or general management consists in managing the activities of the organization as a whole or its independent economic units.

functional or special management consists in the management of certain areas of activity of the organization or its links, for example, the management of innovation, personnel, marketing, finance, etc.

Based on content There are normative, strategic and operational management.

Regulatory management provides for the development and implementation of the philosophy of the organization, its entrepreneurial policy, determining the position of the organization in a competitive market niche and the formation of common strategic intentions.

Strategic management involves the development of a set of strategies, their distribution over time, the formation of the potential for success of the organization and the provision of strategic control over their implementation.

Operational management provides for the development of tactical and operational measures aimed at the practical implementation of the adopted strategies for the development of the organization.

Can be distinguished main categories of management that determine the effectiveness of management.

Control functions. At each stage of the organization's activities, it is necessary that the composition of the management functions correspond to the complexes of the organization's work. According to the management functions, a minimum, but necessary composition of resources should be performed.

Management structures. The management structure of the organization should have a reasonable number of management levels and structural units. Management structures should be flexible (if necessary, quickly rebuild). They should be reviewed periodically. Moreover, it is necessary to conduct a separate analysis of linear and functional control. When analyzing linear management, it is advisable to single out a linear management structure that excludes functional links (planning department, accounting, etc.) and consider all the relationships that have developed in it between management employees at different levels in terms of resources, results and lost benefits.

Management methods. They should be applied in a single system: economic, socio-psychological and administrative, and correlated with specific goals (tasks) of the organization.

Management processes and management decisions. The sources of management efficiency in these categories are the efficiency of the implementation of the stages of managerial decision-making and the quality of the performance of individual management functions at individual stages. In many ways, the quality and efficiency of management services depends on the qualifications of management employees, their work experience, activity and creativity.

Responsibility of employees (bodies) of management. It is necessary to develop a system of responsibility and clearly regulate in the job descriptions of employees the duties, relationships, rights and measure of responsibility for the general and individual results of work.

Management personnel. Under the new conditions, it is necessary to change the methods of selecting personnel when they are admitted to the organization, to improve the system for evaluating their performance, leadership style and methods of remuneration of managers.

10 Management functions: purpose, diversity, composition.

Management function - a type of management activity, with the help of which the subject of management influences the managed object

All management functions can be divided into two groups according to the following criteria: according to the content of the management process (basic functions) and according to the direction of impact on management objects (specific or specific functions).

General (basic) management functions.

These include:

1) planning;

2) organization;

3) leadership;

4) motivation;

Control.

The number of specific management functions in the enterprise will be as many as the areas (types) of production and economic activities that serve as objects of management. To manage a particular area of ​​activity, a management body (department, service, bureau) is created. The formulation of a specific management function begins with the word "management". Specific management functions include: management of scientific and technical preparation of production; main production management; management of auxiliary and service production; product quality management; labor and payroll management; personnel management; logistics management; financial and credit management; product marketing management; capital construction management; management of the social development of the team. A specific function is assigned to a management body (accounting, personnel department, financial department, planning and economic department, etc.), whose team is engaged in the performance of this function along with participation in the performance of all five general (basic) management functions. Each specific function at the enterprise is complex in content and includes five general management functions (planning, organization, leadership, motivation and control) to influence organizationally separate management objects.

The carrier of general (basic) management functions is the entire management system, and the carrier of specific (specific) management functions are parts (departments, services) of the management system

All common (basic) functions mutually penetrate each other. Thus, for example, planning is organized, motivated, controlled, and managed. The organization is planned, motivated, controlled, etc. Each specific function includes all general functions. It turns out that in any management unit, all three groups of management functions (general, specific and special) are performed, which closely interact with each other in time and space and form a complex of activities carried out by the subject of management when influencing the object of management. The totality of all management functions performed by managers, specialists and technical executives in the management system forms the content of the management process, which will be discussed in a separate topic.

Planning is the process of preparing for the future decisions about what, by whom, how, when should be done.

The function of the organization is to prepare in advance all that is necessary to carry out the plan.

Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act in order to achieve personal and organizational goals.

Control is the process of measuring (comparing) the actual results achieved with the planned ones.

Management decisions are the connecting link of all functions. After the analysis, during the control, the planning is corrected - this is feedback.

11 Types of communication and criteria for their classification.

Communication is the process of transferring information.

The main goal of the communication process is the exchange of information between two or more people, ensuring the understanding of information.

Main communication methods:

1. Methods of interpersonal communications.

2. Methods for collecting, processing and transmitting information.

3. Methods for making and implementing management decisions.

Types of communications of the organization:

A) External organizational:

1. With consumers.

2. With the public.

3. Reporting to government agencies.

B) Intraorganizational:

1. Communication between the organization and the environment.

2.Communications between levels and divisions.

Downlink communications.

In order to improve the efficiency of information flow management, organizational communications require that each manager has an idea of ​​the emerging barriers to the exchange of information in organizations and methods for improving such exchange.

The main barriers in organizational communications:

1. Distortion of messages:

unintentional;

conscious misrepresentation;

Filtration

mismatch of the statuses of the levels of the organization;

Fear of punishment and a sense of worthlessness.

2. Information overload.

3. Unsatisfactory structure of the organization.

4. Improving and reducing barriers:

* to the qualitative and quantitative determination of the internal structure of communications, i.e. systematization of the transfer of information between the structural elements of the control system;

*to substantiate the external structure of communications, i.e. the system of channels through which information will be transmitted between the elements of the control system and the external environment;

* to determine for each channel of information transmission, the composition and volume of messages transmitted through it and the level of their confidentiality;

*to improve managerial actions, short meetings with subordinates, operational meetings.

The communication process can be represented as a set of basic elements that ensure the transmission of component messages:

1. Sender (communicator) - a person who generates ideas or collects information, selects a channel for transmission, encodes a message and transmits.

2. A message is information that the sender sends to the recipient. In this case, the message can be transmitted in a vertical, i.e. verbal form, non-vertical (gestures, facial expressions or graphic images), and can also be encoded, i.e. transformed into a system of signs, impulses.

3. A channel is a means of transmitting information. Usually, they are media (print, radio, television) and interpersonal channels - a direct personal exchange of messages between the sender and recipient of information.

4. Recipient (recipient) - the person to whom the information is intended.

When exchanging information, the sender and receiver go through several interrelated stages:

1. The birth of an idea.

2. Coding information and forming a message. To convey a formulated idea, the sender must encode it using symbols understandable to the recipient, giving it a certain form. The most commonly used symbols are words, gestures, graphics, etc., which turn an idea into a message.

3. The choice of a communication channel and the transfer of information. To send a message, the sender must select a communication channel that is compatible with the type of characters used for encoding. The most frequently used channels are: telephone, fax, speech and written materials, electronic means of communication, including computer communications, e-mail, etc.

4. Decoding. After the message is transmitted by the sender, the receiver decodes it, i.e. translates the sender's characters into the recipient's thoughts.

However, as a result of various kinds of interference and distortion (noise), the recipient may give a slightly different meaning to the message than in the sender's head. To improve the efficiency of information exchange, to compensate for negative distortions, feedback is used in communications.

4. Feedback is the recipient's response to a message. In other words, feedback is a reaction to what is heard, read and seen.

12 Scientific approaches to management: systemic, situational, procedural, target, results-based management.

General scientific methods of management.

Process Approach- activity to perform a function is a process that requires certain costs, resources and time. – the management process reflects the sequence of performance of the main management functions. The management function is a specific type of management activity that is carried out by a specialist. Techniques and methods, as well as the appropriate organization of work and control of activities (planning, organization, motivation, control)

1960 According to the process approach, management is a series of interrelated and universal management processes (planning, organization, motivation, control and connecting processes - the communication process and the decision-making process). Management calls these processes management functions, and the management process is the sum of the listed management functions (Fig. 1.

The "father" of the process approach - Henri Fayol - argued that "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control."

Systems approach- an enterprise within the framework of this approach is considered as a set of interrelated elements (divisions, functions, processes, methods) - the main idea of ​​the system theory is that any decision has consequences for the whole country.

With a systematic approach, any system (object) is considered as a set of interrelated elements that has an output (goal), input, connection with the external environment, feedback. In the system, "input" is processed into "output". The most important principles:

the decision-making process should begin with the identification and clear formulation of specific goals;

it is necessary to identify and analyze possible alternative ways to achieve the goal;

the goals of individual subsystems should not conflict with the goals of the entire system;

the ascent from the abstract to the concrete;

unity of analysis and synthesis of logical and historical;

manifestation in the object of different-quality connections and interactions.

situational approach– focuses on situational differences between and within firms. - tries to identify significant, variable situations and their impact on the performance of enterprises.

20th century. The situational approach states that different management methods should be applied depending on the specific situation, since an organization is an open system that constantly interacts with the outside world (external environment), so the main reasons for what happens inside the organization (in the internal environment) should be seek in the situation in which this organization is forced to act.

The central point of the approach is the situation - a specific set of circumstances that affect the organization's activities at the current time. The situational approach is related to the systems approach and attempts to link specific management techniques and concepts to specific situations.

This approach aims at the direct application of new scientific methods in specific situations and conditions.

Program-targeted approach is based on a clear definition of the goals of the organization and the development of programs for the optimal achievement of these goals, taking into account the resources necessary for the implementation of programs.

Result-Based Approach. Even at the stage of formulating the desired goals, a generalized model of the organization arises. Then alternative options for management decisions are considered, one of them is selected, and the development of programs begins. At each stage of the program, the strategic goal of the organization is divided into subgoals, the main tasks and priorities for their solution are identified, which are linked to material, labor and financial resources. The evaluation of the results of the implementation of the stage is carried out according to the following indicators: main result, volume and term.

The new steps in the results-based management process are the results-determining process, the ad-hoc management process, and the results-monitoring process.

The process of defining results begins with a deep analysis of the aspirations, on the basis of which the desired results for different levels are determined. This process ends with the definition of an activity strategy and practical ideas for its implementation. Results that are consistent with the aspirations of the organization are expressed in the form of specific goals, strategies, outcomes and intermediate goals. The results corresponding to the aspirations of the main officials of local self-government are manifested in the form of final results, goals and calendar plans for the use of working time. The aspirations of each municipal employee are manifested in turn in the form of plans for career advancement and in general in life.

The process of management by situation can also be called management by day. The basis of this process is the organization of affairs, the activities of personnel and the environment in such a way that plans turn into desired results. Especially difficult is the management of personnel and the environment, it is impossible to foresee it in all details. Mastery of the art of situational management implies that managers have the ability to analyze and take into account significant external and internal situational factors. It is also necessary to master different styles of leadership and influence in order to use them in accordance with the requirements of the current situation. In addition, when managing according to the situation, assertiveness and creativity are needed.

In the process of control, it turns out which results are achieved according to the plan and which are accidental. In addition, it is determined how the plans of the staff regarding the promotion and life plans of each municipal employee are carried out. An essential part of the control process is the adoption of decisions based on the results of control in order to implement appropriate measures. These measures can be planned as part of day-to-day management or as part of the next annual plan. If these measures are large-scale, they are taken into account in strategic planning. The most important conclusions in terms of planning career advancement and in life serve the purpose of maintaining work and life motivation.

Results-Based Management is a process that aims to achieve major and supporting results in which:

a) using the planning process, the activities of local governments and municipal employees are determined at different time intervals (in other words, the requirements for results and expected results);

b) persistent implementation of plans is supported by daily conscious management of affairs, personnel and environment;

c) results are evaluated to make decisions leading to follow-up activities.

In the content of results-based management, the most significant is precisely the emphasis on results, which has both fundamental and functional significance. In results-based management, the local government's capabilities are used in such a way that the action plans extend from their strategic level to plans for the individual use of working time by each municipal employee. Already at the planning stage, the use of the desire and ability of all municipal employees is activated.

In results-based management, the implementation of plans (operational management) and control are highly valued as equal stages of the management process along with planning. Creativity, commitment, and assertiveness are also essential features of results-based management. One of the important factors determining the activity of local self-government bodies is the so-called sense of situation.

Based on the results obtained, it is necessary to draw appropriate conclusions.

13 The essence and types of management decisions.

To manage is to decide

Key concepts:

A decision is a choice of an alternative

Decision making is an integral part of managing an organization of any kind.

A problem is a situation where the set goals are not achieved.

1. Scale level

6. Uniqueness

Solution types:

1. Organizational decision: programmed, unprogrammed

2. Compromises

3. Intuitive solution

4. Decision based on judgment

5. Rational decision

Organizational decisions- the choice that a manager must make in order to fulfill the duties due to his position. The purpose of the organizational decision is to ensure the achievement of the tasks set for the organization. Organizational decisions can be classified as programmed and non-programmed decisions.

Programmed decisions are the result of implementing a certain sequence of steps or actions, similar to those taken when solving mathematical equations. As a rule, the number of possible alternatives is limited, and the choice must be made within the directions given by the organization.

Unprogrammed decisions required in situations that are somewhat new, internally unstructured, or involving unknown facts. Non-programmed solutions include solutions of the type:

what should be the goals of the organization?

how to improve products?

Compromises. An effective manager understands and accepts as a fact that the alternative he has chosen may have drawbacks, possibly significant ones. He makes this decision because, all things considered, it seems much more desirable in terms of the final effect.

Intuitive Solution- a choice made on the basis of a feeling that it is the right one. The decision maker does not need to understand the situation, the person simply makes a choice.

Judgment Based Decisions Choice based on knowledge or experience.

Rational Decisions

14 Classification of methods for developing management decisions.

SCHEME OF THE MANAGEMENT DECISION-MAKING PROCESS

1. Analysis of the situation, identification of the problem

2. Assessment of the problem

3. Definition of selection criteria

4. Development of solutions

5. Choosing the best result

6. Coordination and decision making

7. Organization of the implementation of the decision

8. Monitoring and evaluation of results --------go to point 1.

Management decisions are qualified according to the following criteria:

1. Scale level

2. Field of activity (example no suitable employee has to be hired)

3. Action time (little time to make a decision)

4. Decision in form (the possibility of consequences in the decision)

5. Degree of structure (recurring problem)

6 Uniqueness

In the process of developing and making managerial decisions, the decision maker can use various methods that directly or indirectly contribute to making optimal decisions.

For the convenience of studying and using these methods, their totality is divided into groups according to the stages of the process of developing and making managerial decisions. Of course, some methods are universal and can be used at several or even all stages of the development and decision-making process. Therefore, the methods are included in one or another group on the basis of their most frequent use within the framework of a particular stage of the development and decision-making process.

It should be noted that most of the methods are universal in nature, however, their grouping was carried out on the basis of many years of research by the authors and is aimed at systematizing the set of methods, to simplify the process of getting to know them, studying them, and also for the convenience of their practical application.